CHAPTER FIVE: GROUP DYNAMICS

5. INTRODUCTION

Groups are a major feature of organizational life. The work organization and its
sub-units are made up of groups of people. Most activities of the organization
require at least some degree of co-ordination through the operation of group
working. An understanding of the nature of groups is vital if the manager is to
influence the behavior of people in the work situation. The manager must be
aware of the impact of groups and their effects on organizational performance.

5.2 Learning objectives

The objectives of this chapter are to: -
 Explain the meaning and nature of work groups;
 Distinguish between formal and informal groups;
 Explain the main reason for the formation of groups;
 Examine factors which influence group cohesiveness and performance;
 Explain the four stages of group development
 Analyze the nature of role relationship and role conflict;
 Appreciate the importance of groups for effective organizational
performance.

5.3 The meaning and importance of group

The behavior of individuals is groups is something more than the sum total of
each acting in his or her own way. When individuals are in groups they act
adherently from when they are alone this is because individuals seldom work
in isolation from others. Groups are characteristics of all social situations and
almost everyone in an organization will be a member of one or more groups.
Work is a group based activity and if the organization is to function effectively
it requires good team work. The working of groups and the influence they exert

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over their membership is an essential feature of human behavior and of
organizations performance.

There are many possible ways of defining what is meant by a group. The
essential feature of a group is that its members regard themselves as belonging
to the group. Although, there is no single accepted definition most people will
readily understand what constitutes a group. Schein (1988) defines the group
in psychological terms as any number of people who (1) interact will one
another (2) are psychological aware of one another and (3) perceive themselves
to be a group.

Robbins (2003) also defines a group as two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent who come together to achieve particular objectives.

Another useful way of defining a work group is a collection of people who share
most, if not all of the following characteristics
 a definable membership
 group consciousness
 a sense of shared purpose
 interdependence
 interaction; and
 ability to act in a initary manner

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Groups are an essential feature of the work pattern of any organization.
Members of a group must co-operate in order for work to be carried out and
managers themselves will work within these groups. People in groups influence
each other in many ways and groups may develop their own hierarchies and
leaders. Group pressures can make a major influence over the behavior of
individual members and their work performance. The activities of the group are
associated with the process of leadership. The style of leadership adopted by
the manager has an important influence on the behavior of members of the
group.

The classical approach to organization and management tended to ignore the

importance of groups and the social factors at work. The ideas of people such
as F.W Taylor popularized the concept of the rabble hypothesis and the
assumption that people carried out their work and could be motivated as
solitary individuals unaffected by others. The human relations approach,
however, gave recognition to the work organization as a social organization and
to the importance of the group, and group values and norms in influencing
behavior at work.

5.4 Classification of Groups

Groups can be either formal or informal. By formal, we mean defined by the

organization's structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks
and work groups. In formal groups, the behaviors that one should engage in
are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. In contrast,
informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined. These groups are natural formations in the work
environment, which appear in response to the need for social contact.

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It is possible to sub classify groups further as command, task, interest, or
friendship groups. Command and task groups are dictated by the formal
organization. Whereas interest and friendship groups are informal alliances.

The command group is determined by the organization chart. It is composed of

the subordinates who report directly to a given manager. An elementary school
mistress and her twelve teachers form a command group.

Task groups, also organizationally determined, represent those working

together to complete a job task. However, a task group's boundaries are not
limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command
relationships. For instance, if a college student is accused of a campus crime, it
may require communication and coordination among the Dean of Academic
Affairs, the dean of Students, the Registrar, the Director of Security and the
student's advisor. Such a formation would constitute a task group. It should be
noted that all command groups are also task groups, but because task groups
can cut across the organization, the reverse need not be true.

People who may or may not be aligned into common command or task groups
may affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is
an interest group. Employees who band together to support a peer who has
been fired, or to seek increased fringe benefits represent the formation of a
united body to further their common interest.

Groups often develop because the individual members have one or more
common characteristics. We call these formations friendship groups Social
allegiances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based
on similar age, having attended the same school or the holding of similar
political views, to name just a few of such characteristics.

