NSSBIO3E SB1B Ch08 e PDF

8 Transport in humans
A heart-lung machine in use during a surgery
Heart-lung machine Think about…

1 What is the role of the heart?
For patients having certain heart surgeries, doctors have to stop the
pumping of the heart and connect it to a heart-lung machine. The 2 Why is it important to maintain
machine moves blood away from the heart, removes carbon dioxide blood flow throughout the
body?
from the blood and adds oxygen to it. Then the blood is pumped
back into the patients’ body. (Answers on p. 38)
Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

All questions from the HKDSE, HKCEE and HKALE are reproduced by permission of the HKEAA.
Unauthorized use of the aforementioned questions in this electronic version is prohibited.
II Organisms and Environment
8.1 Need for transport system

In very small organisms (e.g. Amoeba), substances are transported
throughout the body by diffusion or streaming of the cytoplasm
(Fig 8.1). They do not need a body system to transport substances
around.
food vacuole
O2 cytoplasmic
streaming
CO2
Fig 8.1 Transport of substances in Amoeba
However, in large multicellular organisms like plants and humans,

cells in different parts of the body are far away from each other.
Diffusion is too slow and becomes inefficient. To ensure the supply of
useful substances to target cells and removal of waste from the body,
a transport system is specially developed in them.
In humans, the transport system includes the circulatory system*

and the lymphatic system*. The components of these systems will
be discussed in this chapter. The transport system in plants will be
discussed in Ch 10.
1 Why do large multicellular organisms need a transport system?

In large multicellular organisms, the cells in different parts of
the body are far away from each other. A transport system is
needed to ensure the supply of useful substances to all cells
and removal of waste from them.
2 What are the two systems making up the transport system in
humans?
The transport system in humans includes the circulatory system
and the lymphatic system.
circulatory system 循環系統 lymphatic system 淋巴系統
8– 2
8.2 Human circulatory system

The human circulatory system consists of three main parts:
1 Blood
• It carries useful substances and
waste to and from body cells.
blood
2 Blood vessels*
heart • They form a system of tubes that
distribute blood throughout the
body.
blood
vessels • The smallest blood vessels allow
exchange of materials between
blood and body cells.
3 Heart
• It acts as a pump to give the
force to drive blood throughout
the body.
Fig 8.2 The three main parts of the

human circulatory system
DSE A Blood
19(IA)Q15
Blood is a tissue composed of blood cells suspending* in plasma. When
blood is spun inside a centrifuge, it separates into two layers (Fig 8.3).
The watery, yellow layer at the top is plasma. The dark red layer at the
bottom consists of blood cells.
centrifuge* plasma*
(55% by volume)
blood cells
(45% by volume)
centrifuged blood sample
Fig 8.3 Separating blood components by centrifugation
blood vessel 血管 centrifuge 離心機 plasma 血漿 suspend 懸浮
8– 3
1 Plasma
Plasma contains mostly water with various substances dissolved or
suspending in it. Plasma plays two major roles:
a It is the medium for transporting substances throughout the body.

The substances include:
• water, which makes up 90% by volume in plasma;
• carbon dioxide, some is carried as a dissolved gas and some is in
the form of hydrogencarbonate ions;
• nutrients, e.g. glucose, amino acids, lipids, minerals and
vitamins;
• urea, which is the main excretory product;
• hormones;
• antibodies, which are produced by certain white blood cells;
• fibrinogen*, which is necessary for blood clotting.
Fig 8.4 Frozen plasma
separated from b It helps distribute heat throughout the body to maintain body
donated blood temperature.
2 Blood cells
There are three types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood
cells and blood platelets (Fig 8.5). The table on the next page lists the
structures and functions of the blood cells.
blood platelets*
white blood cells*
red blood cells*
(×600) (×1300)
Fig 8.5 Photomicrograph (left) and coloured electron micrograph (right) of blood smear, showing different
types of blood cells
? The centre of red blood cells is lighter in colour under the light microscope. Why?
blood platelet 血小板 fibrinogen 纖維蛋白原 red blood cell 紅血細胞 white blood cell 白血細胞
8– 4
Red blood cells White blood cells Blood platelets

• Two major types: • Very small pieces of
cell fragments
phagocyte*
whole
lobed
nucleus
section large round

nucleus
lymphocyte*
Shape • Biconcave disc shape • Irregular shape • Irregular shape
• Quite small • Phagocytes are quite • Very small

(diameter about large (diameter about (diameter about
7–8 μm) 10–29 μm) 1–4 μm)
Size
• Lymphocytes are small
(diameter about
6–10 μm)
• About 5.4 millions • About 7000 • About 250 000
Number
(per mm3 of blood)
• Red due to the • Colourless • Colourless

Colour
pigment haemoglobin
• No nucleus when • Large round or lobed • No nucleus
Nucleus mature (depends on the type
of white blood cell)
• In bone marrow* of • In bone marrow and • In bone marrow
Site of production some bones like limb spleen* (mature in
bones, ribs and vertebrae* lymph nodes*)
• About 120 days • For most, less than • 7–10 days
Life span
3 days
• In the liver and spleen • Some are killed by • In the liver and spleen
• Haemoglobin is germs or passed out of
broken down into: the body in faeces
a iron, which is
Site or method of
reused to make red
destruction
blood cells
b bile pigment,
which is excreted
as part of bile
• Contain haemoglobin • Protect our body • Involved in blood
to carry oxygen against diseases by clotting to prevent
killing germs further blood loss and
Function
entry of germs into
our body through the
cut wound
bone marrow 骨髓 lymph node 淋巴結 lymphocyte 淋巴細胞 phagocyte 吞噬細胞 spleen 脾 vertebra 椎骨
8– 5
By observing the blood smear, we may identify potential blood diseases.

For example:
a Anaemia* is the deficiency of either haemoglobin or red blood cells.

The blood fails to supply body tissues with sufficient oxygen and the
patients feel week and may faint easily. The blood smear of anaemia
patients shows a reduced number of red blood cells (Fig 8.6a).
b Leukaemia* refers to a group of cancers that develops in the bone

marrow. It usually leads to the production of a large number of
abnormal white blood cells. This disturbs the functions of body
tissues. The blood smear of leukaemia patients shows an increased
number of white blood cells (Fig 8.6b).
a b
(×500) (×200)
Fig 8.6 Blood smears showing the conditions in (a) anaemia and (b) leukaemia
Types of white blood cells

Fig 8.7 shows the five types of white blood cells:
neutrophil* eosinophil* basophil* monocyte* lymphocyte
Fig 8.7 Types of white blood cells
The five types of white blood cells serve different roles in protection
against diseases. For example, some act as phagocytes to kill and digest
foreign cells such as bacteria, viruses and other parasites. Some are
involved in allergic reactions. You will learn more about the roles of these
cells in Bk 3, Ch 24.
anaemia 貧血 basophil 嗜鹼細胞 eosinophil 嗜曙紅細胞 leukaemia 白血病 monocyte 單核白血細胞

neutrophil 嗜中性細胞
8– 6
8.1 Examination of blood smears
Procedure
1 Examine prepared slides of blood smears of healthy people with a
microscope under high-power magnification. Practical 8.1
2 Identify different blood cells. Draw labelled diagrams of them.
3 Compare the shape, relative size and relative number of different

types of blood cells.
4 Examine prepared slides of blood smears of people with blood

diseases. Compare the shape and number of different types of blood
cells with blood smears of healthy people.
Uses of donated blood

The donated blood is usually separated into different components to meet
the needs of different patients:
• Red blood cells can be given to
patients with anaemia or severe
blood loss.
• Blood platelets are given to
patients who are unable to
produce enough platelets.
• Plasma can be given to patients
with blood clotting problems.
• White blood cells can be given to
patients with insufficient white
blood cells and suffering from
infections.
Fig 8.8 Donating blood saves lives
Learn more about the use of donated blood at

https://www5.ha.org.hk/rcbts/donation?lang=en
8– 7
What are the components of blood and their main functions?
Component Function
Plasma • Carries water and dissolved
(55% by volume) substances such as carbon
dioxide, nutrients, urea, hormones,
antibodies and fibrinogen
throughout the body
• Distributes heat throughout the
body
Blood cells Red blood Contain haemoglobin which carries
(45% by cells oxygen from the lungs to all parts of
volume) the body
White blood Protect our body against diseases
cells
Blood Involved in blood clotting which
platelets prevents further blood loss and the
entry of germs into our body through
the cut wounds
Level 1
Questions 1 to 3: State whether the statements are true or false.
1 Plasma makes up 90% by volume in the blood. p. 3, 4
2 Lipids are carried in plasma and transported throughout the body.
p. 4
3 There are more than one type of white blood cells in blood. p. 5
Level 2
4 A patient is suffering from bacterial infection. Which of the following
components in the blood of this patient would increase?
A plasma
B red blood cells
C white blood cells
D blood platelets p. 6
8– 8
DSE B Blood vessels

17(IA)Q18, 15(IA)Q11,
13(IA)Q31, 12(IA)Q31, 32,
There are three types of blood vessels:
12(IB)Q1
• Arteries carry blood from the heart to the body tissues.
• Veins carry blood from the body tissues back to the heart.
• Capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessels. They connect the
arteries to the veins.
The largest artery is the aorta. It carries blood from the heart and then
divides into smaller arteries. Arteries branch into smaller vessels called
arterioles. Each arteriole then branches into a network of very fine
capillaries surrounding body tissues.
The capillaries join together into venules. The venules then join to form
The plural form of ‘vena cava’ veins. The veins eventually join the vena cava, which returns blood to
is ‘venae cavae’. the heart.
capillaries*
arterioles* venules*
arteries* veins*
aorta* vena cava*
direction of
blood flow
fibrous tissue fibrous tissue
muscles and muscles and valves*

elastic tissues elastic tissues
endothelium endothelium endothelium
artery capillary vein
Fig 8.9 The relationship between different types of blood vessels (T.S. of the blood
vessels are shown in the small diagrams)
The arteries, veins and capillaries have different structures that are
closely related to their functions.
aorta 大動脈 arteriole 小動脈 artery 動脈 capillary 微血管 valve 瓣膜 vein 靜脈 vena cava 腔靜脈 venule 小靜脈
8– 9
1 Arteries and veins

