Archival Research: Using Modern Techniques

to Reveal the Past

Contributors: Maureen Wangard

Pub. Date: 2016
Product: SAGE Research Methods Cases in Education
Methods: Archival research, Historical research, Educational research
Disciplines: Education
Access Date: May 5, 2020
Academic Level: Advanced Undergraduate
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications Ltd
City: London
Online ISBN: 9781473996601
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781473996601
© 2017 SAGE Publications Ltd All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods Cases.
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Abstract
In 2014, I began dissertation research examining the leadership of Father Paul Reinert, S.J., former president
and chancellor at Saint Louis University. Father Reinert was an influential figure within the field of Catholic
higher education at the local, national, and international levels; however, despite his significant contributions
to higher education, he had never been formally studied. Because he is deceased, I had to rely on archival
material, including speeches, essays, letters, and newspaper articles written by or about Father Reinert. My
goal was to uncover influences on Father Reinert’s leadership and to explore how his leadership was shaped
by the context of his time period to analyze his governance style.

This case study is an account of my research project to give readers unfamiliar with document-based studies
a glimpse into how to conduct archival research. The case study explores traditional archival research
conducted at an archive and includes electronic archival research since an increasing number of digitized
original documents are available online. Readers will learn how to locate archival material, how to assess
the accuracy and meaning of original manuscripts, and basic etiquette when visiting an archive in person.
Archival research has become an easily accessible form of research; however, without understanding how to
locate and interpret original documents, it can be intimidating. The purpose of this case study is to introduce
readers to archival research by sharing my own experience and lessons learned during my time in various
archives across the United States.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this case, students should be able to

• Identify the differences between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources

• Learn techniques to locate primary source material from local and electronic archives
• Anticipate what to expect when visiting an archive for research purposes
• Analyze documents located in archives for accuracy and authenticity
• Recognize practical applications when using original documents for research

Project Overview and Context

While pursuing a PhD in Higher Education Administration, I explored the leadership of Father Paul Reinert,
former president and chancellor at Saint Louis University (SLU), as the topic of my doctoral dissertation. I
chose this topic because Father Reinert was an influential figure in higher education during the second half of
the 20th century, locally, nationally, and internationally. No scholarly article or book about Father Reinert has
been published, and because he died in 2001, research data were limited to the written words he left behind.
Father Reinert donated 42 boxes of papers located in Pius Library on the campus of SLU related to his career
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in higher education.

Upon beginning my research, I was struck by the gulf that lay between social science and humanities
researchers. Archival research is recognized among social scientists as a qualitative research method, and
yet, with the exception of educational historians, most researchers in education do not tend to pursue that
methodology. In contrast, humanities scholars’ main source of data usually derives from archival material. A
historian investigating World War I or a philosopher studying Nietzsche cannot interview people or conduct
a study to test a hypothesis. However, archival collections should not be limited to humanities scholars as
a source of research material. In order to understand the present, it is invaluable to recognize the path that
led to current circumstances. If it is impossible to interview people to learn more about previous challenges,
situations, and the factors that led to decisions made in earlier decades, information may be available in an
archive. While many original source documents are electronically accessible, many manuscripts remain in
boxes at archives around the world, all of which shed light on the past. The purpose of this case study is to
help students understand how to use electronic and original archival resources in research projects.

What Is Archival Research?

The image most people have when hearing the phrase “archival research” is that of a dank basement stacked
with boxes, haphazardly filled with crumbling documents that haven’t seen the light of day in decades. While
there is some truth to that image, the reality is that modern technology has changed the way researchers
conduct archival research. Likewise, because of technology, knowing how to conduct archival research the
“old-fashioned way,” requiring the researcher to spend hours digging through decades-old data, presents
many challenges for novice researchers. For this case study, an archive is defined as any collection of
published and unpublished materials that can be accessed for research. Most archives have converted some
documents into electronic files accessible from their website. However, the majority of archival material is
not yet digitized because it is very expensive to digitize individual documents and recordings. Large archives
possess hundreds of thousands of documents, and local, smaller archives lack the financial resources as
they are often staffed by volunteers who raise money themselves simply to store their documents.