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Informal groups provide a very important service by satisfy their members'
social needs. Because of interactions, we find workers playing together, riding
to and from work together, lunching together, and spending their breaks
together. We must recognize that these types of interactions among individuals,
even though informal, deeply affect their behavior and performance.

5.5 Why do people join groups?

There is no single reason why individuals join groups. Since most people
belong to a number of groups, it is obvious that different groups provide
different benefits to their members. The most popular reasons for joining a
groups are related to our needs for security, status, interaction, power and goal
achievement.

Security

"There's strength in numbers," By joining a group, we can reduce the insecurity

of "standing alone" ___ we feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts and are more
resistant to threats. New employees are particularly vulnerable to a sense of
isolation and turn to the group for guidance and support. However, whether we
are talking about new employees or those with years on the job, we can state
that few individuals like to stand alone. We get reassurances from interacting
with others and being part of a group.

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Status and self-esteem

Group membership means "I'm somebody." It can fulfill extrinsic needs by

giving an individual status and recognition. For new freshman in college,
fraternities, sororities the gymnastics team or the pep club represent groups in
which membership may be sought in order to reinforce feelings of worth. The
move from high school to college often means going from being a "wheel" to
being a "nobody." Membership in one or more college groups can help to
reassure us that we are important. Similarly, many employees in organizations
place a high value on meeting their esteem needs and look to membership in
both formal and informal groups for satisfaction of these needs.

Groups can also fulfill intrinsic needs. Our self-esteem is bolstered when we
are accepted by a highly valued group. Being assigned to a task force whose
purpose is to review and make recommendations for the location of the
company's new corporate headquarters can fulfill one's intrinsic needs for
competence and growth, as well as one's extrinsic needs for status and
influence.

Interaction and Affiliation

People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with group membership. For
many people, these on the job interactions are their primary source for fulfilling
their needs for affiliation. For almost all people, work groups significantly
contribute to fulfilling their needs for friendships and social relations.

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Power

One of the appealing aspects of groups is that they represent power. What often
cannot be achieved individually becomes possible through group action. Of
course, this power may not be sought only to make demands on others. It may
be desired merely as a counter measure. In order to protect themselves from
unreasonable demands by management, individuals may align with others.

Informal groups additionally provide opportunities for individuals to exercise

power over others. For individuals who desire top influence over others, groups
can offer power without a formal position of authority in the organization. As a
group leader, you may be able to make requests of group members and obtain
compliance without any of the responsibilities that traditionally go with formal
managerial positions. So, for people with a high power need, groups can be a
vehicle for fulfillment.

Goal Achievement

Task group are created to achieve a goal that would be considerably more
difficult if pursued by a single person. There are times when it takes more than
one person to accomplish a particular task-there is a need to pool talents,
knowledge, or power in order to get a job completed. In such instances,
management will rely on the use of a formal group.

5.6 Stages of Group Development

Group development is a dynamic process. Most groups are in a continual state

of change. But just because groups probably never reach complete stability
doesn't mean that there isn't some general pattern that describes how most
groups evolve. There is strong evidence that groups pass through a standard
sequence of five stages. [Tuckman (1965)]. As shown in Figure 5-1 these five

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stages have been labeled forming, storming, norming, performing, and
adjourning.

The first state -forming -is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about
the group's purpose, structure, and leadership. Members are "testing the
waters" -to determine what types of behavior are acceptable. This stage is
complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group.

The storming stage is one of intra group conflict. Members accept the existence
of the group, but there is resistance to the control that the group impose on
individuality. Additionally, there is conflict over who will control the group.

Figure 5.1 Stages of Group Development

Source: Adapted from Robin S. 2003 Organizational Behavior (10th ed) New
Jersey USA, Prentice Hall (P. 221).

When stage II is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership

within the group.

The third stage is one in which close relationship develop and the group
demonstrate cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and
camaraderie. This norming stage is complete when there is a continuing
structure for the group and the group has assimilated a common set of
expectations of what defines correct member behavior.

