Chapter 1

• Infrastructure (bellow the surface of the ground: foundations)

• Superstructure (above the surface of the ground)

Regarding the mechanical behaviour:

• Rigid structures (masonry or RC walls)

• Flexible structures (frames=columns+beams)

• Semi-flexible structures (walls+frames)

What is Engineering?
 Engineering is the application of Mathematics, Science and Technology to create a system,
component, or process that meets a human demand.

What is a “great structure”?

• form (sophisticated arrangement of space and harmonious proportions);

• function (structure’s practical usefulness or cultural significance);

• structure (unprecedented size or innovative techniques that influenced structural engineering for
years/decades to come).

What is a force?
 A push or a pull applied to an object
 Has magnitude and direction

What is Engineering Mechanics?

. Engineering Mechanics: a branch of the physical sciences that deals with the effects of forces acting
on bodies.

Structural analysis steps

 EXTERNAL FORCES Loads (dead/live) Reactions

 INTERNAL FORCES Tension Compression
 STRESS
 STRENGTH
 EVALUATE PERFORMANCE [N] [N] [N/mm2 ]
 Stress=a measure of the intensity of the internal force

Strength=the largest stress a material can withstand before failing

STRESS < STRENGTH GOOOD

STRESS > STRENGTH BAD

 . A structure carries load successfully if the stresses caused by

external forces are less than the strength of the associated materials.
Chapter 2
Internal forces, stress and strength/Properties of Materials
 The strength of a structural element (in tension) is independent of its length.
 The strength of a structural element (in tension) depends on that member cross-sectional area.

 External forces (loads) are applied to the exterior of the body.

 Internal forces occur inside the body

Stress is independent of geometry and material type.

The strain is the intensity of the deformation of a member

Ductility = the capability of a material to undergo large plastic (permanent) deformations before
fracturing

Stiffness = the capability of a material to resist elastic deformations.

Wood
• It’s one of the first two materials used by man (the other one is stone)

• It’s available in most regions of the world

• It can be worked easily with the most simplest of tools

• It’s the lightest of all common materials

Disadvantages of wood

• Brittleness

• Low stiffness

• Subjected to rot

• Highly flammable

• Mechanical properties are variable (natural material)

• Subjected to creep

Concrete
• The most used material today

What is concrete?

• cement

• aggregate (granular material=sand+gravel)

• water

Advantages 0f concrete

• It can take any shape

• Good fire resistance

• Good weather resistance

Disadvantages 0f concrete

• It is very brittle (low ductility)

Iron
• Cast iron (fier turnat / fontă)

• Wrought iron (fier forjat)

Chapter 3
Building upwars:Columns/Building across: beams
Greek architectural orders:

 Doric
 Ionic
 Corinthan

Moment of inertia is a geometric property calculated from standard formulas.

How can we increase the buckling strength of a column?

By using a stiffer material (E)

• By using a more resistant to bending cross-section (I)

• By shortening the effective length of the column (L)

 What is a beam?

 A structural element subjected to transverse loading – loading that’s applied perpendicular to

the axis of the member.
 Carries load in bending = flexure (Engineering Mechanics) Beam’s three physical characteristics:

1. Support configuration (simple, continuous, cantilever)

2. Cross-section

3. Profile

Chapter 4
Trusses – the power of the triangle
Cables and arches- the power of the parabola

What is a truss?
 A rigid framework composed of members connected at joints and arranged into a network of
triangles.
 Trusses are strong, stiff and light.
 Trusses are capable of spanning great distances using small elements
 Trusses allow for versatility of form

Whipple’s method is still used today. (Method of Joints)

< The forces in a joint are in equilibrium >
• It is a technique for calculating the internal forces in every member of a truss structure, using
the principle of equilibrium.

Assumptions:
• The joints are perfect frictionless pins
• All the loads are applied to the nodes
ALL THE MEMBERS
are axially loaded, either in tension or compression.

Past: cheap labour and expensive materials.