The walls of both the artery and the vein consist of four layers of tissues.
The outer layer is the fibrous tissue, the middle layers contain smooth
muscles and elastic tissues. The inner layer is the endothelium. The
thickness of the layers differs between the artery and the vein (Fig 8.10).
artery
artery
fibrous tissue
thicker layer of muscles

and elastic tissues
endothelium
smaller lumen
fibrous tissue
thinner layer of muscles

and elastic tissues
endothelium
vein larger lumen
vein
Fig 8.10 Photomicrograph showing T.S. of an artery and a vein (×30) (left); structures of artery and vein (right)
i) Features of arteries
• The thick walls of the arteries allow the arteries to withstand high
blood pressure due to the pumping action of the heart.
• The thick layer of elastic tissues allows the arteries to distend* and
recoil*. When the heart contracts, blood is forced out of the heart.
This exerts a high blood pressure against the wall of the arteries, and
the arteries distend. When the heart relaxes, the arteries recoil due to
the elasticity of their walls. This causes the blood to flow forwards,
thus maintaining a continuous blood flow (Fig 8.11 on the next
page).
• In the arterioles, the thick layer of muscles contract or relax to

change the size of the lumen. This helps regulate the amount of
blood flow to different parts of the body.
distend 擴張 recoil 反衝
8– 10
artery distends
a When the heart 2
contracts 1 When the heart contracts, blood
is forced into the artery.
1
2 The blood pressure stretches out
the artery (the artery distends).
b When the heart
relaxes
Recoil of the artery pushes

blood forward.
artery recoils
Fig 8.11 How elastic recoil of the artery maintains a continuous blood flow
ii) Features of veins
• The large lumen of the veins reduces the resistance to the blood
flow inside the veins.
• Valves are present in veins to prevent the backflow of blood.
• The force for blood flow in veins is mainly provided by the

contraction of the skeletal muscles lying next to the veins. When
the muscles contract, the veins are squeezed and blood is forced to
flow towards the heart (Fig 8.12).
a When skeletal muscles contract b When skeletal muscles relax
vein
valve is open valve is closed to
prevent the
backflow of blood
blood is forced
to flow forwards
towards the
heart valve is open
valve is closed to
prevent the backflow
of blood
Fig 8.12 Muscle contraction and the action of valves help blood flow in veins
(not drawn to scale)
8– 11
Examination of transverse
8.2 sections of an artery and a vein
Procedure
1 Examine the transverse sections of an artery and a vein with
a microscope under low-power magnification.
2 Identify various layers in the vessels and draw labelled diagrams of

them.
3 Compare the thickness of their wall and the size of their lumen.
The table below summarizes the differences between arteries and veins.
Artery Vein
Direction of Away from the heart Towards the heart

blood flow
Location Deep inside the body Closer to the body surface
Thicker, with more elastic Thinner, with less elastic

Wall tissue and muscles tissue and muscles
Lumen Smaller Larger
Not present (except at the Valves are present to

Presence of base of the pulmonary prevent backflow of blood
valves artery and the aorta)
Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood

(except in the pulmonary (except in the pulmonary
Cross-link Nature of blood artery and the umbilical vein and the umbilical
• The route of blood flow artery*) vein*)
around the body will be
discussed on p. 29.
• The umbilical artery and Provided by the pumping Provided by the
umbrilical vein connect the Force for blood action of the heart contraction of skeletal
embryo to the placenta in flow muscles that squeeze the
mammals (to be discussed vein
in Bk 2, Ch 13).
Higher; due to the Lower; the pressure drops
pumping action of the after blood passes through
Blood pressure
heart capillaries
umbilical artery 臍動脈 umbilical vein 臍靜脈
8– 12
2 Capillaries
In the body tissues, arterioles branch into networks of capillaries,
forming capillary beds* (Fig 8.13).
The lumen of capillaries is only slightly larger than the diameter of a red
blood cell. The capillary wall is made up of one-cell thick endothelium.
It is differentially permeable. There is no muscle layer (Fig 8.14 and
8.15).
nucleus of
red blood cells capillaries red blood cell endothelial cell
Fig 8.13 Capillary bed surrounding Fig 8.14 Red blood cells squeezing Fig 8.15 Cross section of a capillary
skeletal muscle cells (×800) through the capillaries showing a red blood cell
(×200) (×7700)
The capillaries are specially adapted for exchange of materials between

the blood and body cells:
• The highly branched capillary bed provides a large surface area

for rapid exchange of materials between the blood and body cells.
• Each artery eventually branches into a very large number of

capillaries. The total cross-sectional area is much greater in the
capillary beds than in any other part of the circulatory system. For
this reason, the blood flows slowly in the capillaries. This allows
a longer time for exchange of materials.
• The one-cell thick capillary wall provides a short distance for

rapid diffusion of materials.
Capillaries can regulate the blood flow to a certain organ by changing

its lumen size.
The capillary wall is only one-cell thick. No muscle is present and
therefore it cannot constrict or dilate. It is the arterioles that regulate
the blood flow to a certain organ.
capillary bed 微血管床
8– 13
8.3 Examination of the capillary flow in a fish tail fin
Procedure
1 Fix a small living fish onto a microscope slide or in a Petri dish as shown.
Practical 8.3
moist paper towels cover slip
wrapping around
the gills
microscope
slide • Handle the fish with
care and respect.
• Keep the paper
sticky towels moist to keep
tape the fish alive.
2 Observe the blood flow in the capillary network of the tail fin with
a microscope under low-power magnification.
3 Note the diameter of capillaries and the direction of blood flow. Draw
a labelled diagram of the capillary network and the red blood cells inside.
Problems in veins and capillaries

Varicose veins* Bruises*
Prolonged standing and sitting may cause If the capillary walls are damaged, plasma
varicose veins near the surface of the legs. It and blood cells will leak into spaces between
happens because the valves in the veins do not cells in a tissue. The haemoglobin in red blood
work properly. The blood accumulates in the cells is broken down to green and yellow bile
veins, causing them to become swollen. pigments. This causes patches of green and
yellow bruises on the skin.
bruise 瘀傷 varicose vein 靜脈曲張
8– 14
What are the functions of the artery, the vein and the capillary? How are they adapted to their
functions?
Blood
Function Adaptation
vessel
Artery • Carries oxygenated • The thick wall helps withstand the high blood pressure.
blood away from • The thick layer of elastic tissue allows the arteries to
the heart (except in distend and recoil to maintain a continuous blood flow.
the pulmonary artery • In the arterioles, the layer of muscles contracts or relaxes
and the umbilical to change the size of the lumen and help regulate the
artery) amount of blood flow.
Vein • Carries • The large lumen reduces the resistance to the blood flow.
deoxygenated • Valves are present to prevent the backflow of blood.
blood to the heart • The force for blood flow in veins is mainly provided by the
(except in the contraction of the skeletal muscles lying next to the veins.
pulmonary vein and
the umbilical vein)
Capillary • Allows exchange of • Forms a network to provide a large surface area for rapid
materials between exchange of materials between the blood and body cells.
blood and body cells • The total cross-sectional area of capillaries is very large.
Blood flows slowly in the capillaries. This allows a longer
time for exchange of materials.
• The one-cell thick wall provides a short distance for rapid
diffusion of materials.
Level 1 Level 2
1 For each of the types of blood vessels listed 2 Which of the following blood vessels can
in column 1, select from column 2 one regulate the amount of blood flowing to
phrase that matches it. Put the appropriate a certain organ?
letter in the space provided. A aorta B arterioles
Column 1 Column 2 C venules D capillaries
Capillary A It has valves. p. 10–13
Artery B It carries blood at 3 Which feature of the arteries helps maintain

high pressure. a continuous blood flow?
Vein C It does not have (1) The thick layer of elastic tissue
elastic tissue. (2) The thick layer of smooth muscles
p. 10–13 (3) The small lumen
A (1) only B (2) only
C (1) and (3) only D (2) and (3) only
p. 10, 11
8– 15
3 Blood pressure and rate of blood flow along

different blood vessels
Blood always flows from a As blood flows through a blood vessel, it exerts force on the wall of the
region of high blood pressure blood vessel. The force exerted on the wall by the blood flow is called the
to a region of low blood
pressure in blood vessels. blood pressure. Fig 8.16 shows how the total cross-sectional area, blood
pressure and rate of blood flow change along different blood vessels.
❶ ❷ ❸
aorta arteries capillaries veins vena cava

arterioles venules
Key:
total cross-sectional area of blood vessels (cm2)
blood pressure (mm Hg)
rate of blood flow (cm s-1)
Fig 8.16 Changes in total cross-sectional area, blood pressure and rate of blood flow
along different blood vessels
Graph reading
Blood pressure Rate of blood flow
Blood pressure is high due to Rate of blood flow in the arteries is high
❶ In arteries the pumping action of the under the pumping force of the heart.
and heart. Blood pressure changes When the arteries branch into arterioles, the
arterioles periodically as the heart contracts total cross-sectional area of the arterioles
and relaxes. increases, so the flow rate drops.
The small diameter of the The total cross-sectional area is the

capillaries results in a high greatest. Rate of blood flow drops to
❷ In capillaries resistance to blood flow. This nearly zero. This provides more time for the
leads to a significant drop in exchange of materials between blood and
blood pressure along the capillaries. body cells.
The blood has overcome great The force from the pumping heart can no
resistance of the blood vessel walls longer drive blood forwards. Rate of blood
❸ In veins and
after travelling a long distance flow increases due to contraction of
venules
away from the heart. The blood skeletal muscles lying next to the veins.
pressure drops to nearly zero.
8– 16
Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice
Fig 1 shows the photomicrograph of the sections of three types of blood vessels (I, II and III).
Fig 2 shows the changes in blood pressure and rate of blood flow as the blood travels along
three types of blood vessels (P, Q and R).
I curve X
curve Y
II
III
(×60) P Q R
Fig 1 Fig 2
a Identify which curve in Fig 2 indicates changes in blood pressure and which curve indicates
changes in rate of blood flow. (2 marks)
b Match blood vessels I, II and III in Fig 1 with blood vessels P, Q and R in Fig 2. (3 marks)
c With reference to the observable features in Fig 1, explain how blood vessels I and III adapt to the
changes in the rate of blood flow. (4 marks)
Suggested answers
a Curve X: Changes in blood pressure 1
Curve Y: Changes in the rate of blood flow 1 Identifying
structures in
b Blood vessel I: R 1
photomicrographs
Blood vessel II: Q 1 Refer to p. 18.
Blood vessel III: P 1
c Blood vessel I has a large lumen. 1
This reduces the resistance to the blood flow. 1
Online tutorial 8.1
Blood vessel III has a thick wall with elastic tissue. 1
The tissue distends and recoils to maintain a continuous
blood flow. 1
8– 17
Identifying structures in photomicrographs artery

