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Proceedings of the Research Symposium of Uva Wellassa University, January 29-30, 2015
Technical Session - Science and Technology

Table of Contents
Oral Session
 Coconut shell activated charcoal as a counter electrode for a novel dye-
sensitized solar cell............................................................................................. 1
 Role of microorganisms against hydrocarbon contamination;

Bioremediation ................................................................................................... 4
 Landmine contaminated area scanning robot ................................................ 7
 Characterization of zero valent iron used for nitrate removal in drinking

water ................................................................................................................... 9
 Construction of apparatus for production of carbon nanotubes (CNTs)... 12
 Development of automated weather Station: three cup anemometer and

tipping bucket rain gauge ............................................................................... 15
 Radio frequency remote controller for domestic AC loads ......................... 18
 The Arduino controlled incubator to control temperature and humidity . 21
 Development of manioc (Manihot esculenta) based nutria mix ................... 24
 Structure modification of mefenamic acid and evaluate their bioactivities

........................................................................................................................... 27
 Antioxidative properties and Lactobacillus population in traditional Sri

Lankan pickle during fermentation ............................................................... 31
 Market orientation of firms in food processing industry: Effect of outside-

in capabilities .................................................................................................... 34
 Synthesis and characterization of in-situ precipitated silica filled rubber

composite .......................................................................................................... 37
 Development of a mosquito-repelling paint .................................................. 41
 Investigation on the use of coconut shell powder replacing carbon black as

filler in natural rubber .................................................................................... 44
 Effect of substrate on biochemical expression of Bacterial Biofilms .......... 47

 Phytoremediation potential of Brassica juncea Ac. 1774 for mitigation of

Cu (II) and As (V) ............................................................................................ 50
 Enhancement of physical properties of natural rubber vulcanizates by

incorporating rice husk ash with carbon black as a filler............................ 54
 Effect of TiO2 nano-filler on ionic conductivity of poly (ethylene oxide)

based gel polymer electrolyte for magnesium ion batteries ......................... 57
 Synthesis and characterization of sodium ion conducting solid polymer

electrolytes based on poly (ethylene oxide) .................................................... 61
 An assessment on the possibility of process modification for crumb

products, from manual packing to a semi-automated packing mechanism64
 Degradation of vulcanized natural rubber using soybean and sesame oils 67
Poster Session
 Development of light weight bricks using red clay and rice-husk .............. 71
 Anticoagulant activity, antibacterial activity and toxicity effect of selected

plant in Asteracea family ................................................................................ 74
 Evaluating the potentials of adopting cleaner production techniques to

reduce the manufacturing cost of rice flour and coffee ............................... 78
 Effect of heat moist treatment on functional properties of rice flour of

selected traditional rice varieties in Sri Lanka ............................................. 81
 The persistence of vision (POV) LED globe .................................................. 84
 Wireless gesture control vehicle ..................................................................... 87

Coconut shell activated charcoal as a counter electrode for a novel

dye-sensitized solar cell
K.A.S.K. Hemachandra, C.A.N. Fernando
Nano-technology Research Laboratory, Department of Electronics, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Wayamba University of Sri Lanka
and
S.N.T. De Silva
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture & Plantation Management,
Wayamba University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
Dye sensitization is an attractive technique in fabricating wide band gap semiconductor solar cells
(Fernando et al., 2000). p-CuI is an attractive colloidal semiconductor due to its large surface area
and which can absorb many number of dye molecules. The band gap of p-CuI was reported as 3.0eV
(Hemachandra et al., 2013) but sensitization of suitable dyes on p-CuI semiconductors can enhances
the light absorption.
Porous carbon materials such as activated carbon have attracted in these recent years because it’s low
cost and high availability. Coconut shell activated charcoal serves as a counter electrode (CE) in
photo-electrochemical cells (PEC). Another important factor in PEC is CE separate and transfer
photogenerated carriers to the external circuit through I -/I-3 redox electrolyte.
Sandwiched type PEC fabricated with Cu/ p-CuI/ dye/ (I-/I3-) redox solution/ CAC/ ITO according to
the figure 1. The dye octadecyl rhodamine-C18 (Rh-C18) and dioctadecyl merocyanine (C18-Mero-C18)
monolayers were deposited by the Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique. A remarkable stability and
photocurrent enhancement was observed in the device.
Figure 01: Schemetic structure of devices
Methodology
Well cleaned Cu plates (1cm x 3cm) were immersed in an acetonitrile solution of 1 M containing 5mg
of dissolved CuI powder. The thickness of the CuI layer was controlled with the immersed time
(Fernando et al., 2000). The dyes were deposited according to the technique of LB films (Fernando
et al., 1994: Fernando et al., 1995). After the dyes were deposited, 150nm thin layer of CAC powder
(particle size ≈ 150nm and the surface area of ≈1457.1 m2/g) was applied on top of the dye by doctor
blade method to fabricate Cu/p-CuI/dye/CAC. ITO glass plate was placed on Cu/p-CuI/dye/CAC,
where an acetonitrile solution containing 10-2 M KI and 10-4 M I2 was used as the liquid electrolyte
1
Results and Discussions
From the diffuse reflectance spectra for the photo electrodes of on Cu/p-CuI/ Rh-C18, Cu/p-CuI/ C18-
Mero-C18 and Cu/p-CuI/ Rh-C18+ C18-Mero-C18. p-CuI absorption edge was observed at the wave
length around 420nm in all photo electrodes. Clear absorption peaks were observed at 561nm, 574nm
and 573nm for the above photo electrodes respectively.
Figure 02: Diffuse Reflectance Spectra
The main photo-current generation processes associated with the device can be summarized from the
following processes.
1. Excitation of the dye molecules at p-CuI/Dye interface