The fourth stage is performing. The structure at this point is fully functional
and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand
each other to the job of task performance.

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The final stage is adjourning where group members prepare for and eventually
implement the group disbandment. This stage is especially common for
temporary groups that operate in the form of committees. task forces and
projects. Ideally the group disbands with a sense that important goals have
been accomplished. Members are acknowledged for their contributions and the
groups overall success. This may be an emotional time and disbandment
should be managed with this possibility in mind. For members who have
worked together intensively for a period of time breaking up the close
relationship may be pain full. It is desirable for the group to disband with
members felling they would work will one another in the further if the need or
opportunities to do so crises.

Most of you have probably encountered each of these stages when you have
had to do a group term project for a class. Group members are selected and
then you meet for the first time. There is a "feeling out" to assess what the
group is going to do and how it is going to do it. Once this is resolved and a
hierarchy is agreed upon, the group moves to identifying specific activities of
what needs to be done, who is going to do it, and dates by which the parts need
to be completed. General expectations become set and agreed upon for each
member. This forms the foundation for what you hope will be a coordinated
group effort culminating in a project that group members and the instructor
agree is a job well done. Of course, groups occasionally don’t get much beyond
the first or second stage, which frequently results in projects and grades that
are disappointing.

Should one assume from the foregoing that group effectiveness improves as
progression is made through the five stages? While some argue that
effectiveness of work units increase at advance stages, it is not that simple.
While this assumption may be generally true, what makes a group effective is a
complex issue. Under some conditions, high levels of conflict are conductive to

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high group performance. So we might expect to find situations where groups in
stage II outperform those in stages III or IV. Similarly, movement through
stages is not always clear. Sometimes, in fact, several stages are going on
simultaneously as when groups are storming and performing at the same time.
Groups even occasionally regress to previous stages. Therefore, to assume that
this development process is followed precisely by all groups or that stage IV is
always the most preferable is likely to prove incorrect. It is better to think of
this five-stage model as a general framework. It reminds you that groups are
dynamic entities and can help you to understand better the problems and
issues that are most likely to surface during a groups life.

5.7 Group Structure

A basic understanding of group structure can be found in three concepts-roles,

norms, and status. We have all heard these words before. They may even be a
standard part of your vocabulary. But if you expect to be able to analyze
groups, you are going to have to feel comfortable with these concepts and
understand the theory that underlies them.

5.7.1 Roles

All group members are actors, each playing a role. By this term, we mean a set
of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit. The understanding of role behavior would be
dramatically simplified if each of us chose one role and "played it out" regularly
and consistently. Unfortunately, we are required to play a number of diverse
roles, both on and off our jobs. As we shall see, one of the tasks in
understanding behavior is grasping the role that a person is currently playing.

For example, on his job, John is a plant manager with the Ethiopian Power
Authority in Addis Ababa. He has a number of roles that he fulfills on that job-
for instance, member of middle management, electrical engineer and the

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primary authority spokes person in the community. Off the job, John finds
himself in still more roles: husband, father, an orthodox, tennis player,
member of the eagle club, and president of his homeowners' association. Many
of theses roles are compatible; some create conflicts. For instance, how does
his religious involvement influence his managerial decisions regarding layoffs,
expense account padding, or providing accurate information to government
agencies? A recent offer of promotion requires John to relocate, yet his family
very much wants to stay in Addis. Can the role demands of his job be
reconciled with the demands of husband and father roles?

The issue should be clear: Like John, we all are required to play a number of
roles, and our behavior varies with the role we are playing. John's behavior
when he attends church on Sunday morning is different from his behavior on
the tennis court later that same day. You, too, act differently in the role of
student than you do when you play husband or wife, or boyfriend or girlfriend.

When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations, the result is

role conflict. It exists when an individual finds that compliance with one role
requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another. At the
extreme it would include situations in which two or more role expectations are
mutually contradictory.
The understanding of role behavior would be dramatically simplified if each of
us chose one role and played it out regularly and consistently. Unfortunately,
we are required to play diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. Different groups
impose different role requirement on people. And we can better understand an
individual's behavior in specific situations if we know what role that person is
playing.

