4 Hydraulic Fracturing

RESERVOIR STIMULATION ‐
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing
 Basic principles and design steps
 Operational realisation
EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 2

Principles & design

 Basic Principles and design steps

• It consists in pumping fluid into the formation at a pressure high
enough
• Proppant is used to hold the fracture open and creates a highly
conductive path for wellbore fluids to flow through
• Near wellbore damage is by‐passed
©
20
1
0
‐
IFP
Training

Let’s remember… Darcy law
 How to improve productivity?

• Bypass the damage:
− But what to do:
» If the formation is tight (K<1 md for gas, < 10 md for oil)
» If the damages are deep inside the reservoir (Damage over 1 ft)
• Create a highly conductive path deep into the formation and
increase productivity beyond the natural level to bypass near‐
wellbore damage and return a well to its “natural” productivity
• Connect multiple reservoirs
• Decrease drawdown to minimize:
− Formation sand and frac sand production
− Water production
− Asphaltenes, parraffins, and inorganic scale deposition

Design steps
 Basic principles in fracturing
 1. Frac height prediction
 2. Frac length design
 3. Frac pressure prediction
 4. Completion design
 5. Perforation strategy
 6. Fluid selection
 7. Proppant selection

Basic Principles in fracturing (1)
 A fracture is a rupture in traction mode.
 The frac plane is therefore perpendicular to the minimum

stress
 Most of the time the fracture plan is vertical

 max
  min
min

intermediate
 The goal of a hydraulic

fracture is to increase the
well PRODUCTIVITY
v
 PI multiplied by 2 to 4 by max
creating an artificial
permeable channel.
 A frac can also increase the

RESERVES by connecting thin
isolated layers
h
Architecture : cased & perforated min
(for selectivity and to
help the frac initiation)

 Hydraulic propped fracture treatment are mainly recommended in

sandstone reservoirs
 Especially of low permeability and laminated
 It is pumped in two steps :
• The fracture is initiated and propagated by pumping a fluid, usually

viscous, at high rate
• The fracture is then filled with propping agent ,proppant
• Upon releasing the pressure, an artificial conductive channel remains

 A fracture is characterised
by :
 v max
• Its half length : Xf (ft)
wf
• Its conductivity : Kf Wf
− Kf frac Xf
permeability (mD)
− Wf width of fracture (ft)
h
kf min

Basic principles in fracturing (5)
 Acid fracture treatments are

recommended in carbonated reservoirs.
 It is pumped in two steps:
• Frac initiation & propagation with gel
• Acid then “fingers” through the gel and to  v max
create an artificial fissure
 infinite conductivity
• No risk of screenout
• No proppant flowback problem
h
 small penetration length due rock
reactivity to acid (30 to 40 m) min
• Potential risk of emulsion and sludge
problems in oil wells
• Formation must retain integrity without
fracture collapse

Design steps

1.‐ Frac height prediction (1)
 The fracture height is not controlled, it is imposed by the

reservoir lithology
• The frac will vertically grow until reaching GEOLOGICAL

barriers of higher stress than the reservoir.
− Most often shale's or shaly layers
− Sometimes compact & indurated layers
− or high pressure layers
• Very permeable layers can also stop fracture height growth,

due to high fluid leak off, thus consuming the treatment
energy.

Gamma‐ray log enables to locate the shaly layers
Array‐sonic log indicates the relative mechanical properties

contrast between layers
(Young Modulus E (Stress / strain) and Poisson’s Ratio  )
Exact E and  values must be measured on cores

to calibrate the Array sonic.
 From the mechanical properties, some hypothesis are to be

made for :
• Stress in the reservoir
• Stresses in the barriers
• Frac height will be function of the stress profile
• Sensitivity runs will show various propagation scenarios

• If several pay‐zones or if a thick reservoir :
− the treatment is done in several fractures, with isolation in between
target 1
shale
pay-zone 1
Bridge plug
Shaly sandstone
Sand plug
pay-zone 2

Design steps

2.‐ Frac length design (1)
 Frac length is a function of the target productivity

• Some important parameters (1) :
− the dimensionless conductivity
k wf
Fcd  f
v
K xf max
− K in mD, Xf and Wf in ft
wf
K: matrix permeability
Wf: Fracture Width Xf
Kf: Frcture perm
− The goal is at least : Fcd > 2
h
kf min