Understanding Sources

There are three different types of sources used in historical research: primary, secondary, and tertiary sources
(Brundage, 2002). A primary source is the original source, for example, personal papers left in an archive,
reports, meeting minutes, and study results written by the researchers who conducted the study. This is the
type of source most typically found in an archive. A secondary source is research written about a subject that
refers to related primary and secondary sources. Most books used in university classrooms are secondary
sources. Tertiary sources are helpful ways to orient the researcher to unfamiliar topics; however, they should
not be included in the bibliography or reference section at the college level or beyond. Examples of tertiary
sources include encyclopedias, Wikipedia entries, and bibliographic essays.

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There are some sources that are both primary and secondary sources. For example, books or articles
written during an earlier time period can be read either as a contribution to the field or as a reflection of
attitudes or beliefs about issues related to a particular time period. So, for instance, when examining a source
from several decades, or even many centuries ago, at the time a source was written, it would have been
considered a secondary source. However, as time passes, the material becomes outdated as a secondary
source and can be used as a primary source because it reveals beliefs about past issues. As an example,
within the field of education, books published about effective teaching methods during the 19th century would
not be useful to current teachers but might instead provide insight into educational settings during former
eras.

Locations for Archival Research

Archival research should not be limited to professional researchers or university professors. High school,
college, and graduate-level students can use archival material for their own research when investigating
historical topics for coursework or scholarly research projects. Particularly, if a student is interested in writing
about a local topic, city or county historical societies can be quite useful. Typically, university libraries
contain archival material related to people of prominence connected to the university or papers from local
organizations that donate their papers to a university archive. On a larger scale, presidential libraries
possess material related to its presidential namesake. Likewise, important organizations or events often
house research material in an archive. For instance, if students wished to write about racial integration in
American public schools, they could look for documents on the Civil Rights Digital Library website to view
manuscripts that have been digitized or they might visit the National Archives in Washington, DC to view court
papers and official records related to school desegregation. If students wanted to examine the same topic, but
at a local level, they could access newspaper articles and possibly court or school documents from nearby
school districts through city, county, or local university archives. Archival sources can include government
documents, public records, newspaper articles, letters, diaries, personal papers, artifacts, published and
unpublished materials, photographs, audio recordings, and video footage, so it is important to remember that
one might find more than a collection of papers (Schmidt, 2013).

Value of Archival Research

While one can learn from textbooks or by viewing copies of published speeches or important documents,
a way to make history come alive for students is by allowing them to read the original letters, articles, or
primary source documents from another era. Hearing a recording or viewing a document provides greater
impact than reading the transcript from a speech or reviewing a topic in a textbook. For example, students
who read a century-old diary describing everyday life can find ways in which people from other cultures or
time periods were both similar and different from themselves. Archival documents personalize history in a
way that published material is unable to do because the document itself can reveal insights to students by the
way they look, smell, feel, or sound.

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In my research of Father Reinert, I uncovered papers and photographs that were likely seen by very few
people. For example, in 1983, Father Reinert visited El Salvador as part of a fact-finding mission examining
the state of higher education during the El Salvadoran civil war. The box labeled “El Salvador” contained
a great deal more than Father Reinert’s trip to investigate the status of higher education. Father Reinert
visited El Salvadoran faculty members imprisoned and tortured for speaking out against the Duarte regime.
In addition, he hid a camera in his belongings at one of the prisons, and after the guards left, Father Reinert
took pictures of political prisoners depicting their torture wounds to document the atrocities he observed.
Upon his return, he typed a summary of his experiences that included his reaction to visiting people in
prisons and refugee camps. Archival research is valuable because it provides researchers and students a
personal connection to a historic episode in a unique way. Teachers can share stories with students about
war or human suffering from books, but the impact of seeing photos depicting gruesome images or reading a
testimonial from someone who witnessed such horrors has a much greater impact on most people than what
a textbook can impart. Additionally, textbooks are written from the author’s point of view; thus, information is
filtered through the author’s perspective rather than allowing students and scholars to explore primary source
material themselves to formulate their own opinions. The author of a textbook chooses what material to
highlight and draws the reader toward a conclusion. However, students examining archival data themselves
may have different insights than published authors.