In addition, it can be helpful to look at the concept of roles through the

perspective of the psychological contract. There is an unwritten agreement
that exists between employees and their employer. This psychological contract

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sets out mutual expectations -what management expects from workers and
vice versa. In effect, this contract defines the behavioral expectations that go
with every role. For instance, management is expected to treat employees
justly, provide acceptable working conditions, clearly communicate what is a
fair day's work, and give feedback on how well the employee is doing.
Employees are expected to respond by demonstrating a good attitude, following
directions, and showing loyality to the organization. What happens when role
expectations as implied in the psychological contract are not met? If
management is derelict in keeping up its part of the bargain, we can expect
negative repercussions on employee performance and satisfaction. When
employees fail to live up to expectations, the result is usually some form of
disciplinary action up to and including firing.

On the basis of decades of role research, we can make the following

conclusions:
1. People play multiple roles
2. People learn roles from the stimuli around them-friends, books, movies,
television.
3. People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the
situation and its demands clearly require major changes.
4. People often experience role conflict when compliance with one role
requirement is at odds with another. An increasing number of people, for
instance, are experiencing the stress that John is experiencing as a
result of trying to reconcile work and family roles.

So if you're a manger, what value is a knowledge of roles? When you're dealing

with employees, it helps to think in terms of what group they're predominantly
identifying with at the time and what behaviors would be expected of them in
that role. This perspective can often allow you to more accurately predict the
employee's behavior and guide you in determining how best to handle
situations with that employee.

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5.7.2 Norms

Did you ever notice that employees don't criticize their bosses in public? This is
because of norms. That is, there are acceptable standards of behavior
within a group that are shared by the group's members.

Each group will establish its own set of norms. For instance, group norms
might determine appropriate dress, when it's acceptable to goof off, with whom
group members eat lunch, and friendship on and off the job. However, probably
the most widespread norms and the ones with which managers tend to be most
concerned deal with performance-related processes. Work groups typically
provide their members with explicit cues on how hard they should work, how
to get the job done, their level of output, appropriate communication channels,
and the like. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual
employee's performance. When agreed to and accepted by the group, norms act
as a means of influencing the behavior of group members with a minimum of
external controls. In fact, it's not unusual to find cases in which an employee
with strong abilities and high personal motivation performs at a very modest
level because of the overriding influence of group norms that discourage
members from producing at high levels.

A key point to remember about norms is that groups exert pressure on

members to bring members' behavior into conformity with the groups
standards. If people in the group violate its norms, expect group members to
act to correct or even punish the violation. This is just one conclusion directly
attributable to findings in the Hawthorne studies.

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5.7.3 Status

Status-that is, a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group

members by others-permeates every society. Despite many attempts, we
have made little progress toward a classless society. Even the smallest group
will develop roles, rights, and rituals to differentiate its members. Status is an
important factor in understanding human behavior because it is a significant
motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a
disparity between what they believe their status to be and what others perceive
it to be.

What determines status? According to status characteristics theory, differences

in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. Moreover,
status tends to be derived from one of three sources: the power a person wields
over others, a person's ability to contribute to a group's goals, and an
individuals personal characteristics.

People who control the outcomes of a group through their power tend to be
perceived as high status. This is largely due to their ability to control

the group's resources. So a group's formal leaders or manager is likely to be

perceived as high status when he or she can allocate resources like preferred
assignments, desirable schedules, and pay increases. People whose
contributions to a group are critical to the group's success also tend to have
high status. The outstanding performers on sports teams, for example,
typically have greater status on the team than do average players. Finally an
individual with personal characteristics that are positively valued by the group-
such as good looks, intelligence, money, or a friendly personality -will typically
have higher status than someone who has fewer valued attributes. This tends
to explain why attractive people are often the most popular in high school.
Note, of course, that a characteristics valued by one group may mean nothing

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in another. So high intelligence may give you status at your monthly
communial meetings, but it may provide no benefit at all to your Tuesday
football league.