 Kf ‐ Major influences:  Xf and Wf ‐ Major

• Proppant selection influences:
• Closure stress • Formation properties
• Fines migration − Stresses
− Rock properties
• Fluid systems − Pore pressure
• Design • Design
• Temperature − Pump Schedule
− Rate
− Volumes
− Fluid systems
k wf
Fcd  f
kx f

 What fracture length is required for:

• Dimensionless conductivity : wf
− Fcd = represents the ratio between the Xf
channel conductive potential and the
matrix potential
• Knowing Kf.Wf = 2500 md.ft
− What is the fracture width (in mm) ? if kf

the proppant permeability is Kf = 250 D
− What is Xf value if Fcd=2 and K

formation = 10 mD ?

 Frac length is a function of the target productivity

• Some important parameters (2):
− the fracture skin
    
 2
v
r    
2   2 
max
 ln 
w
S fracture
Xf  F cd   wf
  
   Xf
between ‐4 et ‐6 h
kf min

PI with frac ln (re/rw)

 The Fold of Increase : FOI = PI without frac
= ln (re/rw) + Sf
• Represents the production increase due to the frac.
• Usual range : FOI usually between 2 to 4 as:

− ln(re/rw) between 7 and 10
(re = 500 to 1000 m), (rw = 0.1 to 0.05 m (OD= 8’’1/2 to 4’’1/2))

Design steps

3.‐ Frac pressure prediction (1)
Psurf
HHP =Psurf x Q/40.8

Ppipe Pressure in psi
Q, rate in bpm
Hydrostatic head pressure
hTVD
BHTP =Psurf+PHH‐DPpipe‐DPperfs
BHFP =Gradientfrac * H
Pfrac
Pperfs

Design steps

4 ‐ Completion design strategy (1)
 Sufficient tubing size to handle pump rate at pressure
 Mechanical limitations on the liner
 Wellhead pressure limitations
 Packer depth pressure limitations

4 ‐ Completion design strategy (2)
 Determine Maximum WH pressure

• When pumping the minifrac
 Determine required Horsepower

 Example:
• Depth = 10 000 ft
• In situ Stress (logs‐minifrac) = 0.85 psi/ft
• P breakdown = 1,07 psi/ft
• Fluid density = 1,02 SG
• Frictions = in tbg 1500 psi @ 20 bpm, in formation: 200 psi
• Expected net P = 1500 psi when propagating the fracture

Design steps

5.‐ Perforation strategy (1)
The perforations must meet with the fracture treatment

requirements
Deep penetrating :
• to by pass the stress concentration around the well
High density ‐ high phasing : at least 6 SPF ‐ 60° :

• to likely decrease tortuosity (near well bore
friction)(fracture direction unknown)
in deviated wells : short perforated interval (~ 2 to 4 m):

• to likely prevent multiple fractures

Casing
Cement
Crushed Zone Diameter

Perforation Diameter
Perforation
Spacing
(Dependent on
Shot Density)
Perforation
Length
(Cement to End
of Perforation)
Entrance Hole
Diameter in
Casing
j = Phase Angle

 Cramer (SPE 16189, 1987) proposed several things related to

perforation friction:
0.2369  Q2
Pfperf =
dperf4CD2N2
where
Pfperf = Perforation Friction, psi
SG () = Fluid Density, lbs/gal
Q = Flow Rate, BPM
N = Number of perforations
dperf = Perforation Diameter, inch
CD = Discharge Coefficient for perforation tunnel effects.
Values range from 0.6 early to 0.9 late in the treatment

 TORTUOSITY
• Near wellbore friction
• Simplified schematic of a fracture

geometry shows how a fracture may turn
and twist to align itself with the prefered
fracture plan

 Its principal causes are :

• Deviated Wells
• Perforation Phasing Misalignment
• Long Perforated Intervals
− Multiple fractures may initiate
− Naturally Fractured Reservoirs
− Formations With Very High Leak‐off
• Created fracture width too narrow (thin)
• Narrow width generation

 Its consequences are :

• Pressure increase during pumping
• Poor connection between the well and the frac
• Resulting in a productivity decrease

Design steps

6.‐ Fluid selection (1)
 The frac fluid must :

• Create the fracture : it must leak off the less possible in the
formation and mustn’t damage it
• Transport the proppant (viscosity), but also must have the less
tubing friction possible
• Be stable at high temperature while pumping
• Break and be cleaned out easily with low or no residue

