Future

Main article: Future of Earth

See also: Global catastrophic risk
Because carbon dioxide (CO
2) has a long life time in the atmosphere, moderate human CO
2 emissions may postpone the next glacial inception by 100,000 years.[78] Earth's expected long-term
future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%,
and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%.[79] Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate
the inorganic carbon cycle, reducing CO
2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–
900 million years.[80][81] The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere,
making animal life impossible.[82] Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean tempearture may
reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space
within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years.[83] Even if the Sun were stable, a fraction of the water in the
modern oceans will descend to the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.[83][84]
The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will
expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius.[79]
[85]
 Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal
effects, Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the
star reaches its maximum radius.[79]

Physical characteristics
Shape
Main articles: Figure of the Earth, Earth radius, and Earth's circumference

The summit of Chimborazo, the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center[86]

The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and bulging around
the equator due to Earth's rotation.[87] so that a better approximation of Earth's shape is an oblate
spheroid, whose equatorial diameter is 43 kilometres (27 mi) larger than the pole-to-pole diameter.[88]
The point on the surface farthest from Earth's center of mass is the summit of the
equatorial Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi).[89][90][91] The average diameter
of the reference spheroid is 12,742 kilometres (7,918 mi). Local topography deviates from this
idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius:
the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the Mariana Trench (10,925 metres or 35,843 feet below
local sea level),[92] whereas Mount Everest (8,848 metres or 29,029 feet above local sea level)
represents a deviation of 0.14%.[n 6][94] In geodesy, the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in
the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the geoid. More precisely,
the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at mean sea level.[95]
Chemical composition
See also: Abundance of elements on Earth

Chemical composition of the crust[96][97]

Composition

Compound Formula
Continenta
Oceanic
l

silica SiO
2
60.6% 48.6%

Al
alumina 2O 15.9% 16.5%
3

lime CaO 6.41% 12.3%

magnesia MgO 4.66% 6.8%

iron oxide FeOT 6.71% 6.2%

Na
sodium oxide 3.07% 2.6%
2O

K
potassium oxide 1.81% 0.4%
2O

titanium dioxide TiO 0.72% 1.4%

2

phosphorus P
2O 0.13% 0.3%
pentoxide 5

manganese oxide MnO 0.10% 1.4%

Total 100.1% 99.9%

Earth's mass is approximately 5.97×1024 kg (5,970 Yg). It is composed mostly

of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulphur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), 
calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other
elements. Due to mass segregation, the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron
(88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.[98]
The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all oxides: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine
are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%.
Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime,
magnesia, potash and soda.[99][98]

Internal structure
Main article: Structure of the Earth

Geologic layers of Earth[100]

Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.

Depth[101] Component layer Density

km g/cm3

0–60 Lithosphere[n 7] —

0–35 Crust[n 8] 2.2–2.9

35–660 Upper mantle 3.4–4.4

  660–2890 Lower mantle 3.4–5.6

100–700 Asthenosphere —

2890–5100 Outer core 9.9–12.2

 Geologic layers of Earth[100]

Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.

Depth[101] Component layer Density

km g/cm3

5100–6378 Inner core 12.8–13.1

Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or
physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is
underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by
the Mohorovičić discontinuity.[102] The thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi)
under the oceans to 30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of
the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, which is divided into independently
moving tectonic plates.[103]