When identifying the types of blood vessels in
photomicrographs, compare the following features:
• Shape of the cross sections
The cross sections of arteries are often circular
or oval. The cross sections of veins are often
irregular in shape.
• Thickness of the wall
The layers of cells that make up of the wall of the
blood vessels are often stained pink or purple.
Arteries have a relatively thicker wall when
compared with the size of the lumen. Veins have
a thinner wall. The capillary wall is only one-cell (×40) vein
thick.
• Size of the lumen
The lumens of blood vessels are lighter in colour. Arteries have a smaller lumen than veins.
Capillaries have a narrow lumen that only allows one red blood cell to pass through.
The photomicrograph on the right shows

the cross sections of some blood vessels.
Write down the type of blood vessels
that X, Y and Z belong to.
Y
X:
X
Y:
Z: (3 marks)
(×60)
Q14 (p. 42), Q3 (p. 49)
8– 18
1 How does blood pressure change along the blood vessels?

In the arteries, blood pressure is high. The blood pressure gradually drops as blood passes
through the arterioles.
In the capillaries, there is a great drop in blood pressure due to their very narrow diameter.
In the veins, blood pressure becomes even lower as the blood has overcome great friction of
the blood vessel walls after travelling a long distance.
2 How does the rate of blood flow change along the blood vessels?
In the arteries, the rate of blood flow is high under the pumping force of the heart. In the
arterioles, the flow rate drops as the total cross-sectional area of the arterioles increases.
In the capillaries, the total cross-sectional area is the greatest. The rate of blood flow drops
to nearly zero.
In the veins, the rate of blood flow increases due to contraction of skeletal muscles lying
next to the veins.
Level 1 Level 2
1 The graph below shows the changes in two Refer to the graph in 1.
parameters, P and Q, along different types
of blood vessels. What may P and Q be? 2 Which of the following accounts for the
change in P in the capillaries?
A the small lumen of the capillaries
P
B the thin wall of the capillaries
Q C the absence of muscles in capillary wall
D the branching of the capillaries into
networks p. 16
3 Which of the following accounts for the

change in Q in the veins?
A the large lumen of the veins
arteries arterioies venules veins
B the valves in the veins
capillaries
C the distance that blood has travelled
P Q
from the heart
A blood pressure blood flow rate
D the action of the skeletal muscles lying
B blood pressure lumen size next to the veins p. 16
C blood flow rate blood pressure
D blood flow rate lumen size p. 16
8– 19
DSE C Heart
19(IA)Q22, 18(IA)Q34, 35,
16(IA)Q16, 17, 17(IA)Q14
1 Structures protecting the heart
The heart is located within the thoracic cavity between the two lungs and
is protected by the rib cage (Fig 8.17).
Watch this to prepare for

your class and answer the
questions.
heart
Video Questions
lung
rib
diaphragm
Fig 8.17 Position of the heart
The heart is surrounded by a membrane called the pericardium filled

with the pericardial fluid (Fig 8.18). The fluid reduces friction within
the pericardium by allowing the membranes to glide over each other with
each heartbeat.
pericardium*
pericardial
fluid*
pericardium
Fig 8.18 The pericardium and the pericardial fluid surrounding the heart
pericardial fluid 圍心膜液 pericardium 圍心膜
8– 20
3D model 8.1
2 Structure of the heart
Fig 8.19 shows the external structure of the heart and the blood vessels
connected to it.
anterior vena cava* aorta
pulmonary
arteries
pulmonary
arteries
pulmonary pulmonary
veins veins
posterior
vena cava*
aorta
pulmonary
arteries
anterior
pulmonary
vena cava
veins
left atrium*
right atrium* coronary artery*
right coronary vein*

ventricle* left
posterior ventricle*
Fig 8.19 External structure vena cava
of the heart and the (right) (left)
blood vessels connected
to it ventral side
The heart is mainly made up of cardiac muscles* which contract and

relax continuously without fatigue throughout life. It consists of four
Atria are also known as chambers: the two upper chambers are called atria (singular: atrium) and
auricles. the two lower chambers are called ventricles. The atria are connected to
the veins which carry blood from different parts of the body to the heart.
The ventricles are connected to the arteries which carry blood away from
the heart to all parts of the body.
The coronary arteries and coronary veins lie on the surface of the
What will happen if the heart. The coronary arteries supply oxygen and nutrients to the cardiac
? coronary arteries are muscles. The coronary veins carry carbon dioxide and other waste away.
blocked?
anterior vena cava 前腔靜脈 cardiac muscle 心肌 coronary artery 冠狀動脈 coronary vein 冠狀靜脈 left atrium 左心房
left ventricle 左心室 posterior vena cava 後腔靜脈 right atrium 右心房 right ventricle 右心室
8– 21
pulmonary artery aorta aorta pulmonary artery
left
right
atrium
atrium
right
atrium
left
right ventricle right
ventricle ventricle
ventral side dorsal side
The pig heart has a similar Fig 8.20 Ventral and dorsal sides of a pig heart
structure as the human
heart.
The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood and the right side
receives deoxygenated blood. The two sides are separated by a thick
muscular wall called the septum. The septum prevents the mixing
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the two sides of the heart
(Fig 8.21).
Virtual heart aorta

anterior vena cava pulmonary artery
pulmonary veins
semilunar valves* left atrium
bicuspid valve*
right atrium
heart tendon*
tricuspid valve*
left ventricle
right ventricle
septum*
posterior vena cava
(right) (left)
Fig 8.21 Internal structure of the heart showing the direction of blood flow in the heart
bicuspid valve 二尖瓣 heart tendon 心腱索 semilunar valve 半月瓣 septum 隔（中隔） tricuspid valve 三尖瓣
8– 22
i) Atria
Animation 8.1
The atria have a thinner muscular wall than the ventricles. They
receive blood at low pressure from the veins.
• The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the anterior

vena cava and the posterior vena cava. The anterior vena cava
carries blood from the head and arms. The posterior vena cava
carries blood from the legs and abdomen.
• The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from two pulmonary

veins, which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs.
When the atria contract, they pump blood to the ventricles.
ii) Ventricles
The ventricles have a thicker muscular wall than the atria. They
receive blood from the atria. When they contract, they pump blood out
of the heart at high pressure.
• The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the
pulmonary artery.
• The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
via the aorta.
The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle.
This is because the left ventricle has to provide greater force to pump
blood to all parts of the body (except the lungs), whereas the right
ventricle pumps blood for only a short distance to the lungs.
Septal defect
In normal foetal development, the wall between the left and
right chambers of the heart closes before the foetus is born,
forming the septum. However, in some people, the wall fails to
close completely, leaving a ‘hole’ in the septum. The condition is (left)
known as septal defect*. In the case of ventricular septal defect,
oxygenated
the oxygenated blood in the left ventricle becomes mixed with blood rushes
the deoxygenated blood in the right ventricle (Fig 8.22). to the right
ventricle
If the hole is large, the heart and the lungs have to work harder (right)
to provide enough oxygenated blood to the body cells. The
Fig 8.22 Ventricular septal defect
high blood pressure may cause various health problems, such as
damaging the blood vessels in the lungs.
septal defect 心漏症
8– 23
iii) Heart valves
Blood flows in one direction only in the heart. This is maintained by

a number of valves in the heart (Fig 8.23).
dorsal side
bicuspid
tricuspid valve
valve
semilunar
valves of
aorta
semilunar
valves of
pulmonary
artery
ventral side
Fig 8.23 Cross section of the heart showing the heart valves (view from the top)
• bicuspid, tricuspid • The bicuspid and tricuspid valves separate the atria from the
In Latin, ‘bi’ means ‘two’ ventricles. They are held in place by tough heart tendons (also called
and ‘tri’ means ‘three’.
chordae tendineae). The tendons prevent the valves from turning
inside out when the ventricles contract. The table below lists the
features of the two valves.
Bicuspid valve Tricuspid valve
On the left side of the On the right side of the

Position
heart heart
Number of Two Three

flaps
Direction of From the left ventricle to From the right ventricle to

blood flow it the left atrium when the the right atrium when the
prevents left ventricle contracts right ventricle contracts
• Semilunar valves are present at the base of the aorta and the
pulmonary artery. They prevent backflow of blood into the
ventricles when the ventricles relax.
8– 24
8.4 Dissection and examination of a pig heart
Procedure
1 Identify the left and right sides, the dorsal and ventral sides, and the
major blood vessels of a pig heart. Draw a labelled diagram of the Practical 8.4
external structure of the heart.
2 Run water slowly into each of the four major blood vessels in turn.
Observe what happens.
• Cover any exposed
wounds with sterile
dressings.
3 Cut the ventricles from the
• Wear a mask and
bottom into two halves as shown.
disposable gloves.
Remove the ventral halves of the
• The scalpel and
ventricles. 3 scissors are very
2 sharp. Handle them
with care.
1 • After the dissection,
dispose of the
dissected pig heart,
the mask and the
gloves properly.
Wash hands
4 Cut the atria into two halves
thoroughly with
to show the valves and heart
liquid soap and
tendons. Remove the ventral water.
halves of the atria.
5 Cut open the base of the arteries

and veins as shown. Identify the
valves inside. Also identify various
structures of the heart.
8– 25
3 Adaptive features of heart for pumping blood