6.‐ Fluid selection (2)
 The selected service company proposes a fluid formulation,

as a function of the pumping program.
 Some lab quality control tests are conducted to check the

formulation
• compatibility with the reservoir (Clays)
• cross link time
• stability while pumping
• good break with the least residues possible

Design steps

7.‐ Proppant selection (1)
 Proppant is used to hold the fracture open
 Requirements:
• Conductivity, placement
• Not crush under closure stress (fines)
• Permeability of pack
• Cover the entire frac
• Uniform
• Sphericity, roundness
• density
• Cost
 Proppant and Conductivity (Kf Wf)

 Proppant is used to hold the fracture open
 Proppant Size : as a function of the target conductivity: 20/40

or 16/20 careful to the perforation entry hole diameter and the
frac width
 Proppant types
• Sand
• Substrate type : high quality sand or man made (Aluminate
derivative), chosen as a function of the effective stress: ceramic,
bauxite etc...
• Resin coating (RCP) :
− pro: decreases the risk of proppant flowback (high velocity in gas
wells)
− con: more expensive, less frac conductivity, temperature limited
 The proppant flowback probability is still poorly predicted

65
The Smoother and Rounder the Proppant

Grain is, the Greater the Permeability
 Basic principles and design steps
 Operational realisation

Operation Realisation:
equipment, preparation, treatments & clean‐up

Equipment set up
 Prior any treatment, check that equipment is correctly

designed
• Evaluate maximum WHP

• Perform analysis of the tubing, and ensure it will hold
• Estimate Initiation pressure by assuming:
− Pbreakdown = Pstress (Psi/ft) + 0.2 psi/ft
• Perform quality control on the frac fluid (will it break ?)
• Ensure the tanks are clean
• Ensure you have enough HHP on location

Equipment set up
Proppant bins Frac pump
Blender Lab

Preparation, Operation, Follow‐up
 Dimensioning fracturation
 Definition of frac procedure
 Well preparation
 Logs before frac
 Pre‐job meeting
 Mini frac,
 Frac operation
 Measurements while frac ops
 Measurements after frac ops
 Well flow‐back
 Results analysis

1.‐ Formation Breakdown
 1) Formation Breakdown
• It is the first time the formation is broken.

• It must be done before any other steps
• and in the most energetic way possible
• To decrease the risk of tortuosity and the risk of multiple fracs
− => high rate
− => with gel

2.‐ Minifrac (1)
 2) Minifrac
• It is the calibration test
• The main frac treatment depends on the minifrac results
− => cross linked gel
− => rate and volume : the ones expected for the main frac pad
• The best is to have :
− ‐ a bottom hole pressure reading
− + a temperature log
(at least ~ 6 hours after the end of pumping)
• Design minifrac volume to obtain stable geometry (injection time ~5‐

20 min)
• Use of Crosslinked gel to initiate the fracture and minimise tortuosity
• Pump minifrac at expected job rates using Main Treatment fluid

2.‐ Minifrac (2)
• Monitor pressure decline until after fracture closure by analysing

pressure decline data with P vs. sqrt(time) plot
• Match decline curve using Frac Simulator to match fluid efficiency,
closure time, and pressure decline
• Obtain fluid efficiency

− 30‐60% main treatment Design
• Conclusion: Minifrac critical to determine:

− Fracture extension pressure
− − Fracture geometry
− Fluid efficiency

2.‐ Minifrac (3)
 The minifrac allows to measure:

• Gel friction in the tubing
• The propagation pressure and its behavior
• the in situ stress
• The gel leakoff
The main frac program may be changed after the minifrac

analysis

3.‐ Step tests (1)
 3) Step Tests
•Perform a step‐ up test (step rate test – SRT)
− To reduce uncertainty in minifrac interpretation
− To measure frac reopening pressure
− To be done at constant time steps with bottom hole gauge
•Perform a step down test (SDT)

− Decrease rate step by step prior to shut down
» Ex: Minifrac performed at 20 bpm reduce the rate for 15 sec
at 18 bpm, 15, 12, 10, 5 and 0 – if fluid loss rate is neglectable
− Plot Q vs (BHP ‐ ISIP) / Log‐log plot
− To determine Near Wellbore Friction