Research Practicalities

Archival research can be conducted in many ways, ranging from downloading digitized sources that are
available online to sorting through boxes of unorganized papers in an archive. Even among history students,
archival research is often not formally taught, but instead students are expected to learn archival research
methods from experience when conducting their own research. However, not knowing how to conduct
document-based research discourages students from pursing this method of research. Archival research
can be very useful both for historians and social scientists. Understanding the background of an issue, for
example, racial discrimination in education, can help in comprehending how we as a society developed
and perhaps explain the origins of contemporary issues to consider how to address those matters in the
future. Thus, archival research is a valuable tool; however, if students are not taught how to conduct
archival research, it is a resource that may remain outside of most novice researchers’ grasp (McCulloch &
Richardson, 2000).

Research Design

Because Father Reinert’s governance at SLU took place in the past, this study employed historical research
methods to better understand Father Reinert’s leadership. Marshall and Rossman (2006) related that
historical analysis is “particularly useful in qualitative studies for establishing a baseline or background
prior to participant observation or interviewing” (p. 119). McCulloch and Richardson (2000) argued that

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the philosophical traditions in social science and historical research “encouraged a separation between
experimental studies and philosophical or historical enquiry” (p. 34). There is a disconnect between historical
research methods and social science–based research because

social scientists seem to have concluded the only way they can both explain the past and anticipate
the future is to imitate the laboratory sciences, with their capacity to rerun experiments, vary the
parameters, and thereby establish hierarchies of causation. (Gaddis, 2004, p. 60)

In a study like mine, where the subject is deceased, there was no way to observe interactions in the way a
social scientist might do when conducting behavior-based research. Thus, my study used historical research
methods, a recognized form of qualitative research, to examine Father Reinert’s leadership within the field of
education. I used archival research because there were no articles or books written about Father Reinert, and
many people who knew Father Reinert were also deceased.

Archival Research in Action

It is important to examine papers critically when conducting archival research because documents need to be
placed in their correct context in order to be useful for research. The first step in evaluating a document is to
consider the archive it originates from. I obtained most of my documents from the Reinert Collection at SLU’s
archives located on campus in Pius Library. The documents were donated directly by Father Reinert, and
he chose what to donate or discard. Some manuscripts were placed in boxes thematically; in those cases,
all the records in an individual box were connected to a particular topic. Other boxes were unprocessed,
meaning that the contents were not organized in any way. Many papers related to Father Reinert’s presidency
and chancellorship were likely lost or destroyed over the course of many decades, and some were altered
due to missing pages. Sources from a well-organized archive are more likely to be intact than documents
haphazardly collected and stored. Some documents from the Reinert Collection were original and others were
copies, and it is possible there were other versions of some documents, such as earlier drafts of speeches
or policies, that could have revealed information that was deliberately left out. It is also conceivable that final
drafts contained material that did not originate from Father Reinert himself. For example, speeches delivered
by Father Reinert could have been partially written by someone else. Likewise, ideas Father Reinert shared in
essays, articles, and speeches may have been influenced by people advising him. Most archivists are trained
to assist researchers in authenticating documents and can often provide information about the origins of most
archival material, so when in doubt about the authenticity or content of a document consult the archivist for
direction. In my research, I was able to ask the head archivist many questions because he knew Father
Reinert personally and had worked at SLU for many decades and thus recalled people and events referred to
in the papers I reviewed.

After photocopying documents related to my research, I organized the papers by theme. So, for example, all
material related to campus protests during the 1960s was put in one pile, while documents related to Father
Reinert’s work in urban revitalization were placed in an alternate stack. I found it helpful to organize each

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pile in chronological order to understand the timeline in which events occurred. Another useful strategy is
highlighting important passages in documents because when there are hundreds of pages of material, it is
impossible to remember the main points in each record. An alternative method used by archival researchers is
looking for themes emerging from the documents. Just as qualitative researchers using data from interviews
or surveys uncover frequently mentioned topics by study participants, so too can archival researchers look
for themes found repeatedly in manuscripts. Along the edge of each document, I wrote a key word on a small
post-it note indicating commonly occurring themes when I evaluated each item.