Dye + hν → Dye*
2. Generation of the photogenerated charge carriers
Dye* → Dye- + h (VB – p-CuI)
3. Photogenerated charge carrier separation
2 Dye- + I -3 → 2 Dye + 3 I-
4. Electron transfer from electron acceptor to ITO
3I- + ITO → I 3- + 2e (ITO CB- SnO2)
After introducing the CAC layer in the PEC, the reaction (4) is modified in an interesting way as
follows.
5. Electron transfer from electron acceptor to ITO through CAC

3I- + CAC → 2CAC- + I -3
2CAC →-
CAC + 2e (ITO CB-SnO2)
The quantum efficiency at 573nm against the number of dye monolayer for the devices of on Cu/p-
CuI/ Rh-C18/(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO, Cu/p-CuI/ C18-Mero-C18/(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO and Cu/p-CuI/ Rh-C18+C18-
Mero-C18/(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO. The quantum efficiency initially increases with the number of monolayers
of the dye. The maximum quantum efficiency was observed on the PECs fabricated with 5 monolayers
of Rh-C18 or C18-Mero-C18. But with the double dye PEC, the maximum quantum efficiency of 35%
was observed for 10 monolayers.
2
Figure 03: Variation of the photocurrent quantum efficiency (Φ %) at 573 nm against the number of dye monolayers. (a) Cu/p-
CuI/R-C18/(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO, (b) Cu/p-CuI/M-2C18/(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO, (c) Cu/p-CuI/R-C18+ M-2C18/(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO.
Conclusion
Cu/p-CuI/dye/(I-/I3-) redox solution/CAC/ITO PEC device was fabricated and a remarkable

photocurrent enhancement was observed after introducing the double dye and a thin layer of 150nm
thick CAC. The porous of CAC efficiently acted as a hole mediation layer for I -/I3- redox couple and
consequently efficient photo charge separation occurred.
References
Fernando, A.N., Kitagawa, A., Suzuki, M., Takahashi, K., Komura, T. (1995). A Sharp Photocurrent
Enhancement in Photoelectrochemical Cells with a Photocathode Sensitized by Dye Films of
Rhodamine-C18 and Methylviolet-C18 Prepared by Langmuir-Blodgett Techniques. Japanese Journal
of Applied Physics, 34: 6100-6105.
Fernando, A.N., Kitagawa, A., Suzuki, M., Takahashi, K., Komura, T. (1994). Photoelectrochemical
properties of rhodamine-C18 sensitized p-CuSCN photoelectrochemical cell (PEC). Solar Energy
Materials & Solar Cells 33:301-315.
Fernando, C.A.N., Takahashi, K., Kitagawa, A., Suzuki, M., Wethasinghe, S.K., Kumarawadu, I.
(2000). Remarkable stability of enhanced sharp photocurrent in methylviolet-C18 and rhodamine-
C18 dye sensitized photoelectrochemical cell with p-CuSCN. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells
69:345-352.
Hemachandra K.A.S.K., Fernando, C.A.N., (2013).Photocurrent enhancement in the Cu/p-CuI//R-

C18//(I-/I3-)/CAC/ITO electrochemical device, Inveris Journal of Renewable Energy. 3:179-182.
Hemachandra K.A.S.K., Fernando, C.A.N., (2013). Solid State Photovoltaic Cell made from n-Cu2O
thin films and activated carbon upper electrode, Inveris Journal of Renewable Energy. 3:230-235.
3
Role of microorganisms against hydrocarbon contamination;