5.8 Group cohesiveness and performance

Social interaction is a natural feature of human behavior but ensuring

harmonious working relationship and effective teamwork is not an easy task.
The manager's main concern is that members of a work group co-operate in
order to achieve the results expected of them.

Cohesive groups may result in greater interaction between members, mutual

help and social satisfaction, lower turnover and absenteeism and often higher
production. Co-operation among members is likely to be greater in a united,
cohesive group. Membership of a cohesive groups can be a rewarding
experience for the individual, can contribute to the promotion of morale and
aid the release of creativity and energy. Members of a high morale group are
more likely to think of themselves as a group and work together effectively.
Strong and cohesive work groups can, therefore, have beneficial effects for the
organization.

5.8.1 Factors Affecting Cohesiveness

In order to develop the effectiveness of work groups the manager will be

concerned with those factors that contribute to group cohesiveness, or that
may cause frustration or disruption to the operation of the group.

The manager needs to consider, therefore, both the needs of individual

members of staff, and the promotion of a high level of group identity and
cohesion.

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There are many factors which affects group cohesiveness and performance,
which can be summarized under four broad headings, as shown in Figure 5.2

5.8.1.1 Membership
(a) Size of the Group

As a group increases in size, problems arise with communications and co-

ordination. Large groups are more difficult to handle and require a higher level
of supervision. Absenteeism also tends to be higher in larger groups. When a
group becomes too large it may split into smaller units and friction may
develop between the sub-groups.

It is difficult to put a precise figure on the ideal size of a work group and there
are many conflicting studies and reports. Much will depend upon other
variables, but it seems to be generally accepted that cohesiveness becomes
more difficult to achieve when a group exceeds 10-12 members. Beyond this
size the group tends to split into sub-groups. A figure of between five and seven
is often quoted as an apparent optimum size for full participation within the
group.

One particular feature of size is the concept of social loafing and the
'Ringlemann effect' which is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort
when working as a member of a group than as an individual. A German
psychologist, Rnglemann, compared the results of individual and group
performance on a rope-pulling task. Workers were asked to pull as hard as
they could on a rope, performing the task first individually and then with
others in groups of varying size. A meter measured the strength of

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 MEMBERSHIP WORK ENVIRONMENT

 Size of the group  Nature of the task

 Compatibility of  Physical setting

members  Communication

 Performance  Technology

GROUP COHESIVENESS
AND PERFORMANCE

ORGANISATIONAL GROUP DEVELOPMENT

AND MATURITY
 Management and
 Forming
leadership
 Storming
 Personal policies
 Norming
and procedures
 Performing
 Success

 External threat

Figure 5.2 Factors Contributing to Group Cohesiveness and Performance

Source: Adapted from Mullins L.J. (1999), Management and Organizational

Behavior, 5th edition, London, Financial Times, Pitman Publishing
(P.463)

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each pull. Although the total amount of force did increase with the size of the
work group, the effort expended by each individual member decreased with the
result that the total group effort was less than the expected sum of the
individual contributions. Replications of the Ringlemann effect have generally
been supportive of the original findings.

(b) Compatibility of the members

The more homogeneous the group in terms of such features as shared

backgrounds, interests, attitudes and values of its members, the easier it is
usually to promote cohesiveness. Variations in other individual difference, such
as the personally or skills of members, may serve to complement each other
and help make for a cohesive group. On the other hand, such differences may
be the cause of disruption and conflict. Conflict can also arise on a
homogeneous group where members are in competition with each other.
Individual incentive payment schemes, for example, may be a source of
conflict.

(c) Performance of group members

Group spirit and relationships take time to develop. Cohesiveness is more likely
when members of a group are together for a reasonable length of time, and
changes occur only slowly. A frequent turnover of members is likely to have an
adverse effect on morale, and on the cohesiveness of the group.