Document Evaluation

There are specific criteria to consider when evaluating archival documents. Understanding background
information about the author of each archival document provides insight into the accuracy of information
gleaned from the document and could expose author bias. Likewise, knowledge of the intended recipient
can place information in context because it allows researchers to understand the reason the document was
created (Presnell, 2013). A thorough understanding of the topic allows researchers a better sense of whether
information is incomplete and how it fits into the larger context. Currently, I am converting my dissertation
research into a biography of Father Paul Reinert. This has required me to examine archival material a second
time. Some of the documents that had no meaning for me the first time I reviewed them have a great deal
more meaning now because I am more familiar with Father Reinert’s career.

Documents produced in a time period or culture different from that of the researcher must be examined
within the proper context. Language changes over time, so researchers should not assume knowledge that
may be inaccurate in cases where definitions or meaning changes. Looking for sources or material to either
support or refute evidence found in archival documents can help researchers form more accurate conclusions
(Presnell, 2013). In my own research, when I found references in Father Reinert’s speeches that referred
to African Americans as Negros, I was initially taken aback because that is a socially unacceptable word.
However, when I reminded myself that in the 1950s many people commonly referred to African Americans
as Negros, I realized the word “Negro” did not automatically convey the offensive meaning then as it does
in modern times. Particularly, when I looked at the content of his speeches, I realized Father Reinert did
not intend to convey bigotry or racism. SLU was the first university in a former Confederate or border state
to admit African American students. Racial integration at SLU began in the 1940s, and at the time, it was
highly controversial. Father Reinert delivered many impassioned speeches and wrote letters attempting to
convince critics of racial integration that admitting African American students was the morally correct policy.
Thus, the tendency to jump to the conclusion that his use of the word Negro indicated racism would be an
unfair assessment since he was using socially acceptable language at the time the speech was delivered.
When examining his speeches from the mid-1960s until his death, I noted Father Reinert eliminated the word
Negro and used the more appropriate term African American when referencing students of African American
descent, further indicating he changed his speech when the word Negro acquired a racist overtone.

Another way of placing a document in context is to consider what might be missing from a document. For

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example, many documents “might reflect a particular gender, racial, ethnic, regional, religious, or political
perspective” (Presnell, 2013, p. 161). Looking at a document from multiple perspectives can provide unique
and insightful information. For instance, documents produced prior to the late 20th century tend to portray
the views of Caucasian males because they were the dominant voices in most Western cultures, so their
papers were viewed as more worthy of being saved. Particularly during the early years of Father Reinert’s
presidency, five Jesuits, all of whom were Caucasian male clergy members, designed policy decisions at
SLU. When Father Reinert changed the governing board to include lay persons, women, African Americans,
and non-Catholics, SLU policies and procedures reflected a greater diversity of perspective which is reflected
in archival documents.