Bioremediation
S.M. Wickramasinghe Arachchi, M.M.E. Munasinghe, S.T. Sabaragamukorale, S.S. Abeygunaratne,
W.W.P. Rodrigo, D.P.D.C. De Silva, K.S.L. Dalpatadu, S.G. Senaratne and P.A.D.H.N.
Gunathilaka*
Biotechnology Unit, Industrial Technology Institute, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka
Introduction
The development of human civilization has changed its path since the industrial revolution. Since then
began the use of hydrocarbon sources as the primary energy source of the world. The use of oil as
fuel has led to intensive economic development worldwide. Even though these compounds contribute
to the global economy on massive scale they in turn have perilous effects on the biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem. In the stages of oil refinement, transportation, storage and on daily
activities, unavoidable oil spills take place in small amounts. However, the accidental large oil spills
draw the attention of the public to find remediation solutions. The methods of remediation can be
physical, chemical or biological or may be a combination of two or more of these techniques.
Hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria have been found in soil, marine and fresh
water ecosystems (Okoh, 2002). Although several countries have already used methods including
microorganisms for bioremediation of petroleum spills, it has not been previously used in Sri Lanka.
Therefore, the objective was to isolate indigenous bacterial strains from hydrocarbons contaminated
soils to assess their potential for bioremediation and to develop a bio-product for bioremediation.
Methodology
Three sites with soil contaminated by different petroleum hydrocarbons were identified in Ceylon
Petroleum Corporation, Sapugaskanda, Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. A total of 18 soil samples (6 from each
site) were collected randomly by simple soil sampling method (American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1998). A weight of 10 g of soil was diluted in 90 ml of 0.1% sterile Sodium pyrophosphate
solution containing 30 g of sterile glass beads. After shaking the mixture for 1 hour at 175 rpm, the
soil extracts were serially diluted from 100 to 10-8 and were vortexed for 1 minute. A volume of 120
µl of each dilution was spread on Luria Broth (LB) agar medium and was incubated at 28 °C for 7
days. The colonies appeared were inoculated on a Bushnell Haas (BH) liquid and solid mediums
supplemented with 50 µl of hydrocarbons followed by an incubation at 28 °C for 7 days. The identified
colonies were subjected to genomic DNA extraction using the Phenol-Chloroform method. The
extracted genomic DNA samples were sent over to Macrogen, Korea for 16S rRNA sequencing.
The overnight grown bacterial cultures were centrifuged at 16000 g for 3 minutes at 4ºC. The pellet
was resuspended in 200 µl of TE buffer and was vortexed and centrifuged at 16000 g for 1 minute at
4ºC and a volume of 1.5 µl of Protinase K was added and mixed. To this 20 µl (1/10) of 10% SDS
was added, mixed well and incubated for 1 hour at 37 ºC. After the incubation, equal volume of
Phenol: Chloroform (1:1) was added and centrifuged at 16000 g for 2 minutes at 4ºC. The aqueous
layer was taken out without disturbing the protein layer and transferred into a fresh tube. A volume
of 2V of 100% ice cold Ethanol and 0.1V Sodium acetate were added, mixed well and were incubated
at 0 ºC for 1 hour. The solution mixture was centrifuged at 16000 g for 5 minutes at 4ºC. The
supernatant was discarded and the pellet was dried and dissolved in 40 µl of nuclease-free water by
tapping. For the selection of immobilizing agent, 10 g of autoclaved saw dust and rice husk each were
4
mixed with 7.5 ml of Yeast Extract Glucose (YEG) broth separately and was autoclaved. Then the
washed, pure bacterial cells were inoculated on to autoclaved rice husk and saw dust at room
temperature and were incubated at 30 °C at 150 rpm for 5-6 days in a shaking incubator. The
immobilized samples were washed with sterile saline water for 3 times and were inoculated on BH
agar plates with diesel.
Pure cultures of selected bacterial strains were inoculated with LB agar and were incubated over-
night. A single colony of each bacterial strain was inoculated on 5 ml of LB broth. The cultured cells
were centrifuged at 2000 g at 4°C for 10 minutes and the pellet was dissolved in 5 mL of phosphate
buffer and re-centrifuged under the same conditions. Then the pellet was re-suspended in 5 ml of
phosphate buffer. A mass of 14 g of autoclaved rice husk were mixed with 21 ml of YEG broth and
was autoclaved. Then 2 ml of washed Bacterial cultures were inoculated on 2 g of autoclaved rice
husk at room temperature separately and were incubated at 30 °C at 150 rpm for 5-6 days in a shaking
incubator until a heavy culture develops. A volume of 20 ml of water was contaminated with 2 ml of
diesel and 0.2 g of immobilized rice husk was added on top of the oil layers under sterile conditions.
Turbidity and the time taken for the disruption of oil layer in the water were compared with a control.
Results and Discussion
A total of 10 bacterial strains were isolated from 18 samples of soil originating from three different
places contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons (Table 01).
Table 01: List of identified bacterial species and their risk assessment. The efficiency of the
hydrocarbon degradation by the A. oleivorans and P. odorifer was evaluated individually.
Name of the Bacterial strain Pathogenisity (Disease Caused)