The table below lists the adaptive features of the heart to drive blood
effectively throughout the body.
Structure Adaptation
Cardiac muscles Can contract and relax continuously without

fatigue.
Ventricles Have a thick muscular wall that provides

a strong force of contraction to drive blood over
a long distance to all parts of the body.
Bicuspid valve, Prevent backflow of blood in the heart to

tricuspid valve and ensure blood flow in one direction.
semilunar valves
Heart tendons Prevent the bicuspid and tricuspid valves from

turning inside out.
Artificial hearts
Artificial hearts temporarily replace function of diseased hearts to allow
patients to survive until a heart donor can be found. There are different
models of artificial heart. Some aim at providing an extra ventricle to help
pump blood around the body. Others aim at replacing the entire heart for
patients with their heart removed.
Fig 8.24 Different models of artificial heart
Scientists are working hard to produce an artificial heart using 3D printing

technology. They aim to use human body cells as the raw material for
printing. They hope this can produce artificial hearts that reduce rejection
problems during transplant.
8– 26
Pumping heart model
Try to use some balloons, drinking

straws and plastic cups to build
a model that simulates the pumping
action of the heart.
You can see how other people make
their models at:
https://www.kiwico.com/diy/
Science-Projects-for-Kids/3/
project/Pumping-Heart/2883
What is the structure of the human heart? What are the blood vessels connected to the heart?
aorta
anterior vena cava • carries oxygenated blood from the
heart to all parts of the body
• carries deoxygenated blood from
the head and arms to the heart pulmonary arteries
• carry deoxygenated blood from the
semilunar valves heart to the lungs
• prevent backflow of blood back
into the ventricles pulmonary veins
• carry oxygenated blood from the lungs
right atrium to the heart
• receives deoxygenated blood left atrium
from all parts of the body • receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs
tricuspid valve bicuspid valve
• prevents backflow of blood from the • prevents backflow of blood from the left
right ventricle into the right atrium ventricle into the left atrium when the
when the ventricles contract ventricles contract
right ventricle heart tendons
• contracts to pump • hold the bicuspid and tricuspid valves in
deoxygenated blood to the lungs place to prevent them from turning
inside out
posterior vena cava
left ventricle
• carries deoxygenated blood from
the legs and abdomen to the heart • contracts to pump oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body
septum
• prevents the mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood in the two sides of
the heart
8– 27
Level 1
1 Fig 1 shows the external structure of the heart. Fig 2 shows the
longitudinal section of the heart. Match the blood vessels in Fig 1
with those in Fig 2. Write down P to S in the blanks. Name the
blood vessels.
III P R
I IV Q S
II W Y
X
V Z
Fig 1 (ventral side) Fig 2 (section of heart)
Part in Fig 1 Part in Fig 2 Name
a I
b II
c III
d IV p. 21–23
Level 2
2 Refer to Fig 1, which blood vessel carries blood to vessel V?
A blood vessel I B blood vessel II
C blood vessel III D blood vessel IV p. 21–23
3 Refer to Fig 1, which blood vessel carries blood at the highest

pressure? Which blood vessel carries blood with the highest oxygen
content?
Highest pressure Highest oxygen content
A blood vessel III blood vessel II
B blood vessel III blood vessel III
C blood vessel IV blood vessel II
D blood vessel IV blood vessel III p. 21–23
4 Refer to Fig 2, which valve(s) will close when the ventricles contract?
A Valves W and X only
B Valves W and Y only
C Valves X and Z only
D Valves Y and Z only p. 24
8– 28
DSE
16(IA)Q13, 16(IA)Q28, 29,
8.3 Blood circulation
15(IA)Q14, 12(IA)Q21, 33
A Double circulation
When blood flows throughout our body in one complete loop, it passes
through the heart twice:
• Blood is pumped out of the heart to the lungs and returns to the
heart in the pulmonary circulation. The deoxygenated blood
in right atrium flows to the right ventricle. The contraction of the
right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs via the pulmonary
artery. In the lungs, gas exchange takes place. The blood becomes
oxygenated and is returned to the left atrium by the pulmonary
veins.
• The blood is then pumped to all other parts of the body and returns
to the heart in the systemic circulation. The oxygenated blood
flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle. The contraction of
the left ventricle pumps the blood to all parts of the body except
the lungs through the aorta. In the capillary beds, exchange of
materials takes place between the blood and body cells. The blood
becomes deoxygenated and returns to the right atrium through
venae cavae.
This type of circulation is called a double circulation* (Fig 8.25).
lungs
pulmonary
pulmonary circulation*
artery
aorta
venae cavae
pulmonary
right left veins
atrium atrium
right left
ventricle ventricle
systemic
circulation*
all other parts of the body
Key: oxygenated blood

deoxygenated blood
Fig 8.25 Double circulation in humans
double circulation 雙循環 pulmonary circulation 肺循環 systemic circulation 體循環
8– 29
Most organs receive blood from an artery, and drain blood into a vein.
An exception is liver, which receives blood from two blood vessels, the
hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein (Fig 8.26).
Function of hepatic portal vein
The hepatic portal vein links the small intestine to the liver. After
digestion, nutrients absorbed in the intestine enter the blood. The
nutrient-rich blood is collected by the hepatic portal vein and passed
to the liver. It then flows through the hepatic vein and the posterior
vena cava to the heart.
In Fig 8.26, which head, neck, arms

? blood vessel
a carries blood with
the highest urea
content? lungs
b carries blood with pulmonary artery
the highest oxygen
content? anterior vena cava aorta
c branches into pulmonary veins
capillaries at both
ends?
right atrium left atrium
posterior vena cava left ventricle

right ventricle
liver
heart hepatic artery*
hepatic vein*
small intestine
hepatic portal
vein*
kidneys
renal artery*
renal vein*
legs Key: deoxygenated

blood
oxygenated
blood
Fig 8.26 General plan of the human circulatory system
hepatic artery 肝動脈 hepatic portal vein 肝門靜脈 hepatic vein 肝靜脈 renal artery 腎動脈 renal vein 腎靜脈
8– 30
Single circulation vs double circulation

In some animals (e.g. fish), blood passes through the heart only gill capillaries body capillaries
once as blood flows throughout the body in one complete loop. This
is called single circulation*. It is sufficient for less active animals.
For more active animals (e.g. birds and mammals), the double
circulation is developed to separate the pulmonary and systemic
circulation. This allows blood to be pumped to body cells at a high heart
blood pressure, so that the blood can reach the body cells faster Fig 8.27 Single circulation in fish
to meet the needs of respiration. The blood pressure in the blood
vessels in the lungs can remain low and safe.
B Exchange of materials between blood and

body cells
Refer to p. 13 for the Exchange of materials between blood and body cells takes place at the
adaptive features of the capillary bed (Fig 8.28).
capillaries for exchange of
materials.
• The wall of capillaries is differentially permeable. At the capillaries,
small molecules (e.g. oxygen and nutrients) are forced out of the
capillary wall into the tissue fluid. All body cells are bathed in
tissue fluid. The small molecules then diffuse from the tissue fluid
into the body cells.
• In the opposite direction, waste products from the body cells (e.g.
carbon dioxide) diffuse from the body cells into the tissue fluid.
Then they diffuse across the capillary wall into the blood.
body cell capillary
bin blood flow O –

glo H+ + HC 3
haemo CO 2 + H 2
O
oxy nutrients water
blood in
capillary white blood
O2 cells
capillary bed
CO2 other waste
body cell
body cells
bathed in
tissue fluid*
Fig 8.28 Exchange of materials between blood and body cells
single circulation 單循環 tissue fluid 組織液
8– 31
C Formation of tissue fluid

Fig 8.29 shows how tissue fluid is formed.
Key:
arteriole
direction of blood
flow in the blood
capillary vessels
component of plasma
❶ tissue fluid forced out of the
capillaries to form
tissue fluid
body cells
tissue fluid returns to
the capillaries
❷
tissue fluid drains
lymph into the lymph
capillaries* capillaries
❸
venule
Fig 8.29 Formation of tissue fluid in the capillary bed
❶ At the arteriole end of the capillary bed, the pressure of blood

in the capillaries is higher than the pressure of the fluid (i.e.
hydrostatic pressure*) surrounding the body cells. This forces
some components of the plasma (e.g. water, minerals, sugars, lipids
and hormones) out of the capillary walls to form tissue fluid.
Plasma proteins, red blood cells and blood platelets are too large
to pass through the capillary walls. They remain in the blood.
White blood cells, however, can squeeze through the capillary
walls. Thus, the composition of tissue fluid is similar to blood,
except for the absence of red blood cells, blood platelets and
plasma proteins.
❷ As plasma proteins remain in the blood, the water potential of

the blood at the venule end of the capillaries is lower than that of
tissue fluid. Therefore, water in the tissue fluid is drawn into the
capillaries by osmosis.
❸ Most tissue fluid returns to the blood at the venule end of the
capillaries. Due to hydrostatic pressure of the tissue fluid, a small
amount of tissue fluid drains into the lymph capillaries, which carry
the excess tissue fluid back to the blood circulation (to be discussed
in Section 8.4).
hydrostatic pressure 流體靜壓 lymph capillary 淋巴微管
8– 32
Importance of tissue fluid
• All body cells are bathed in tissue fluid. This provides a relatively
constant environment (e.g. temperature) for the normal functions
of the body cells.
• Tissue fluid serves as an important link for the exchange of

materials between the blood in the capillaries and body cells.
1 How are materials exchanged between blood and body cells?