Consider the Source

An issue related to document analysis is the manuscript itself. Manuscripts produced long after an event
occurred increase the likelihood that the document is factually incorrect or incomplete because the authors
may have forgotten pertinent information (Howell & Prevenier, 2001). For example, Father Reinert wrote
about student protests during the 1960s several decades later. It is possible he forgot important details or he
may have viewed events differently at that point because hindsight gave him an altered perspective. Another
issue to consider is authors may create manuscripts with a specific purpose in mind (for instance, politicians’
diaries may be written with the intention of justifying decisions), or the diarist could have exaggerated
or fabricated reality. An additional factor-related document analysis is the possibility that the document
was written with the intent to deceive or sway opinion. Some documents are produced for indoctrination,
thus understanding the origin of a document places it in a more accurate context. Literature and films
produced by Nazis related to people persecuted during the Holocaust before and during World War II is an
example of propaganda produced to sway public opinion. An author’s background and beliefs can impact
material found in archival documents, especially when examining an individual’s personal papers, because
material that portrays the author in a negative light may have been destroyed or altered. While conducting
my research, I had to be aware of the fact that Father Reinert was a Jesuit president of a Jesuit-led
institution. It was in his self-interest to promote SLU and portray campus activities and decisions in the most
positive light possible. People—and thus sources—lie or self-deceive, sometimes consciously and sometimes
unconsciously; hence, the scholar must, to the extent possible, be attentive to inconsistencies, lapses, or
suppressions in the story revealed by documents. Likewise, researcher self-awareness is another important
aspect when evaluating a document. Researchers mindful of their own bias can minimize making false
assumptions if they examine how and why they may react certain ways when examining archival documents
(Howell & Prevenier, 2001). While studying Father Reinert, I came to admire him as a person. When reading
criticism about his decisions, I found myself wanting to defend him or to justify unpopular decisions he made. I
had to keep reminding myself that my goal as a researcher was not to glorify Father Reinert, but to accurately
portray him in the context of his time.

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Practical Lessons Learned

When planning a visit to an archive, it is important to keep several things in mind before setting foot in an
archive in order to maximize research time. New researchers will have greater success at finding relevant
documents and fewer headaches by keeping several important lessons in mind before they embark on
archival research for the first time. Readers can find several important pointers from Schmidt’s tips on the
Society for American Archivist’s website in his 2013 article entitled Using Archives: A Guide to Effective
Research; however, the most critical points are listed below.

Preparation Is Vital!

Before visiting an archive, it is important to conduct as much advance research as possible. If an archive
offers an online database listing material in their collection, becoming familiar with material that is of interest
can help researchers estimate how much time it may take to review relevant archival documents. Conducting
secondary source research prior to an archival visit in order to understand the context and content of material
that is uncovered is essential. Researchers must also understand that archivists are not personal research
assistants, but instead a conduit to the sources needed. Consequently, coming to an archive with the ability
to request specific material is vital because most archivists will not conduct research for patrons, and often,
they limit the amount of time they spend locating materials due to understaffing. Archivists typically prefer
researchers to communicate with them ahead of their visit and usually request that researchers make an
appointment to examine archival documents (Schmidt, 2013). The reasons for this relate to the nature of
archival organization. Due to space limitations, archival manuscripts may be stored off-site and brought to
the research library for a specific researcher, which can take several days. Or, in other cases, there is
limited space for researchers to work, so archivists limit the number of researchers per day to keep space
manageable.

Know What to Look for Before You Arrive!

In researching information about Father Reinert, I used two other archives at Notre Dame University and
the College of New Rochelle (CNR). I was interested in the Hesburgh Collection at Notre Dame because
it contained the personal papers of Father Theodore Hesburgh, former president of Notre Dame and close
friend and colleague to Father Reinert. The Hesburgh Collection is a processed collection, meaning all
material is organized to inform researchers of the contents of specific boxes. The information was available
electronically on the Hesburgh Library’s website to allow researchers to ask for specific boxes upon their
arrival. Knowing this helped me plan how long I would need to spend at Notre Dame because I could view
online how many folders were in each box and what each folder contained. The personal papers of Sister
Gallin, a well-respected authority on the history of Catholic higher education, are located at the CNR in New
York. Sister Gallin’s papers are organized thematically; however, the CNR does not offer a list of documents

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on their website. In that situation, I called the archivist and described my project, explained what I was looking
for, and asked whether she could advise me on how long it may take to peruse Sister Gallin’s papers. The
archivist at CNR contacted me a few days later with specific information about material in the collection
along with an estimate of how long I should plan to stay in New York for my research trip. In both situations,
contacting the archivist ahead of time, and making an appointment for the days I planned to visit, ensured
that I had adequate time to conduct research, and both archive locations graciously reserved space for me to
work. Had I shown up unannounced, they may not have been able to assist me nor would I have known how
much time I would need to complete my research.

Build Rapport With the Archivist!