Microbacterium oleivorans Bacteremia
Ochrobactrum intermedium Bacteremia
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Opportunistic
Agrobacterium tumefaciens Opportunistic
Achromobacter xylosoxidans Opportunistic
Enterobacter aerogenes Opportunistic
Raoultella ornithinolytica Fish Pathogen
Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Opportunistic
Paenibacillus odorifer Non-Pathogenic
Acinetobacter oleivorans Non-Pathogenic
Isolation was carried out using the traditional microbiological technique with petri dishes containing
selective agars with hydrocarbons (petroleum, diesel and heavy fraction of refined petroleum) as the
sole source of carbon. According to the experiment the rice husk was identified as the suitable
immobilizing agent with compared to saw dust due to its floating ability, high binding affinity and
high content of Silicon dioxide which delays biodegradation. The bacterial growth of immobilized
saw dust on BH (Figure 1) medium was low compared to that of rice husk (Figure 2). A total of five
bacterial strains (M. oleivorans, P. aeruginosa , A. oleivorans , P. odorifer, R. ornithinolytica) out of
ten sequenced bacterial samples were identified as suitable candidates for the current research study
due to their own specific properties of emulsifying and bioremediation capacities. Further, A.
oleivorans and P. odorifer bacterial species were selected as the ideal candidates to introduce to the
hydrocarbon contaminated sites in the natural environment for the bioremediation based on non
pathogenic ability (Table 1
5
Figure 01: Immobilized saw dust on BH medium Figure 02: Immobilized rice husk on BH medium
The reduction in the hydrocarbon layer in the each tube was measured after 7 days of incubation
period. The reduced height and volume of the hydrocarbon layer in tubes containing each bacterial
strains and the mixture are given in table 2. It was observed that when introduce bacterial strains
individually, showed similar efficiencies. However, there is a reduction in the efficiency of
hydrocarbon degradation in cocktail consisting two bacterial strains. This may be due to the
competition for the other requirements in the system. But, this may not be a critical limitation in the
natural environment.
Table 02: Reduced height and volume if the hydrocarbon layer by each bacterial species
Reduced Reduced Volume (mm3)

Bacterial species
height (mm) (Surface area 615 mm2 )
Paenibacillus odorifer 1.5 920 mm3

Acinetobacter oleivorans 1.5 920 mm3
Mixture of Paenibacillus odorifer and
1 600 mm3
Acinetobacter oleivorans (Cocktail)
The time period which was taken to carry out preliminary experiments was limited to four weeks and
the results were assuring enough to prove that bioremediation of hydrocarbon. Although
bioremediation is considered the ultimate resolution for remediation, it also holds some negative
arguments. This method requires expert knowledge and labor-intensive field trials. Also there are
certain regulatory boundaries to overcome before the application.
Conclusions
A. oleivorans and P. odorifer bacterial species showed significant potential in removing/detoxifying

hydrocarbon contaminations in soil/water.
Acknowledgement
Financial assistance from ITI TG No. 11/5
References
Okoh, A. I. (2006). Biodegradation alternative in the cleanup of petroleum hydrocarbon

pollutants. Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 1(2), 38-50.
Sathishkumar, M., Binupriya, A. R., Baik, S. H., & Yun, S. E. (2008). Biodegradation of crude oil by
individual bacterial strains and a mixed bacterial consortium isolated from hydrocarbon contaminated
areas. CLEAN–Soil, Air, Water, 36(1), 92-9.
6
Landmine contaminated area scanning robot