At the capillaries, useful materials diffuse out of the blood
into the tissue fluid and then diffuse into the body cells.
Waste products from body cells diffuse into the tissue fluid
and then diffuse into the blood.
2 How is tissue fluid formed?
At the arteriole end of the capillary bed, blood pressure in the
capillaries is higher than the pressure of the fluid surrounding
the body cells. Some components of plasma (excluding the
plasma proteins) are forced out of the capillaries to form tissue
fluid. White blood cells can also squeeze through the capillary
walls and enter the tissue fluid.
Level 1 Level 2
1 Which of the following comparisons 2 Which of the following contribute(s) to the
between blood and tissue fluid is correct? formation of tissue fluid?
Blood Tissue fluid (1) hydrostatic pressure surrounding body
A red blood cells red blood cells cells
present absent (2) water potential of the blood in the
B phagocytes capillary
phagocytes
absent present (3) water potential of the fluid surrounding
body cells
C lipids absent lipids present
A (1) only
D glucose present glucose absent
B (2) only
p. 32
C (1) and (2) only
D (2) and (3) only p. 32
8– 33
DSE
17(IB)Q11, 12(IA)Q1
8.4 Human lymphatic system
A Components of lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is another transport system in our body. It
consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes and other organs such
as the spleen, the thymus and the tonsils (Fig 8.30).
tonsil*
thymus*
lymph nodes
spleen*
lymph vessel*
Key:
direction of lymph* flow
Fig 8.30 The lymphatic system
1 Lymph
Once tissue fluid enters the lymph capillaries (discussed on p. 32), it is
called lymph. Lymph has the same composition as tissue fluid. Its
composition is similar to blood, except for the absence of red blood
cells, blood platelets and plasma proteins.
lymph 淋巴 lymph vessel 淋巴管 spleen 脾 thymus 胸腺 tonsil 扁桃體
8– 34
2 Lymph vessels
Lymph capillaries are blind-ended vessels. Lymph capillaries from
different parts of the body join to form lymph vessels. These lymph
direction vessels are connected to two large veins near the neck region, and the
of lymph lymph is returned to the blood circulation.
flow
Lymph vessels are usually found deep inside the body. Similar to
valves
the blood flow in veins, lymph is kept flowing very slowly by the
contraction of skeletal muscles lying next to the lymph vessels.
Valves are present in the lymph vessels to prevent the backflow of
lymph (Fig 8.31).
Fig 8.31 Lymph vessels
(L.S.) (×80)
3 Lymph nodes
? Swelling of the lymph Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymph vessels. Many
nodes may indicate
white blood cells accumulate there. When lymph passes through them,
bacterial infection.
Why? the white blood cells kill the germs in the lymph. In other words,
lymph is filtered through lymph nodes before it returns to the blood
circulation.
space filled with

white blood cells
lymph
vessel
(×20)
Fig 8.32 Drawing (left) and photomicrograph (right) of the cross section of a lymph node
4 Other organs
• The spleen filters damaged cells and germs in the blood.
• Both the spleen and the thymus produce and store white blood cells
which kill germs and destroy dead cells in the blood.
• Tonsils are located at the upper throat regions. The white blood
cells there guard against germs that enter the mouth or nose.
8– 35
B Functions of lymphatic system

The lymphatic system serves three main functions:
1 It collects and returns excess tissue fluid to the blood circulation

(Fig 8.33).
Circulatory
system
heart
venae cavae aorta

Lymphatic
system
veins arteries
venules arterioles
lymph vessels and
lymph nodes
blood
capillaries
exchange of
lymph capillaries tissue fluid materials
body cells
Key:
blood flow
lymph flow
Fig 8.33 The flow of fluids between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system
2 It protects us against disease. White blood cells in lymph nodes kill

germs that enter the lymphatic system. Germs are filtered out from
the lymph before the lymph is returned to the blood.
Cross-link 3 It transports lipids. In the small intestine, lipids are absorbed into
Refer to Bk 1A, Ch 6 for the lacteals in the villi. As the lacteals join the lymphatic system, the
details about the absorption
absorbed lipids are passed into the lymph and then into the blood.
of lipids.
8– 36
Tonsillitis
When we have a sore throat and visit the doctor, the doctor often
checks the back of our ears and our throat for symptoms of tonsillitis*.
Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. It can be caused by infection
by virus or bacteria. Symptoms of tonsillitis include swollen tonsils, sore
throat, difficulty swallowing and tender lymph nodes on the sides of the
neck.
normal inflammed
soft
palate
normal inflammed
tonsils tonsils
tongue
Fig 8.34 Normal tonsils (left) and inflammed tonsils (right)
1 What does the lymphatic system consist of?

The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph
nodes and other organs such as the spleen, thymus and tonsils.
2 How is lymph moved inside lymph vessels?
Lymph is driven forwards by the contraction of the skeletal
muscles lying next to the lymph vessels.
Valves are present in the lymph vessels to prevent backflow of
lymph.
3 What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
To return excess tissue fluid to the blood circulation.
To protect our body against disease by filtering out germs from
the lymph at the lymph nodes.
To transport lipids from the lacteals in intestinal villi to the
blood.
tonsillitis 扁桃體炎
8– 37
Level 1
Questions 1 to 3: State whether the statements are true or false.
1 The lymphatic system is responsible for body defence. p. 36
2 The composition of the lymph is the same as the tissue fluid. p. 34
3 The circulatory system and the lymphatic system are two independent
systems. p. 36
Level 2
4 Which of the following comparisons between the circulatory system
and the lymphatic system is correct?
Circulatory system Lymphatic system
A valves are present valves are absent
B transports nutrients does not transport nutrients
C is involved in killing germs is not involved in killing germs
D a pump is present to no pump is present to
drive the fluid forward drive the fluid forward
p. 34–36
Recall Think about... (p. 1)

1 The heart works as a pump to force blood around the body.
2 Our body cells need a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients. The waste
produced by the body cells has to be removed from the cells. The blood carries
oxygen and nutrients to the body cells, and removes waste from them.
Suggested answers to ?
p. 4 This is because there is less cytoplasm and, therefore, fewer haemoglobin
molecules at the centre.
p. 21 The supply of nutrients and oxygen to the cardiac muscles will be
reduced, and the heart may fail to pump blood properly. This may lead
to coronary heart disease.
p. 30 a Hepatic vein
b Pulmonary veins
c Hepatic portal vein
p. 35 This is because the lymph nodes are accumulated with white blood cells
and dead germ cells.
8– 38
Key terms
1 arteriole 小動脈 13 pulmonary circulation 肺循環
2 artery 動脈 14 semilunar valve 半月瓣
3 atrium 心房 15 septum 隔
4 bicuspid valve 二尖瓣 16 spleen 脾
5 blood platelet 血小板 17 systemic circulation 體循環
6 circulatory system 循環系統 18 tissue fluid 組織液
7 heart tendon 心腱索 19 thymus 胸腺
8 hepatic portal vein 肝門靜脈 20 tonsil 扁桃體
9 lymph 淋巴 21 tricuspid valve 三尖瓣
10 lymph capillary 淋巴微管 22 vein 靜脈
11 lymph node 淋巴結 23 ventricle 心室
12 lymphatic system 淋巴系統 24 venule 小靜脈
Concept map
Transport in humans
is provided by
circulatory system lymphatic system
consists of consists of
heart blood blood lymph lymph lymph other organs

vessels vessels nodes e.g. spleen,
thymus and
made up of formed tonsil
from
plasma blood cells tissue fluid
include
red blood white blood blood

cells cells platelets
8– 39
MC
4 Which of the following correctly compares
Exercise a mature red blood cell and a white blood cell?
Red blood cell White blood cell
Section 8.2 A with small nucleus with large nucleus
B in biconcave in irregular
Level 1 disc shape shape
MC
C produced in produced in
1 Which of the following substances can be
bone marrow lymph nodes
found in blood?
D carries oxygen carries carbon
(1) carbon dioxide
dioxide
(2) lipid
p. 5
(3) protein
MC
A (1) only 5 DSE Bio 2013 IA Q31
B (3) only
Muscles are found in
C (1) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 4 (1) arterioles.
(2) capillaries.
(3) veins.
Directions: Questions 2 and 3 refer to the
photomicrographs below, which show two human A (1) and (2) only
blood samples from individuals P and Q. B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only
Individual P Individual Q
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 10–13
6 DSE Bio 2012 IB Q1

cells X
For each type of the blood cells listed in
column 1, select from column 2 one phrase
that correctly describes its function. Put the
(×100) (×100)
appropriate letter in the space provided.
MC
(3 marks)
2 Which of the following is/are the function(s) of
cells X? Column 1 Column 2
(1) carry oxygen Lymphocytes A Involved in blood
(2) kill germs clotting
(3) clot blood Blood platelets B Involved in
A (1) only oxygen transport
B (2) only Red blood cells C Involved in
C (1) and (2) only antibody
D (1) and (3) only p. 5 production
MC
D Involved in
3 Individual Q possibly suffers from
phagocytosis
A anaemia.
E Involved in
B coronary heart diseases.
transporting
C leukaemia.
hormones
D none of the above. p. 6
p. 5
8– 40
MC
7 The photograph below shows a tube of 9 DSE Bio 2019 IA Q22
centrifuged human blood.
When ventricles contract, the valves between
ventricles and atria close. Which of the
following is the cause of the valve closure?
A The heart tendons hold the valves in
position.
X B The refilling of blood at the atria pushes
the valves so that they close.
C The closure of valves prevents the blood
Y from flowing back to the atria.
D The higher blood pressure resulting from
ventricular contraction pushes the valves so
a Identify layers X and Y. (2 marks)
that they close. p. 23, 24
b i State two substances which might be MC
found in X. (2 marks) 10 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q34
ii Suggest one major role of X in our Which of the following contribute to the
bodies. (1 mark) continuous blood flow in the aorta?
c Explain why Y appears dark red. (2 marks) (1) pumping action of the heart
p. 3, 4 (2) elastic nature of the wall of the aorta
(3) contraction and relaxation of muscle wall
Level 2 of the aorta
MC
8 DSE Bio 2019 IA Q15 A (1) and (2) only
B (1) and (3) only
Which of the following description(s) of human C (2) and (3) only
red blood cells is/are correct? D (1), (2) and (3) p. 10, 11, 16
(1) They cannot synthesize enzymes or MC
proteins for repair because of the absence 11 DSE Bio 2017 IA Q18
of the nucleus.
Which of the following descriptions of the
(2) They will stop functioning one day because
circulatory system is correct?
haemoglobin will be used up.
A Veins have a large lumen because the
(3) They do not have an energy supply because
blood pressure inside them is low.
of the absence of mitochondria.
B Arteries have a thick layer of elastic tissue
A (1) only
because they have smaller lumen.
B (2) only
C The aorta has the highest blood pressure
C (1) and (3) only
because it supplies blood to the whole
D (2) and (3) only p. 5
body.
D The capillary network is a suitable site for
material exchange because capillaries have
the thinnest walls. p. 11, 13, 16
8– 41
DSE Bio 2016 IA Q16, 17 b Cell P can be observed in both blood