Building a positive relationship with the archivist begins prior to an archival visit. In a study examining the
social benefits of establishing rapport with the archivist, C. A. Johnson and Duff (2005) related establishing
a relationship with the archivist can mean the difference between successful and unsuccessful research.
Archivists can typically provide additional recommendations, make introductions to other archivists and
researchers in similar fields, and notify researchers if relevant material arrives. As the “gatekeeper” to
the archives, archivists are a valuable research resource because they are oftentimes more up-to-date on
archival material and they can help the researcher gain access to archives that might otherwise be off-limits
since they have relationships with fellow archivists. When conducting research in SLU’s archive, the staff
reserved a desk for my use for several months and allowed me to use the copier free of charge, neither of
which they were required to do. However, I established a rapport with the archivists by coming prepared,
following their rules, listening to their advice, and thanking them for their assistance. As they grew to trust
me, I was allowed access to areas that normally are off-limits for visitors, and a friendship grew between
myself and the archivists. They became some of my most reliable sources of support when I began writing
my dissertation.

Archival Etiquette!

Given that archival material is fragile and may contain the only copy of particular documents, archival
research is very different than library research, even if the archive is located within a library. For example, in
a library, patrons can remove volumes from shelves to peruse the contents of books related to their research
topic. In some instances, archivists require researchers to don gloves to protect fragile documents from
natural oil in human skin before they touch an archival manuscript. Another difference is researchers are not
allowed to roam the archives as they would in a library. Instead, the researcher must ask for specific material
and carefully ensure that the material remain organized and undamaged. It is for this reason that cameras,
pens, coats, bags, computers, and cell phones are not usually allowed in archives. Typically, archives offer
lockers or space outside the archival research room to store personal belongings (G. Johnson, 2006). In some
cases, archivists preserved material digitally or on microfilm to protect fragile material; thus, it is possible
that researchers can obtain copies of archival documents rather than examine original documents (Danto,

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2008). Should a researcher wish to make a copy of a document, the archive staff typically copies the desired
material, and the researcher pays in cash for the copies—checks and credit cards are not usually accepted
(McCulloch, 2004; Schmidt, 2013). Researchers should discuss copyright law and policies with the archivist
because most archival material is copyrighted, but the copyright might belong to the donor or author of the
material or to the archives (Presnell, 2013). Most archivists can help researchers understand copyright, fair
use, and publication laws.

Consider Digitized Sources!

As more material is digitized to protect original documents, digital copies increasingly become available online
eliminating the need to visit an archive in person. Technological advances have made archival research a
promising source of data collection for researchers. A researcher interested in examining archival documents
online can locate relevant research material in many ways. A Google search may reveal websites with
electronic documents related to the research project. Large government organizations, such as the National
Archives in the United States or the National Archives in Great Britain, place digitized documents on their
websites. Sites like Archive Finder and Manuscripts Online are search engines that assist researchers
in finding archival material. In most cases, there is a search box on the archive website for researchers
to provide phrases, names, or events, and within minutes, relevant documents appear. As with all online
research sites, it is helpful to include as many term variations as possible. Thus, for my research, I did
not just type Father Reinert when looking at Notre Dame’s online archival guide. Instead, I typed the
names of organizations Father Reinert participated in along with more general terms such as Jesuit college,
Jesuit university, and Catholic higher education. While my research topic was very narrow, those conducting
research on more popular topics will literally find thousands of documents available electronically. For
example, a secondary school teacher instructing students about World War II would uncover documents from
multiple countries, speeches from politicians, soldiers’ diaries and letters, accounts from concentration camp
survivors, photos, newspapers from the 1930s and 1940s, and dozens of other sources of original material.
Due to greater ease in accessing documents, researchers from all over the world can collaborate on projects
using archival material in ways that would not have been possible just a few decades ago. As more archival
collections are digitized, researchers can look at original sources and provide a fresh perspective into past
issues that continue to impact today’s society.