M.M.G.T.L. Senevirathne, T. Ekanayake and P.N. Wijesooriya
Faculty of Science and Technology, Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
Landmines pose serious threats for post conflict countries like Sri Lanka. There are nearly 120 million
landmines all over the world today. Unlike other weapons, landmines are long term killers and
function long after a war is over. It kills and maims more than 20,000 civilians per year (World Vision.
2009. About Landmines. United States: World Vision). Clearing the burial mines by human is lethal.
Though autonomous mine detecting machines are available, the cost is high and one shortage of the
systems is not providing a map of the scanned area. Therefore the percent work aim to design a
prototype of an economical autonomous robot which facilitates the mine detecting and map generating
of buried places.
Methodology
The black color marks in a white background were considered as landmines and IR sensors were used
as detectors. The complete design is consisting of detectors, carrying vehicle and controlling unit.
There are three detectors which are placing in three sides of the robot and each detector consists of
five IR sensors. The analog signals of the detector were converted in to digital by using the LM 339
comparator. The separate presets were used to adjust the reference voltage with the comparator. The
LED bulbs were placed in front of the sensors to avoid the disturbance of infra-red rays of the sunlight.
The detector of the moving side was only activated at a time and other two were deactivated in that
time.
Figure 01: Moving pattern of the robot
The robot has to scan the total area and the moving pattern of the robot is the most important part and
key feature of the design. It moving on straight lines and moving perpendicular direction without
turning. The special wheel was used for this function and the wheels have cylindrical rollers to reduce
the friction when it is moving in perpendicular direction. The robot is moving by using the two pairs
of wheels. The two pairs wheels arranged in perpendicular direction and driven by gear motors. The
L 293 motor drivers were used to control the motors. The 12V 6800mAh li-ion rechargeable battery
was used as the power supply of the robot and the power transmission was done by using the L7805
regulators. The powers for the motors were supplied through the two 1000 micro farad capacitors. It
avoids the restart of the processor because of the over consumption power of the motors. The regulated
power was smooth further and given to the processor. All of the operation was processed by the
Arduino Mega at mega 2560 microprocessor. The robot is moving 1m front while scanning the area
and doing the serial communication. Then stay 1 second for stable the robot and moving 20cm
perpendicular direction and after 1 second delay it is moving back. Then again do the perpendicular
movement. The serial communication is occurring while these movements. This process is repeating
5 times again and again. The counter was used to control the repeating times of the cycle. The real
time data communication was done by serial communication and data received by a serial terminal.
The USB port was functioning as the virtual serial port. The communication port and the baud rate
7
should be same. Baud rate can be set as the requirement. The predefined Matlab application generated
the map.
The robot was moving in straight paths and perpendicular direction almost accurately. The coordinates
of the each point is showing in the serial terminal and when the landmines available it is mark as
‘BOMB DETECTED’. The selected coordinates should be in put to the Matlab application and the
predefined Matlab application plots the coordinates as a map. The processor takes little delay to clear
the digital signal taken earlier hand then bomb available signal is indicated after passing the bomb.
The loop time of the serial communication adjusted to avoid the over detection of the same mine
because of that clearing delay. The power of one regulator is not enough for the entire process and
each detector; motors are powered by separate regulators. The robot can start through the serial
communication.
Conclusion
The objectives of the projects are almost overlapped with the results. It facilitates to identify the burial
land mines without enter to the contaminated area by humans. The fully automated rower reduces the
exposure of the human with the mines and reduces the lethal damages. It accelerates the clearing
process effectively. The limited resource for making the rower is a challenge. The real time data
communication is more secure than the data storing in the memory. It facilitates to identify the current
situation of the ground before rower reaching to the end and in accident situations of the rower. Using
serial terminal is more easier and time saving than direct communication with the Matlab. Controlling
the serial communication through the Matlab is complicated.
Acknowledgement
Uva Wellassa University is acknowledged for providing laboratory facilities.
References
Ghribi, W. Badawy, A.S. Rahmathullah, M. Changalasetty, S.B. Design and Implementation of

Landmine Robot. International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology. Vol. 2, Issue 11,
May 2013.
Margolis, M. (Ed.) Arduino Cookbook. Wallace, S. Jepson, B: O’Reilly Media, March 2011.
Blum, J. Exploring Arduino Tools and Techniques for Engineering Wizardry. Indiana: John Wiley &
Sons, 2013.
Majumdar, N. Banerjee, S. MATLAB Graphics and Data Visualization Cookbook. Birmingham:

Packt, 2012.
Mangal, A. (2012). Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB: IIT Bombay.
World Vision. (2009). About Landmines. United states: World Vision.
8
Characterization of zero valent iron used for nitrate removal in