vessels X and Y. Explain how P is adapted
to its function. (3 marks)
diagram below, which shows a section of the heart:
c Blood vessel Y is found on the surface of
the heart wall. Predict the possible effects
on heart function if Y is blocked. (3 marks)
Z W p. 5, 10–13, 21
15 CE Bio 2010 I Q3
Y
X
Read the paragraph below and answer the
following questions.
MC In the 2nd century, a Roman doctor, Claudius
12 When W contracts which of the following Galen, proposed that:
combinations about the conditions of the In humans, blood in veins first flows into
valves is correct? the right ventricle. Some of the blood in the
Semilunar valve Bicuspid valve right ventricle then flows into the lungs. The
A open open rest of the blood in the right ventricle passes
B open closed through the septum to the left ventricle. The
C closed open blood in the left ventricle then passes through
D closed closed p. 23, 24 the arteries to the whole body and is used up.
The blood in a blood vessel can flow in one
MC
direction at one time but can also flow in the
13 Which of the following statements about the
opposite direction at another time ...
heart is correct?
A Z receives oxygenated blood from the a Based on the present biological knowledge,
lungs. state three ways in which Galen’s ideas
B Y and Z pump out same volume of blood. about blood flow are wrong. (3 marks)
C Blood in Z has higher glucose content than b Galen’s ideas were questioned when later
that of W. scientists observed the detailed structure
D Blood pumped out from Y travels a longer of blood vessels and the heart. In the 15th
distance than that of X before returning to century, a scientist Michael Servetus found
the heart. p. 23 that when inserting a metal wire from the
right ventricle into the pulmonary artery,
14 The photomicrographs below show the the passage was smooth and without
cross-sections of two blood vessels X and Y. obstacle. However, it was difficult to insert
the metal wire in the opposite direction.
i Explain why it was difficult to insert the
metal wire from the pulmonary artery
cell P
into the right ventricle. (1 mark)
ii To challenge Galen’s idea, Servetus
conducted an investigation by pumping
(×1500) (×40) water into the right half of the heart
Blood vessel X Blood vessel Y through two different blood vessels as
a Suggest how blood vessels X and Y are shown in the diagram below.
adapted to their functions. Support each of
your answers with one observable feature.
(4 marks)
8– 42
treatment 1:
pumping water
clip Level 3
treatment 2: MC
into the vena
cava pumping water 17 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q35
into the pulmonary
artery The following photograph shows a dissected
pig heart:
clip
chamber X
(1) Based on your biological
knowledge, predict how the
water will flow in each of the two
treatments. (2 marks)
(2) With reference to the design of
the above investigation, which of
Galen’s ideas did Servetus aim to
challenge? (1 mark) Which of the following descriptions about
chamber X is correct?
c Which aspect of the nature of science
is shown in the development of the A It receives blood from the pulmonary vein.
knowledge of blood flow described above? B It pumps out blood to the aorta.
(1 mark) C It receives blood from the vena cava.
p. 21–24 D It pumps out blood to the pulmonary
artery. p. 23
16 The graph below shows the changes in blood
pressure and rate of blood flow along different DSE Bio 2016 IA Q28, 29
blood vessels. Directions: Questions 18 and 19 refer to the
Key: diagram below, which shows the cells and the
blood pressure
rate of blood flow
associated vessels in a tissue:
140 70
red blood cell
rate of blood flow (cm s–1)
120 X 60 fluid flow

S P
pressure (mm Hg)
100 50
80 40 body cell
60 30 R
fluid flow
40 20 Q
20 10
Y
0 0 MC
aorta arteries capillaries veins vena cava
18 Which of the following combinations correctly
a Compare the blood pressure at X and identifies the major causes of fluid flow
Y. Suggest two possible reasons for the represented by P, Q and S?
difference. (3 marks) P Q S
b Describe the rate of blood flow in A osmosis diffusion hydrostatic
capillaries. What is the significance of the pressure
rate of blood flow? (3 marks)
B hydrostatic hydrostatic diffusion
c The blood pressure is the lowest in veins, pressure pressure
but a relatively fast rate of blood flow is
C osmosis hydrostatic hydrostatic
maintained. Explain why. (3 marks)
pressure pressure
p. 16
D diffusion diffusion osmosis
p. 31, 32
8– 43
MC
19 Fluid in R eventually returns to the heart at the c i State the oxygen content in blood in
A left atrium. chambers X and Y respectively.
B right atrium. (2 marks)
C left ventricle. ii Predict the possible effect on heart
D right ventricle. p. 23, 31, 32 function if there is a hole in structure T.
MC Hint (p. 47) (2 marks)
20 CE Bio 2011 II Q12 p. 21–24
The flow of blood in the aorta is assisted by
22 DSE Bio 2015 IB Q11
the
A contraction of the muscle in the wall of Although both arteries and veins are blood
the aorta and the closing of the semi-lunar vessels, they are very different in their structure.
valves. Discuss how their structural differences are
B contraction of the muscle in the wall of the related to the different ways of maintaining
aorta and the closing of the bicuspid valve. blood flow inside the blood vessels. (11 marks)
C recoil of the elastic wall of the aorta and p. 10–13, 23
the closing of the semi-lunar valves.
D recoil of the elastic wall of the aorta and Section 8.3
the closing of the bicuspid valve.
p. 23, 24
Level 1
MC
21 The photograph below shows a dissected 23 DSE Bio 2012 IA Q33
human heart.
In the circulatory system, the highest blood
pressure is developed in the
A left atrium.
B right atrium.
P chamber Y C left ventricle.
Q D right ventricle.
p. 29
R S
MC
T 24 DSE Bio 2012 IA Q21
chamber X A red blood cell leaves the aorta, travels
through the body and arrives at the capillaries
of the air sacs. The correct sequence of organs
a i Name structure Q. (1 mark)
through which the red blood cell may have
ii Explain how structures P and Q
travelled is
maintain a unidirectional blood flow in
A liver, lungs, small intestine and heart.
heart. (2 marks)
B lungs, heart, small intestine and liver.
b i With the aid of a flow chart, show C small intestine, heart, liver and lungs.
how blood flows from chamber X to D small intestine, liver, heart and lungs.
chamber Y. (2 marks) p. 30
ii Compare the thickness of the wall
of chambers X and Y. Explain the
difference. (3 marks)
8– 44

b The blood vessels of two of the above
diagram below, which shows the exchange of
locations show rhythmic changes in blood
materials between blood and body cells.
pressure. Explain how these blood pressure
Key: changes are related to the heart activity.
W cells
direction of
blood flow (2 marks)
p. 29
28 The table below shows the concentrations of

proteins and sodium ions in plasma and tissue
X Z fluid.
Y Concentration Concentration
MC
25 At which point the pressure is the lowest? of proteins of sodium ions
–3
(g dm ) (mmol dm–3)
A W B X
C Y D Z p. 32 In plasma 72 141
MC In tissue
0 141
26 Which of the following substances is found at fluid
Y?
a i Describe and explain the difference in
(1) glucose
concentration of proteins in plasma
(2) plasma protein
and that in tissue fluid. (3 marks)
(3) white blood cell
ii Describe and explain the difference in
A (1) and (2) only B (1) and (3) only
concentration of sodium ions in plasma
C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
and that in tissue fluid. (2 marks)
p. 31
b What is the importance of tissue fluid?
(1 mark)
27 CE Bio 2008 I Q9b p. 31
The graph below shows the blood pressure

of blood vessels at different locations of the Level 2
MC
pulmonary circulation. DSE Bio 2016 IA Q13
29
Of the following blood vessels, which one
blood pressure
contains blood with the highest urea content?
(arbitrary unit) A renal vein
B hepatic vein
A B C D E
different locations of the C pulmonary vein
pulmonary circulation D hepatic portal vein p. 30
a i Using the letters A to E in the graph,
construct a flowchart to show the
direction of blood flow from the heart
along the pulmonary circulation.
(1 mark)
ii State the criterion you should use in
constructing the flowchart in i.
(1 mark)
8– 45
MC
30 Which of the following statements about blood 32 The diagram below shows a capillary and the
capillaries are correct? surrounding body cells.
(1) The small lumen reduces the rate of blood
arteriole
flow to provide a longer time for exchange P
of materials. capillary
Q
(2) The one-cell thick capillary wall provides
short distance for rapid diffusion. body cell
(3) The large surface area facilitates rapid Key:
R
exchange of materials between blood and direction of
blood flow
body cells.
a State how protein concentrations differ
A (1) and (2) only
in the following positions. Explain the
B (1) and (3) only
difference.
C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 32 i P and R (2 marks)
ii P and Q (2 marks)
31 CE Bio 2008 II Q18 b Suggest the role of plasma proteins in the
The diagram below shows part of the human return of tissue fluid to capillaries.
circulatory system. (3 marks)
Key: direction of blood flow c Under prolonged starvation, body tissues