4.‐ Diagnostic pumping output (1)
 As Fluid is Pumped into the Fracture Some of it will Leak off

into the Formation, through the Fracture Faces
 The Volume of the Fracture, is the Total Volume Pumped
 Fluid losses agents used for two main reasons

• To lower a very high matrix leak off rate
• To prevent fluid loss down natural fractures
 Friction reducers
• Lowers Surface Treating Pressure and reduces HHP
requirements

 Minifrac
• Fluid efficiency (You will determine a fluid leak off)
• Formation stress
 Step – Up test
• Formation breakdown rate and pressure
• First estimation of min formation stress = closure pressure
 Step – down test

• Tortuosity
• Perforations conditions
 With the use of a frac software you will

• Match the bottom hole pressure (predicted vs observed)
• Be able to predict pressure behaviour for the main treatment

The pseudo 3D simulators
 4 main simulators on the market

• Fraccade (from Dowell)
• Frack Pro (from M. Cleary)
• Stimplan (from M. Smith)
• Mfrac (from Meyer)

5.‐ Main frac (1)
 The main frac program is modified according to the previous

steps results
• The treatment, that creates the frac, is chosen as a function
of the leakoff
• The proppant ramping is adapted to the expected frac
geometry

6.‐ Proppant clean up and starting the well
 Should you perform a forced‐closure (Start to flow back the

well prior the fracture close) ?
• Yes in a high permeability formation
• No if you are using RCP (resin coated proppant)
 If you have to clean up the well, ensure you have a CT

procedure ready

7.‐ CT and proppant clean up (1)
 The CT Equipment
 Control house
 Power Pack
 Tubing reel (1,25 ‐ 1,5 ‐ 1,75 ‐ 2 ‐
2,75)
 Injector head
 BOP (Combi or quad)

Injector
Injector
Control
Control Cab
Cab
Reel
Reel Unit
Unit
Power
Power Pack
Pack
©
20
1
0
‐
IFP
Training
BOP
BOP
Fractured wells: what to remember
 Fracturing a well is very expensive: up to 1.000.000 $
 The near well bore connection to the frac is essential for

productivity
 Proppant flow back is very detrimental to fracture

conductivity and connectivity to well bore
 Proppant flow back happens at early stage, when pack is not

yet re‐stressed
 Excessive drawdown at clean‐up may (WILL?) destroy the

benefit of the frac
 Fracced wells MUST be binned up slowly

4 Hydraulic Fracturing

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RESERVOIR STIMULATION ‐

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing

 Basic principles and design steps

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 2

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 3

 Basic Principles and design steps

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 4

 How to improve productivity?

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 5

 Basic principles in fracturing

 1. Frac height prediction

 2. Frac length design

 3. Frac pressure prediction

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 6

 A fracture is a rupture in traction mode.

 The frac plane is therefore perpendicular to the minimum

 Most of the time the fracture plan is vertical

 The goal of a hydraulic

 A frac can also increase the

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 8

 Hydraulic propped fracture treatment are mainly recommended in

 Especially of low permeability and laminated

 It is pumped in two steps :

• The fracture is initiated and propagated by pumping a fluid, usually

• The fracture is then filled with propping agent ,proppant

• Upon releasing the pressure, an artificial conductive channel remains

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 9

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 10

 Acid fracture treatments are

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 11

 Basic principles in fracturing

 1. Frac height prediction

 2. Frac length design

 3. Frac pressure prediction

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 12

 The fracture height is not controlled, it is imposed by the

• The frac will vertically grow until reaching GEOLOGICAL

− Most often shale's or shaly layers

− Sometimes compact & indurated layers

− or high pressure layers

• Very permeable layers can also stop fracture height growth,

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 13

Gamma‐ray log enables to locate the shaly layers

Array‐sonic log indicates the relative mechanical properties

Exact E and  values must be measured on cores

 From the mechanical properties, some hypothesis are to be

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 20

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 15

 Basic principles in fracturing

 1. Frac height prediction

 2. Frac length design

 3. Frac pressure prediction

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 16

 Frac length is a function of the target productivity

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 17

 Kf ‐ Major influences:  Xf and Wf ‐ Major

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 18

 What fracture length is required for:

• Knowing Kf.Wf = 2500 md.ft

− What is the fracture width (in mm) ? if kf

− What is Xf value if Fcd=2 and K

EP 20865_b_A_ppt_00 Reservoir stimulation ‐ hydraulic fracturing 19

 Frac length is a function of the target productivity