drinking water
K. Shailaja
and
R. Weerasooriya
Department of Soil Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya
Introduction
Nitrogen is one of the important pollutants present in drinking water are runoff from fertilizer use;
leaking from septic tanks, sewage; and erosion of natural deposits. When nitrate is absorbed in to
blood hemoglobin is converted to methemoglobin. Methemoglobin does not carry oxygen efficiently.
This results in reduced oxygen supply to vital tissues such as the brain. Severe methemoglobinemia
(blue baby syndrome) can result in brain damage and death. In recent years, considerable efforts have
been made to remove nitrate in water. The use of zero valent iron to remove nitrate from water
represents one of the latest innovative methods in the reducing .process. The major reduction product
was ammonia. Zero valent iron in contrast with iron powder have some advantages of specific surface
area, high active surface, which lead to a increased denitrification rate of nitrate.
Materials and Methods
Surface titrations
Surface titration was carried out as a function of the concentration of NaCl to determine pH zpc(Point
of Zero net proton Charge).Prior to commencement of a titration 10.0g/l zero valent iron was
equilibrated at a desired ionic (0.100,0.010,0.001 moldm-3 NaNO3) strength. The initial pH value is
around 10.0 after equilibration by adding 0.101 mol dm-3 NaOH .Then, surface titration was started
from pH 10.0 to 3.0 while bubbling with N2 gas to prevent any interference from atmospheric CO2.
All titrations were carried out in thermostatic bath at 25.0 °C. At each titration point the data versus
titrant volume (0.05 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl) were measured by an auto titratior. A reverse base
titration with 0.101 mol dm-3 NaOH was performed to return the suspension to the original starting
pH under same experimental conditions. This titration was repeated for three different ionic strength
(0.10, 0.01, 0.001 mol dm-3 NaCl).However, only the acid titration data were considered for the
analysis.These data unit for surface charge density was calculated.
Oxide layer thickness by the chemical oxidation of iron with copper
The aqueous Cu2+ solutions were prepared from cupric chloride salt. The solution was purged with
nitrogen for 10 min period to addition of Zero valent iron (ZVI) particles to strip away any dissolved
oxygen from the water. A set of experiment were conducted at various initial concentrations of Cu2+
with the iron particles concentration fixed at 0.1g/l. The bottles were capped, tape sealed, and agitated
for 1h.After the reaction, the solutions were filtered, and the concentration of Cu2+ remaining in the
aqueous phase were analyzed by atomic adsorption spectrometer.
9
Characterization of ZVI was done to to identify morphology, particle size and the structure.. X-ray
diffraction (XRD), scanning election microscopy(SEM),and Furrier Transformation Infrared
spectroscopy(FT-IR) were also used to further characterize the synthesized ZVI.
Results and discussion
Figure 01 presents SEM images of the iron particles. A single median particle size is around 150μm
as shown in figure 01(b).
Figure 01: SEM images of (a) a single particle and (b) aggregates of iron particles
The ZVI powder having the smaller particle sizes and lower crystal structure shows a relatively
broad peak. The diffraction patterns of the ZVI show that all the Fe(0) particles were single-phase
cubic closest-packed structure.
0.025 2500 44.58
0.020 2000
INTENSITY(count)
1500
70.58 74.
0.015
Absorbance
0.010 1000
0.005
500
0
0.000
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60
wave length(cm-1) two theta
Figure 02: XRD pattern of ZVI Figure 03: FTIR spectrum of synthesized ZVI
The XRD pattern in figure 02 shows that the Fe(0) standard characteristic peak of 2θ = 44.580 which
indicates that the crystallization of the ZVI powder.
Figure 03 shows FT-IR analysis results of all ZVI samples taken after their synthesis. Physically there
was no change in colour which indicated that no oxidation or negligible oxidation of outer surface of
ZVI occurred.
There was no existence of any functional group corresponding to any chelating agent used during the
synthesis of ZVI .
10
0.2
0.1 0.5
0.0
Removal capasity(g-cu/g-Fe)
0.4
surface charge(Cm-2)
-0.1
-0.2 0.3
-0.3
0.2
-0.4
-0.5
0.1
-0.6
0.0
-0.7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

pH Initial Cu(ii)/Fe loading ratio (g-Cu(ii)/g-Fe)
Figure 04: Zero point charge of prepared iron Figure 05: Removal capacity of ZVI particles at different
NaCl ionic strengths at room temperature (0.001,0.01,0.1
moldm-3)
Figure 4 shows the zero point charge of synthesized zero valent iron particles. The point of zero charge
was obtained at approximately pH 7.31.the iron surface is negatively charge up to 7 but positively
charge from pH 8.the surface is positive under acidic conditions but negative in basic condition. The
negative surface charge density did not appear to decrease significantly with the increase of pH. Such
measurements show that the effect of salt on the surface charge value is negligible.
The figure 05 shows the removal of iron particles at different Cu 2+ -to Fe ratios. The shape of the
curve indicates at low initial Cu2+ concentration, the Cu2+ being removed per gram of iron particles
increases with the initial copper concentration. The line which represents the complete removal of the
Cu2+.The maximum reduction capacity can thus be estimated.
The total reduction approximately 0.9945g of Cu2+ /g of iron particles.one mole of Fe0 is consumed
for every mole of Cu2+.Using median particles diameter of 150µm and the bulk densities of
Fe0(7.87g/m3),FeOOH (4.28g/m3),the thickness of the oxide shell was estimated to be 0.312µm.
Conclusion
The synthesized zero valent iron was characterized with the techniques of XRD,SEM,FTIR.The
average particle size of the particle is approximately 150µm.Point of zero charge is in the range of pH
6.83-7.31.Microscale iron particles have a core of zero-valent iron and a shell of mainly iron
oxides(FeO).These dual properties of iron particles may prove to be useful for the separation of many
contaminates specially nitrate from the drinking water.
References
John E.Martin,Andrew A.Herzing,Weile Yan,Xiao-qin Li,Bruce E.Koel,Christopher J.Kiely,and