may swell as tissue fluid accumulates.
Explain why. (2 marks)
heart p. 31, 32
1 2
lungs Level 3
3 Directions: Questions 33 and 34 refer to the
liver
diagram below which shows the liver, small
4
intestine and related blood vessels P, Q and R.
intestine
Key:
direction of blood flow
Which of the following correctly compares vessel P
the oxygen content of the blood in the blood liver
vessel R
vessels when a person is performing vigorous
exercise?
A 1 > 3 > 4 vessel Q
B 2 > 1 > 4
small intestine
C 3 > 4 > 1
MC
D 4 > 2 > 1 p. 30
33 Blood samples are taken from blood vessels P,
Q and R of a man who fasted overnight. The
highest concentrations of glucose and urea will
be detected in
A the blood sample from P.
B the blood sample from Q.
C the blood samples from P and R
respectively.
D the blood samples from R and Q
respectively. p. 30–32
8– 46
MC
34 Which of the following correctly compare(s) 38 The diagram below shows certain structures in
the blood oxygen concentrations in vessels P, the human lymphatic system.
Q and R?
(1) Blood in P has the lowest concentration of
oxygen. structure X
(2) Blood in R has the highest concentration vessel Y
of oxygen.
(3) The blood oxygen concentrations are
similar in Q and R.
A (1) only
B (2) only
a i Name structure X. (1 mark)
C (1) and (2) only
D (2) and (3) only p. 29, 30 ii Explain how structure X helps protect
our body against diseases. (2 marks)
b Suggest how a continuous flow of fluid is
Section 8.4 maintained in vessel Y. (2 marks)
p. 34–36
Level 1
MC
35 The portion of blood without blood cells is Level 2
known as
39 Suggest how blockage of lymph vessels may
A plasma. cause swelling in the legs. (3 marks)
B water. p. 36
C tissue fluid.
D lymph. p. 34 Level 3
MC
36 Which of the following statements correctly 40 DSE Bio 2017 IB Q11
describe(s) lymph?
Some natural therapists claim that applying
(1) It transports lipids. pressure along one’s limbs toward the body
(2) It contains numerous white blood cells. trunk can improve the circulation of lymph
(3) It consists of excess tissue fluid. and result in reduced body weight. However,
A (1) only the effects of this treatment are controversial.
B (3) only Briefly describe how lymph is formed from
C (1) and (3) only blood and returned to the blood circulatory
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 34 system. For each of the claims above, discuss
whether it is scientifically valid.
37 For each of the structure of lymphatic system Hint (p. 47) (11 marks)
listed in column 1, select from column 2 one p. 36
feature of it. Put the appropriate letter in the
space provided. (2 marks)
Hints
Column 1 Column 2 Q21 Consider the difference in blood oxygen
Thymus A protects us against concentration between chambers X and Y.
germs that enter the Q40 Think about whether the factors affecting
mouth or nose circulation of lymph and body weight can be
altered by applying pressure along one’s limbs
Tonsil B located near the heart
toward the body trunk.
C produces red blood
cells p. 34, 35
8– 47
Reading to learn
Read the article below and answer the questions.
Decompression sickness
Decompression sickness refers to injuries caused by a rapid
decrease in the pressure in the surrounding air or water.
It occurs most commonly in scuba divers.
During scuba diving, divers breathe in compressed air from

a gas cylinder. They take in extra oxygen and nitrogen.
Oxygen is used by body cells. Nitrogen is dissolved in the
blood and remains there during diving.
If the divers swim back to the water surface very quickly,

Fig 8.35 Scuba diving
the surrounding water pressure will decrease rapidly and
the nitrogen will not have enough time to clear from the
blood. The nitrogen forms bubbles that may expand as the
pressure drops rapidly. The bubbles can injure body tissues
and block the blood vessels in the tissues, especially the
joints and bones, causing severe pain. The divers may also
suffer from extreme fatigue and headache.
Questions
1 In which component of the blood is nitrogen carried in healthy individuals? (1 mark)
2 Why do divers suffer from joint pain in case of decompression sickness? (2 marks)
3 Some people have a hole in the septum of the heart at birth. They would have more
serious problem in case of decompression sickness. Explain why. (3 marks)
8– 48
Self test Time allowed: 15 minutes Total: 10 marks
Section A (1 mark each)

1 Which of the following comparisons between 2 The flow chart below shows the flow of blood
different blood cells is incorrect? in one complete cycle through the body.
Red blood cell White Blood platelet all parts

left left of body vena right
blood cell atrium ventricle except cava atrium
A protects our carries facilitates lungs
body against oxygen blood clotting P lung Q R
diseases
Which of the following correctly identifies P, Q
B biconcave disc irregular irregular and R?
shape shape shape
P Q R
C no nucleus with no nucleus
A pulmonary right pulmonary
when mature nucleus
arteries ventricle veins
D red in colour colourless colourless
B pulmonary pulmonary right
arteries veins ventricle
C pulmonary right pulmonary
veins ventricle arteries
D pulmonary pulmonary right
veins arteries ventricle
Section B (8 marks)
3 The photomicrograph below shows two blood vessels P and Q connecting the heart and the lungs.
P
Q
(×40)
a i State two structural differences between blood vessels P and Q. (2 marks)
ii State the significance of each of the differences you answered in a i. (2 marks)
b The table below shows the concentration of gases X and Y in blood in blood vessels P and Q.
Blood vessel Concentration of X (arbitrary unit) Concentration of Y (arbitrary unit)
P 100 40
Q 40 45
i Identify gases X and Y. (2 marks)

ii Explain the difference in concentrations of Y in the two bloods vessels. (2 marks)
8– 49
Cross-topic exercise 3 (Chapters 1 to 8)
Multiple-choice questions Gas exchange, transport in humans, active transport

4 DSE Bio 2012 IA Q1
Gas exchange, transport in humans
Which of the following tissue types has the
DSE Bio 2015 IA Q13, 14
greatest number of mitochondria?
Directions: Questions 1 and 2 refer to the diagram A the wall of an air sac
below, which shows a section of an air sac and its B the wall of a capillary
associated blood capillary in humans: C the inner wall of a lymph vessel
D the inner wall of the small intestine
air
Y
Gas exchange, nutrition in humans
5 CE Bio 2009 II Q20
Which of the following is a feature common to
an air sac and an intestinal villus for facilitating
X
the diffusion of materials?
A They are highly folded.
red blood cell B They have numerous capillaries.
C They have a thin cell membrane.
D They contain a lot of mitochondria.
1 Which of the following combinations correctly
describes the changes in blood composition
when blood flows from X to Y?
6 DSE Bio Sample Paper IA Q13
Oxygen Glucose Urea
content content content Directions: This question refers to the diagram
A increases remains increases below, which shows a section of the heart:
unchanged M N
B increases decreases remains
unchanged
C remains decreases remains X
unchanged unchanged
D remains remains increases P
unchanged unchanged
Q
2 As the blood in the capillary continues to flow,
Y
the red blood cell will first return to the
A left atrium. B right atrium.
C left ventricle. D right ventricle.
Which of the following comparisons of blood
Transport in humans, food substances vessels M and N is correct?
3 Which of the following food items is most Blood vessel M Blood vessel N
suitable for a person suffering from anaemia? A thicker wall thinner wall
A Orange B carbon dioxide carbon dioxide
B Carrot present absent
C Spinach C lower higher
D Milk blood pressure blood pressure
D lower urea content higher urea content
8– 50
Transport in humans, food substances 10 Which of the following shows the correct route
CE Human Bio 2003 II Q8, 9 of blood circulation involving the coronary
arteries?
7 When people are seriously ill and cannot
A right ventricle ➞ vena cava ➞ coronary
take in food, they have to be fed by dripping
arteries ➞ heart muscle
a nutrient solution into a vein. The nutrient
B right ventricle ➞ aorta ➞ coronary arteries
solution would most likely contain
➞ left ventricle
A vitamins, amino acids and fat. C left ventricle ➞ aorta ➞ coronary arteries ➞
B sucrose, proteins and minerals. heart muscle
C glucose, proteins and fatty acids. D left ventricle ➞ aorta ➞ coronary arteries ➞
D glucose, amino acids and vitamins. right ventricle
8 With reference to question 7, the nutrient 11 According to the paragraph above, pulmonary
solution is dripped into a vein instead of an edema can be caused by
artery because
A the pressure in the lung capillaries
A the vein has valves. becoming too high.
B the vein has a larger lumen. B the walls of the air sacs secreting too much
C the blood in the vein has a lower blood mucus.
pressure. C the blood in the lung capillaries not being
D the blood in the vein has a lower nutrient able to flow back to the left atrium.
content. D the blood in the lung capillaries not being
able to flow back to the left ventricle.
Nutrition, transport in humans
9 Which of the following substances should not 12 Pulmonary edema leads to shortness of breath
be present in the blood of a healthy person? because
(1) antibodies A the fluid in the air sacs hinders the
(2) bile pigments diffusion of oxygen into the blood
(3) lipids capillaries.
A (1) only B (2) only B most of the air sacs are destroyed by
C (3) only D (2) and (3) only accumulated fluid.
C the elastic recoil of the lungs is hindered by
Gas exchange, transport in humans, food substances accumulated fluid.
Directions: Questions 10 to 12 refer to the D the accumulation of fluid in the air sacs
paragraph below: hinders the movement of the diaphragm.
Coronary artery disease* develops when a fatty Prokaryotic cells, transport in humans
deposit called plaque* builds up in the coronary 13 Which of the following comparisons between
arteries. The plaque narrows the coronary a mature red blood cell and a bacterial cell is
arteries, decreasing blood flow to the heart. correct?
Eventually, the heart muscle fails to function.
A Both have a cell wall.
If the left ventricle is affected, it cannot pump B Both do not have a nucleus.
blood efficiently. Then, the pressure in the left C Both cannot carry out active transport.
atrium, pulmonary veins and capillaries increase, D Both contain endoplasmic reticulum.
eventually pushing fluid into the air sacs. This
may lead to shortness of breath due to pulmonary
edema*, a condition in which fluid accumulates
in the tissue and air spaces in the lungs.
coronary artery disease 冠狀動脈疾病 plaque 斑塊 pulmonary edema 肺水腫
8– 51
Short questions
Gas exchange, transport in humans, diffusion
14 Edexcel GCE (AS) 2016
Oxygen diffuses between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood.
Fick’s Law shows how three factors affect the rate of diffusion:
surface area × concentration difference

Rate of diffusion =
diffusion distance
The diagram and the table give information about the oxygen concentration in the alveoli and in the
blood.
alveolus
oxygen
concentration
14 kPa
capillary
direction of blood flow
Oxygen concentration (kPa)

Heart
Blood entering the lungs Blood leaving the lungs
Normal 5 13
With hole in the septum

8 10
between the ventricles
Assess the effect of this heart defect on the rate of oxygen diffusion between the alveoli and the blood.
(6 marks)
Note: Air sac is also called alveolus (pl. alveoli).
Transport in humans, food substances