Conclusion

Like all research methods, archival research presents challenges to researchers, particularly those who are
new to document research. However, the research opportunities are endless for both students and teachers
interested in historical research. The modern student can access archival material from countries all over the
world on almost any topic imaginable. The biggest challenge lies in locating relevant manuscripts; however,
with a bit of practice, finding archival sources becomes fairly easy. When visiting an archive in person,
preparation and cooperation with the archivist can allow researchers to uncover rare documents that have

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not been viewed in decades, or perhaps even centuries, giving contemporary researchers a chance to share
a unique evaluation of an existing topic. Regardless of how a document is obtained—electronically or in
person—researchers need to evaluate the authenticity, relevance, and meaning of documents that are of
interest. Archival researchers interact with the past in a way that personalizes historical events and allows
an intimate look into the lives of people from bygone eras. Instead of viewing archival research as an old-
fashioned method of inquiry, researchers should consider an archive a treasure trove of information waiting
to be discovered.

Exercises and Discussion Questions

1. Find a local archive and make an appointment to view their manuscripts. Be prepared to have
specific research topics in mind to peruse documents of interest.
2. Conduct an online search for archival material on a particular topic.
3. Choose a document from an online manuscript collection. Analyze the document to determine
its authenticity and value.
4. As a class, visit an archive on or near your campus. Ask the archivist to demonstrate how
researchers locate material using documents available at the archive you visit.
5. Use documents you located in an archive to share what you learned about a historical event/
person based on the documents.
6. Think of a research project that would utilize historical documents located in an archive. What
types of material would you hope to find? How would that benefit your research project?
7. Explain the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.
8. Discuss some of the challenges in determining the accuracy of information contained in
historical documents. How can you determine whether a document is factually correct?
9. What would you do if you discovered factual inconsistencies among manuscripts?
10. How might you be able to use archival material in your own classroom?
11. What methods would you employ to teach your students how to use primary sources at the
high school level?

Further Reading

Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical methods. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.

McCulloch, G. (2004). Documentary research in education, history, and the social sciences (Social Research
and Educational Studies, R.G. Burgess, Series Ed.). London, England: Routledge.

McCulloch, G., & Richardson, W. (2000). Historical research in educational settings (Doing Qualitative
Research in Educational Settings, P. Sikes, Series Ed.). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

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Presnell, J. L. (2013). The information-literate historian: A guide to research for history students (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Prior, L. (2003). Using documents in social research. In D. Silverman (Series Ed.), Introducing qualitative
methods. London, England: SAGE.

Web Resources

Archive Finder (includes Ireland, Great Britain, and the United States—subscription required):
http://archives.chadwyck.com/marketing/index.jsp

Great Britain National Archives: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk

Library of Congress (online archive material): https://www.loc.gov

Library of Congress Manuscript Collections: https://loc.gov/manuscripts/collections/

Manuscripts Online: https://www.manuscriptsonline.org

National Museum of American History Archive Center: http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/

Society of American Archivists: http://www2.archivists.org

Teach Archives: www.teacharchives.org

Teaching Resources from the National Archives: http://www.archives.gov/education/

United States National Archives: http://www.archives.gov

References

Brundage, A. (2002). Going to the sources: A guide to historical research and writing (3rd ed.). Wheeling, IL:
Harlan Davidson.

Gaddis, J. L. (2004). The landscape of history: How historians map the past. New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.

Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical methods. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.

Johnson, C. A., & Duff, W. M. (2005). Chatting up the archivist: Social capital and the archival researcher.
Society of American Archivists, 68, 113–129.

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2017 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. Education

Johnson, G. (2006). Introducing undergraduate students to archives and special collections. College
Undergraduate Libraries, 13, 91–100.

McCulloch, G. (2004). Documentary research in education, history, and the social sciences (Social Research
and Educational Studies, R. G. Burgess, Series Ed.). London, England: Routledge.

McCulloch, G., & Richardson, W. (2000). Historical research in educational settings (Doing Qualitative
Research in Educational Settings, P. Sikes, Series Ed.). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Presnell, J. L. (2013). The information-literate historian: A guide to research for history students (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Schmidt, L. (n.d.). Using archives: A guide to effective research. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved
from http://www2.archivists.org/usingarchives

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