Wei-xian Zhang (2007). Determination of the oxide layer thickness in core-shell zerovalent iron
nanoparticles. Languir,24:4329-4334.
Yuan-Pang Sun, Xiao-qin Li, Jiasheng Cao, Wei-xian Zhang ,and H.Paul Wang (2006).
Characterization of zero-valent iron nanoparticles . Advances in colloid and interface science,120:47-
56.
11
Construction of apparatus for production of carbon nanotubes

(CNTs)
K.L.C.D. Senevirathna, A.R. Kumarasinghe*
Introduction
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are rolled up cylinders of graphene sheets [1]. There are two main types of
of carbon nanotubes, namely, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and single-walled carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs) [2]. The unique nearly one dimensional structure of CNTs results in many
attractive properties, which has led to many interesting applications. There are mainly three major
techniques to produce CNTs. They are arc discharge, chemical vapor deposition (CCVD) and laser
ablation. Though scientists are researching more economic ways to produce these structures, CNTs
produced using different techniques have different properties. Due to inexpensiveness and being able
to perform even in open air, arc-discharge technique has attracted attention in the production of CNT.
In arc discharge, a vapor is created by an arc discharge between two carbon electrodes with or without
a catalyst. Nanotubes self-assemble from the resulting carbon vapor. Both SWCNT and MWCNTs
can easily be obtained by this technique simply by with or without the inclusion of a metal catalyst
particle into anode. However, although arc-discharge produces large quantity of CNTs, the product is
contaminated with other carbon materials, hence requiring lots of purification. Further nanotubes tend
to be short with random sizes and direction when produced via arc-discharge route. In this work, we
describe the development of apparatus for arc-discharge to produce CNTs using carbon electrodes
made using high purity a rare variety of natural vein graphite.
Methodology
In order to produce carbon nanotubes, the first step is the construction of arc-discharging set-up. Here
we describe the construction of an arc-discharge unit at UWU using home-built parts. The Instrument
consists of mainly three parts. First part is the vacuum chamber. Second parts are the cathode and
anode holders. Anode holder is fixed in position and the cathode holder can move up and down (or
back and forth) by using a stepper motor. Another main part is the control unit. Control unit controls
the steeper motor which drives the two electrodes in a controlled manner inside the vacuum. Next
important step is the preparation of rod shaped graphite from > 99% pure as-received vain graphite
lumps followed by purification of carbon nanotubes and characterizing those using suitable techniques
such as SEM, TEM and Raman.
Figure 01: Sketch of the instrument
12
Figure 02: Control unit
Figure 03: The unit for the synthesis of carbon nanotubes
Fig. 01 shows the sketch of the apparatus. The main chamber connected to a compressor is vacuumed
and filled with an inert gas. Then it is vacuumed again. This purging process with inert gas is repeated
several times until air free environment is achieved inside the chamber. Then the two carbon
electrodes are connected to the power supply and move slowly towards each other using a remote
control unit until arc-discharge starts to appear. Then the two electrodes are held at this position for a
while (30 seconds or so) and are moved very slowly backward to collect CNTs produced on cathode
as a result of the evaporation of the anode. Figure 02 display the main parts of the control unit which
was designed and developed at UWU. Fig. 3 shows the vacuum chamber discharge unit which was
also constructed completely at UWU using home-built device components. . One of the major tasks
in the development of the vacuum chamber was to find an effective way of sealing it enabling to
maintain an inert condition in the chamber. Finding an effective sealant was not a trivial task. However
this was elegantly overcome by using a combination then how to make the graphite rods from graphite
lumps. The working condition of the setup is, 200A direct current and 20 V potential given between
anode and cathode in an inert atmosphere. Ar, He and N2 can be used as inert environment. Because
He is a good heat conductor, it is used widely in arc-discharge systems. On the arching position, the
anode graphite rod evaporated due to the high temperature and deposit on the cathode rod as the rod
shaped mixture of carbon nanotubes. In this mixture there are so many impurities like amorphous
carbon, metal particle and Bucky balls. Before characteristics of carbon nanotubes, we have to remove
the impurities. The system is currently in working conditions and by this Instrument can obtain high
quality and straight multi-walled carbon nanotubes.
13
Conclusions
An arc discharge system capable of producing CNTs was successfully constructed. The instrument is
working properly. From this instrument, without using a catalyst, it is possible to obtain multi-walled
carbon nanotubes.
Acknowledgement
Workshop facilities provided by the Uva Wellassa University are greatly acknowledged. My thanks
also goes to Mr. D. Kalansooriya, Chairman of Kahatagaha Graphite Lanka Limited for providing
graphite samples, and the technical officer at UWU workshop.
References
Iijima, S. (1991) Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon, Nature,[ online ] 354, p 56-8.
Available from
http://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=r64xL9sAAAAJ&citation
_for_view=r64xL9sAAAAJ:u-x6o8ySG0sC [Accessed 2014.10.17]
Iijima, S.; Ichihashi, T. Nature (1993) Single-shell carbon nanotubes of 1-nm diameter [online] 363,
p 603. Available from
http://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=r64xL9sAAAAJ&citation
_for_view=r64xL9sAAAAJ:u-x6o8ySG0sC [Accessed 2014.10.12]
Bethune, D. S.; Klang, C. H.; de Vries, M. S.; Gorman, G.; Savoy, R.; Vazquez,J.; Beyers, R.
Nature (1993) Cobalt-catalysed growth of carbon nanotubes with single-atomic-layer walls [online]
363, p 605. Available from http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Natur.363..605B [Accessed
2014.10.15]
Yoshinori Ando, Xinluo Zhao. New diamond and Frontier Carbon Technology (2006) Synthesis of
carbon nanotubes by Arc-Discharge method. [online] 16, p 3. Available from
http://myukk.xsrv.jp/free_journal/download.php?fn=NDFCT511_full.pdf [Accessed 2014.10.15]
14
Development of automated weather Station: three cup anemometer