Present: cheap materials and expensive labour (very large number of connections).

Arch characteristics

• It carries load entirely in compression

• It requires both vertical and horizontal reactions to carry load (thrust)
 Cables:

• Carry load in tension

• The tension in a cable pulls inward
• Need both H (outward) and V
• The tension and H is i.p. to the sag

Arches:

• Carry load in compression

• The compression in an arch pushes outwards
• Need both H (inward) and V
• The compression and H is i.p. to the height

Hooke (about the ideal shape of an arch):

• If the arch supports only its own weight, its ideal shape is a catenary
• If the arch supports a horizontally distributed load, its ideal shape is a parabola
Hooke’s theorem translated from Latin: As hangs the flexible line, so but inverted stands the
rigid arch.

Thrust line

It is the graphical representation of the path the compression takes through an arch or other
elements subjected to compression.

Chapter 5
Arhitectural Styles. Buiding Design Requirements
Loads and Structural Systems

Architectural styles

I. First generation of constructions (prehistory – roman antiquity)

 Megalithic constructions (~3000 B.C.) -> Stonehenge
 Sumerian and Egyptian constructions -> pyramids, ziggurats, the Sphinx
 pre-Columbian architecture -> Aztec temples, Machu-Pichu, Maya temples
 Japanese and Chinese architecture -> The Great Wall
 Greek architecture -> Parthenon (human scale architecture)

II. Second generation of constructions (roman antiquity – modern time)

 Roman architecture -> roads, aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatre, ports, Pantheon

 Byzantine architecture -> cathedrals
 Islamic architecture -> Taj Mahal, mosques
 Romanic and Gothic architecture -> arcades, vaults, gothic arches, stained windows
  Renaissance architecture -> double ribbed dome (Filippo Brunelleschi), castles
 Baroque and neo-classicism architecture -> palaces: Versailles, Greenwich, Schönbrunn,
Buckingham; British Museum, Palace of Culture (Iaşi)

III. Third generation of constructions (modern architecture)

 Guggenheim Museum, Sydney Opera House, Eiffel Tower, Cement Pavilion, City of Arts and
Sciences in Valencia

Building design requirements

Vitruvius in De Architectura:
• Form
• Function
• Structure

Building design requirements

i. User requirements (are the result of destination, location and climate)

ii. ii. Performance requirements
• Functional requirements (dimensions, architectural flexibility, space geometry)
• Structural safety
• Safety during use (circulation, fire resistance, ease of access, intrusion security)
• Maintenance/durability (frost-thaw cycles, corrosion)
• Environment requirements (eco-friendly)
• Protection, hygiene and comfort (temperature, humidity, natural lighting, noise
insulation, vibrations, radiations, air quality)
• Economic requirements (investment, function and maintenance price)
• Energy economy (starting from the production of materials up to low energy
consumption for heating/lighting)
iii. Owner imposed requirements

Construction classification

• Infrastructure (bellow the surface of the ground: foundations)

• Superstructure (above the surface of the ground) Regarding the mechanical behaviour:

• Rigid structures (masonry or RC walls)

• Semi-flexible structures (walls and columns)

• Flexible structures (frames )

Loads classification according to their nature

Load = graphical representation of an action with the specification of: point of application, direction,
distribution and magnitude.
• Dead loads (permanent and unchanging)

 Structure own weight

 Finishing’s weight (parquet,tile,carpet)
 Earth pressure

• Variable/Temporary loads (vary in both magnitude and location)

 live load (people, furniture)

 hydrostatic pressure
 climatic loads (snow, wind)
 convoys (trucks, trains)

• Exceptional loads (have a dynamic effect, are applied suddenly but rarely with significant intensity)

 earthquakes
 volcanos, explosions

Load and strength values

• Characteristic values

- Reference values presented in standards (are obtained after experimental tests)

• Design values

- Values obtained by dividing the characteristic values with partial safety factors (ɣm) which take into
consideration possible defects