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5.8.1.2 Work Environment
a) The nature of the task

Where workers are involved in similar work, share a common task, or face the
same problems, this may assist cohesiveness. The nature of the task may serve
to bring people together when it is necessary for them to communicate and
interact regularly with each other in the performance of their duties.

Even if members of a group normally work at different locations they may still
experience a feeling of cohesiveness if the nature of the task requires frequent
communication and interaction for example, security guards patrolling
separate areas who need to check with each other on a regular basis. However,
where the task demands a series of relatively separate operations or discrete
activities for example, on a machine-paced assembly line it is more difficult to
develop cohesiveness. Individuals may have interactions with colleagues on
either side of them but little opportunity to develop a common group feeling.

b) Physical setting

Where members of a group work in the same location or in close physical

proximity to each other this will generally help cohesiveness. However, this is
not always the case for example, in large open-plan offices staff often tend to
segregate themselves from colleagues and create barriers by the strategy siting
of such items as filling cabinets, bookcases or indoor plants. The size of the
office and the number of the staff in it are of course, important consideration in
this case. Isolation from other groups of workers will also tend to build
cohesiveness. This often applies, for example to a smaller number of workers
on a night shift.
c) Communications

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The more easily members can communicate freely with each other, the greater
the likelihood of group cohesiveness. Communications are affected by the work
environment, by the nature of the task, and by technology. For example,
difficulties in communication can arise with production systems where workers
are stationed continuously at a particular point with limited freedom of
movement. Even when opportunities exist for interaction with colleagues,
physical conditions may limit effective communication. For example, the
technology layout and high level of noise with some assembly line work can
limit contact between workers. Restrictions on opportunities for social
interaction can hamper internal group unity.

d) Technology

We can see that the nature of technology and the manner in which work is
carried out has an important effect on cohesiveness and relates closely to the
nature of the task, physical setting and communications. Where the nature of
the work process involves a craft or skill-based 'technology' there is a higher
likelihood of group cohesiveness. However, as mentioned earlier with machine-
paced assembly line work it is more difficult to develop cohesiveness.

5.8.1.3 Organizational factors

a) Management and leadership

The activities of groups can not be separated from management and the
process of leadership. The form of management and style of leadership adopted
will influence the relationship between the group and the organization and is a
major determinant of group cohesiveness. In general terms, cohesiveness will
be affected by such things as the manner in which the manager gives guidance
and encouragement to the group offers help and support, provides
opportunities for participation, attempts to resolve conflicts, and gives
attention to both employee relationship and task problems.

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b) Personnel policies and procedures

Harmony and cohesiveness within the group are more likely to be achieved if
personnel policies and procedures are well developed, and perceived to be
equitable with fair treatment for all members. Attention should be given to the
effects that appraisal systems, discipline, promotion and rewards and
opportunities for personal development have on members of the group.

c) Success

The more successful the group, the more cohesive it is likely to be and cohesive
groups are more likely to be successful. Success is usually a strong
motivational influence on the level of work performance. Success or reward as
a positive motivator can be perceived by group members in a number of ways.
For example, the satisfactory completion of a task through co-operative action;
praise from management and a feeling of high status;

d) External threat

Cohesiveness may be enhanced by members co-operating with one another

when faced with a common external threat, such as changes in their method of
work, or the appointment of a new manager. Even if the threat is subsequently
removed, the group may still continue to have a greater degree of cohesiveness
than before the threat arose. Conflict between groups will also tend to increase
the cohesiveness of each group and the boundaries of the group become drawn
more clearly.

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5.8.1.4 Group Development and Maturity

The degree of cohesiveness is affected also by the manner in which groups

progress through the various stages of development and maturity which
includes forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning

5.9 Characteristics of an effective group

The characteristics of an effective work group are not always easy to isolate
clearly. The underlying feature is a spirit of co-operation in which members
work well together as a united team, and with harmonious and supportive
relationships. This may be evidence when: -

i Members are skilled in all the various leadership and membership roles
and functions required for interaction between leaders and members
and between members and other members.
ii The group has well established and relaxed working relationships
among all its members.
iii Members of the group are attracted to it and are loyal to its members,
including the leaders.
iv The values and goals of the group are a satisfactory integration and
expression of the relevant values and needs of its members.
v Each member is motivated to all that he or she can reasonably do to
help the group achieve its central objective.
vi All the interaction, problem solving, and decision-making activities of
the group occur in a supportive atmosphere. While members accept
that there are real and important differences of opinion, the focus is on
arriving at sound solutions and not on exacerbating and aggravating
conflicts.
vii The group is eager to help each member develop his or her full
potential.