15 Kwashiorkor is a deficiency disease caused by a lack of protein in the diet. People suffering from
kwashiorkor have a swollen abdomen due to accumulation of tissue fluid.
a Explain why a lack of proteins in the diet can lead to the accumulation of tissue fluid. (3 marks)
b Suggest one food item that you would recommend to people suffering from kwashiorkor. (1 mark)
8– 52
Transport, gas exchange in humans
16 Below is a photomicrograph showing the transverse section of two blood vessels, P and Q. They carry
blood between the heart and the liver.
P
Q
(×20)
a i Identify whether blood vessels P and Q are an artery, a vein or a capillary. (2 marks)
ii Give one example of a blood vessel that belongs to the same type as blood vessel Q. (1 mark)
b Explain how blood vessel Q is structurally adapted to its function using one feature observed from the
photomicrograph. (2 marks)
c Which blood vessel, (P or Q), contains a higher concentration of carbon dioxide? In what form is the
majority of carbon dioxide transported in blood? (2 marks)
Transport in humans, osmosis

17 CCEA GCSE 2011
In blood donation, blood is taken from a vein in a person’s arm and used to treat patients who need a
blood transfusion.
© US Federal Government
The photograph shows a needle inserted into a blood vessel in a donor’s arm.
a Suggest why the needle is inserted into a vein rather than an artery. (1 mark)
b Use your knowledge of osmosis to explain why the blood cells would be damaged if water was added
to the donated blood by mistake. (4 marks)
8– 53
Transport in humans, enzymes
18 A human blood sample was collected. It was left at room temperature for one hour without any treatment.
After one hour, the blood sample was centrifuged.
a State the process that occurred in the blood sample during the period that it was left at room
temperature. (1 mark)
b Name the upper layer obtained after centrifugation. (1 mark)
c One kind of proteins present in this upper layer was an enzyme. Suggest three factors affecting the rate
of enzymatic reactions. (3 marks)
d Name one other kind of protein that would be present in the upper layer of the blood sample after
centrifugation. (1 mark)
Structured questions
19 CE Bio 2004 I Q3c
The photomicrograph below shows the sections of two types of blood vessels in the human body:
Type I Type II
a State two functions of the thick muscular wall of vessel type I. (2 marks)
b Vessel type II has a larger lumen than vessel type I. Explain the importance of this. (2 marks)
The table below shows the gas content of the blood in the two types of vessels transporting blood between
the heart and an organ A:
Gas content (arbitrary unit)

Vessel type I Vessel type II
Carbon dioxide 44 40
Oxygen 40 100
c Identify organ A. (1 mark)
d With reference to organ A,

i account for the difference in carbon dioxide content between the blood in vessel types I and II.
(3 marks)
ii explain the low oxygen content of the blood in vessel type I. (3 marks)
8– 54
20 CCEA GCSE 2016
a The photograph shows a blood smear viewed under a microscope.
white blood
cell
© Dr. Fred Hossler, Visuals Unlimited / Science Photo Library
i Complete the table. (4 marks)
Label Name of blood component Function

A Red blood cell
B Fibrinogen ➞ fibrin
C
ii Describe two differences, visible in the photograph, between the red and white blood cells.
(2 marks)
The photograph shows the red blood cells of a

patient with genetic disease. normal
Some of the red blood cells are an abnormal red blood
cell
shape.
b Patients with this disease lack energy and abnormal

became tired easily. Suggest why. (2 marks) red blood cell
© Eye of Science / Science Photo Library
The diagram shows a capillary surrounded by red blood

body cell
body cells.
cells
c The rate of flow of red blood cells through
the capillary helps the exchange of gases blood flow
between the blood and the body cells. Use blood
capillary
evidence from the diagram to explain how.
(3 marks)
© JFalcetti / iStock / thinkstock
8– 55
Transport in humans, diffusion, osmosis
21 The photographs below show the transverse section of two blood vessels.
red blood
cell
Blood vessel A (×150) Blood vessel B (×6000)
a Which types of blood vessel do A and B belong? (2 marks)
b With reference to one feature shown in the photograph of vessel B, explain how this feature facilitates
the diffusion of oxygen from blood to body cells. (2 marks)
c Suggest three other factors affecting the rate of diffusion of oxygen from blood to body cells. (3 marks)
d Given that the water potential of the cytoplasm of the red blood cells is similar to that of 0.9% sodium
chloride solution, what would happen to the red blood cells if they were placed in
i 0.2% sodium chloride solution, (2 marks)
ii 2% sodium chloride solution? (2 marks)
Transport in humans, healthy lifestyle

22 CE Human Bio 2005 I Q4c
The diagram below shows a ventral view of the heart:
coronary artery
a The blood pressure in vessel P is higher than that in vessel Q. Account for this. (4 marks)
b The coronary artery is responsible for transporting blood to the heart muscles. In a patient, the
coronary artery becomes blocked at point R. Explain how this may affect the functioning of the
patient’s heart. (3 marks)
c Suggest two healthy habits that can help reduce the risk of blockage of the coronary artery. (2 marks)
8– 56
23 Carbon monoxide is a gas that is toxic to humans. It combines more readily than oxygen with haemoglobin
to form a complex called carboxyhaemoglobin*. The table below shows the relationship between the
concentration of carbon monoxide in inhaled air and the percentage of carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood
of a person.
Carbon monoxide Percentage of

concentration in inhaled air carboxyhaemoglobin in blood
(ppm) (%)
10 2.0
20 3.1
30 4.4
40 5.7
50 7.2
a Plot a graph for the above data. (3 marks)
b Describe the relationship between the concentration of carbon monoxide in inhaled air and the
percentage of caboxyhaemoglobin in blood. (2 marks)
c From your graph, find out the percentage of carboxyhaemoglobin if the inhaled air contains 60 ppm of
carbon monoxide. (1 mark)
d Describe how carbon monoxide in air reaches the haemoglobin. (5 marks)
e Based on the information in the graph, explain why a high concentration of carbon monoxide in
inhaled air can kill a person. (4 marks)

24 A scientist collected some blood samples from people living at sea level and those living at an altitude of
4500 m. After analyzing the blood samples, it was found that the average number of red blood cells of
people living at sea level is 5.42 arbitrary units and that of people living at an altitude of 4500 m is 7.13
arbitrary units.
a Calculate the percentage difference in the average number of red blood cells between people living at
sea level and those living at an altitude of 4500 m. Show your working. (2 marks)
b Given that the air pressure at high altitude is lower, explain how the change in the number of red
blood cells at high altitude helps improve a person’s physical performance. (5 marks)
carboxyhaemoglobin 碳氧血紅蛋白
8– 57
Transport, nutrition in humans
25 CE Bio 2001 I Q3b i–iii
The diagram below shows part of the human circulatory system:
structure Z
vessel X
small intestine
vessel Y
Key : ➞ direction of lymph flow
a Explain why the lymph in vessel X of a person turns from clear to milky after he has eaten some
barbecued pork. (3 marks)
b Describe how a continuous flow of lymph in vessel Y of the leg is maintained. (2 marks)
c For a patient suffering from a disease called elephantiasis*, the lymph vessels in his leg are blocked
by a kind of parasitic worm. The leg becomes greatly swollen due to the accumulation of tissue fluid.
Explain why the tissue fluid accumulates. (2 marks)
elephantiasis 象腿症
8– 58
Essays
26 AL Bio 2012 II Q5a, b
a The respiratory system and circulatory system in humans are closely related in structure and function.
Describe this relationship and comment on its significance. (9 marks)
b Briefly describe how a continuous blood flow is maintained in the human body. (5 marks)
Transport in humans, digestive system

27 Protein is important for the growth and repair of body tissues. Describe how protein is chemically digested,
absorbed and transported to different parts of the body. (12 marks)
8– 59
8– 60

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8 Transport in humans

A heart-lung machine in use during a surgery

Heart-lung machine Think about…

Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

8.1 Need for transport system

Fig 8.1 Transport of substances in Amoeba

However, in large multicellular organisms like plants and humans,

In humans, the transport system includes the circulatory system*

1 Why do large multicellular organisms need a transport system?

circulatory system 循環系統 lymphatic system 淋巴系統

8.2 Human circulatory system

Fig 8.2 The three main parts of the

centrifuged blood sample

Fig 8.3 Separating blood components by centrifugation

blood vessel 血管 centrifuge 離心機 plasma 血漿 suspend 懸浮

a It is the medium for transporting substances throughout the body.

white blood cells*

red blood cells*

Red blood cells White blood cells Blood platelets

section large round

Shape • Biconcave disc shape • Irregular shape • Irregular shape

• Quite small • Phagocytes are quite • Very small

• Red due to the • Colourless • Colourless

By observing the blood smear, we may identify potential blood diseases.

a Anaemia* is the deficiency of either haemoglobin or red blood cells.

b Leukaemia* refers to a group of cancers that develops in the bone

Types of white blood cells

neutrophil* eosinophil* basophil* monocyte* lymphocyte

Fig 8.7 Types of white blood cells

anaemia 貧血 basophil 嗜鹼細胞 eosinophil 嗜曙紅細胞 leukaemia 白血病 monocyte 單核白血細胞

8.1 Examination of blood smears

2 Identify different blood cells. Draw labelled diagrams of them.

3 Compare the shape, relative size and relative number of different

4 Examine prepared slides of blood smears of people with blood

Uses of donated blood

Fig 8.8 Donating blood saves lives

Learn more about the use of donated blood at

What are the components of blood and their main functions?

DSE B Blood vessels

aorta* vena cava*

fibrous tissue fibrous tissue

muscles and muscles and valves*

endothelium endothelium endothelium

artery capillary vein

1 Arteries and veins

thicker layer of muscles

thinner layer of muscles

vein larger lumen

• In the arterioles, the thick layer of muscles contract or relax to

Recoil of the artery pushes

ii) Features of veins

• Valves are present in veins to prevent the backflow of blood.

• The force for blood flow in veins is mainly provided by the

a When skeletal muscles contract b When skeletal muscles relax

2 Identify various layers in the vessels and draw labelled diagrams of

Direction of Away from the heart Towards the heart

Location Deep inside the body Closer to the body surface

Thicker, with more elastic Thinner, with less elastic