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 viii Each member accepts willingly and without resentment the goals and
expectations that the group has established.
ix Members provide mutual help, when necessary or advisable, so that
each can successfully accomplish his or her goals.
x The supportive atmosphere stimulates creativity.
xi The group knows the values of "constructive" conformity and knows
when to use it and for what purposes.
xii There is high motivation on the part of each member to initiate and
receive communications openly.
xiii Members are flexible and adaptable in regard to their goals and
attitudes.
xiv Individual members feel secure in making decisions that seem
appropriate to them because the goals and philosophy of operation are
clearly understood by each member.

5.10 Understanding Work Teams

5.10.1 Why Have Teams Become So Popular?

How do we explain the current popularity of teams? The evidence suggests that
teams typically outperform individuals when the tasks being done require
multiple skills, judgment, and experience. As organizations have restructured
themselves to compete more effectively and efficiently, they have turned to
teams as a way to use employee talents better. Management has found that
teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events than are traditional
departments or other forms of permanent groupings. Teams have the capability
to quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband.
Teams are an effective means for management to democratize their organizations and increase
employee motivation.

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5.10.2 Teams Versus Groups

Groups and teams are not the same thing. In this section, we want to define
and clarify the difference between a work group and a work team.

In the previous section, we define a group as two or more individuals,

interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular
objectives. Work group is a group that interacts primarily to share information
and to make decisions to help each member perform within his or her area of
responsibility.

Work groups have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work that

requires joint effort. So their performance is merely the summation of each
group member's individual contribution. There is no positive synergy that
would create an overall level of performance that is greater than the sum of the
inputs.

A Work Team generates positive synergy through coordination effort. Their

individual effort results in a level of performance that is greater than the sum
of those individual inputs. Figure 5.3 highlights the differences between work
groups and work teams.

These definitions help clarify why so many organizations have recently

restructured work processes around teams. Management is looking for that
positive synergy that will allow their organizations to increase performance. The
extensive use of teams creates the potential for an organization to generate
greater outputs with no increase in inputs.

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 Figure5.3: Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams
Adapted from Robbins S.P. (2005): Organizational Behavioral, 10th ed., New
Jersey, USA, Prentice Hall (page 258)

5.10.3 Types of Teams

Teams can do a variety of things. They can make products, provide services,
negotiate deals, coordinate projects, offer advice, and make decisions. The four
most common types of teams you're likely to find in an organization are
problem-solving teams, self-managed work teams, cross-functional teams, and
virtual teams.

i Problem-solving teams: - Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same

department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of
improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
ii Self-managed work teams: - Groups of 10 to 15 people who taken on
responsibilities of their supervisors.
iii Virtual teams: - Teams that use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
iv Cross-functional teams: - Employees from about the same hierarchical
level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a
task.

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5.10.4 Advantages of Team Work

 More specialists/experts are integrated into large tasks within the

organization, thereby increasing success rates
 More organizational members become increasingly involved in their total
work environment.
 Increased productivity, improved customer service, more flexible
systems and highly motivated staff.
 Gives synergy and develops more creative solutions to difficulty
problems.
 Provides possibilities for empowerment that are not available to
individual employees.
 Builds commitment and support for new ideas among staff and
community members.
 Provides effective learning process for professionals.

5.10.5 Attributes of a Winning Team

i) Clear objectives and agreed goals
 Required for team commitment and greater motivation, including
adherence to standards and timing.
 Provide performance evaluation criteria and guidelines for
determining success
 Ensure fewer demands on management, better problem solving and
more initiatives
 Prevent undertaking irrelevant and unnecessary tasks.
ii) Openness and Confrontation
 Provide greater capacity for team members to work through difficulties
and achieve constructive conclusions.
 Enable members to state their views, opinions, judgments, rational
and irrational feelings, facts and hunches without fear of being
belittled or embarrassed.

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  Allow for creativity and developing the skills of Assertion, Active
Listening and Giving Feedback.
 Not very easy to achieve because of fear of potential reaction of
"powerful" people in the team.
Steps for developing opennes and confrontation
 Identify issues
 Encourage full expression of all viewpoints
 Listen to other people without defending own position
 Identify differences and highlight them
 Identify common ground and highlight same
 Check is issues have been resolved
iii) Support and Trust
 Support (to strength by assistance) genuine concern to assist other
person even of by giving negative feedback or facing difficult issues.
 Extremely valuable characteristics of human relationships
 Link members in healthy relationships, avoiding rancor and rivalry
 Do not allow members to seek competitive advantages over each other
 Enhance expression of views
 Enable team members to lay aside their sectional interests and make
the team a satisfying and effective unit
 Discourage imposition of goals and standards
iv) Cooperation and Conflict
 Disable rigid attitudes in team members
 Enable clear presentation of ideas by members
 Enable members to feel free in giving honest opinions directly and
forcefully
 Provide guideline for conflict resolution
 Creativity and realism involve in the team
Stages of Conflict Resolution
 Examine what issues are in contention '
 Bring both parties together to discuss the issues

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  Clarify roles, expectations, and specify desirable outcomes
 Encourage dialogues which is open
 Consider each point of disagreement and attempt to find common
ground
 Record agreements and plan how to cope with intractable positions
v) Sound Procedures
 Provide for both formal and informal decisions making process
 Give good understanding of ground rules, individual positions and
information handling
 Enlighten members on delegation of responsibilities and the
appropriate authority to back it up.
 Ensure adequate resources and effective communication pattern.
vi) Appropriate Leadership
 Keeps the focus of team on the mission
 Delegates responsibilities
 Stretches the ability of others
 Creates a climate for risk-talking
 Provides appropriate resources
 Ensures clear an open communication
 Adopts effective style for accomplishing the mission of the team
 Leads people, manages tasks and facilities decisions
 Ensures that responsibilities for group effectiveness is shared by the
team
 Ensures that control over final decision is best left for the team
 De-emphasizes importance of one's position and power
 Recognizes that team is not a set of individuals but an "interacting
and collective team"
 Task-oriented functions not performed only by leader but shared by
entire team through its roles
 Expression of members' needs and feeling are encouraged and dealt
with openly at meetings.

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  Recognition of team's achievements
vii) Regular Review
 Helps team to envolve towards maturity
 Ensures that adequate effort is directed towards planning
 Improves decision-making process
 Increases support, openness and trust
 Improves individuals' contributions to team work
 More productivity and enjoyable meetings.
 Mission is kept in focus
viii) Individual Development
 Improves creativity, competence and confidence
 Helps to make the most of one's time, energy and skills
 Provides clear personal life goals compatible with work.
 Develops the ability to help others to grow and expand their capacity
 Encourage listening to others, learning from experience, preparedness
to be open about ones position and willingness to take reasonable
risks.
 Helps in developing good relations with others and ability to change
viewpoints through reason and not bullying
 Improve presentation skills and provides sufficient personal energy.
ix) Sound Inter-group Relations
 Ensure that the actions and decisions of the team are communicated
and understood
 Do not rigidly defend team boundaries
 Take active step to find out what other teams are doing
 Understand and utilize differences in people
 Enable the anticipation and elimination of potential inter-team
problems before they arise.
 Recognize that boundaries and responsibilities between teams will
need to be reviewed and amended from time to time.

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5.10.6 Requirements for a Winning Team
 Commitment
 Contribution
 Communication
 Cooperation
 Conflict Management
 Change Management
 Connections

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