and tipping bucket rain gauge
B.C. Liyanapathirana, T.D.K.U. Chathurani and W.K.I.L. Wanniarachchi
Introduction
Weather is the state of the atmosphere with respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness, moisture,
pressure, etc. Weather measurement tools are used to determine the actual weather and forecasting.
Natural wind in the open air is a three-dimensional vector that has the directions of north, south, east
and west in addition to vertical components and magnitude (i.e., wind speed). As the vertical
component is ignored for most operational meteorological purposes, surface wind is practically
considered as a two-dimensional vector. An anemometer or wind meter is a device used for measuring
wind speed, and is a common weather station instrument. The rain gauge is an instrument that is used
to measure the quantity of rainfall or precipitation over a particular time period at a specific region.
The forms of precipitation may be in the liquid form that is the rainwater or the solid forms that are
the sleet, hail, or even snow. In Sri Lanka it is as rainwater. In this work we have developed an
automated weather station of three cup anemometer to measure wind speed and tipping bucket rain
gauge to measure rainfall rate. The current wind speed and the rainfall of the past 24 hours were
displayed in a LCD panel where the user can easily read and record the data.
Methodology
A fix magnet is attached onto the three cup anemometer. When the wind blows, cups and axel attached
to then will spin relative with the wind speed, thus the magnet will trigger the Hall Effect sensor. A
pulse will be generated as an output for each revolution. The time difference from each pulse (length
of the pulse) is used to calculate the speed of the wind. The output from Hall Effect sensor will be
transmitted to microcontroller to be processed and calculated. The calculated measurements are
displayed on the LCD. It is displayed the length of the pulse in milliseconds. A prototype of three cup
anemometer was made using Iron Shaft, 2 bearings, 3 Light weight metal rods, 3 cups and, piece of
wood (Figure 01). A Hall Effect Sensor and a magnet fixed to the iron shaft were used to detect
number of rotations. Electric signal produce due to the Hall Effect is fed to the 16F877A pic
microcontroller. A prototype of tipping bucket rain gauge was built by using plastic jar, funnel and
plastic, light weight bucket. A light weight ice cream cup was used to build the bucket which contains
two separate parts inside the bucket to fill the water one after another and the tipping bucket was set
to the lid of the plastic jar with two aluminium L shape pieces (Figure 02). Small magnet was placed
at upper edge of the triangle in one side of the bucket. To count the toggling of the bucket, a normally
opened reed switch was used and it was placed in one bucket side which has fixed the magnet and
covers it with plastic cover to protect from water. Toggling of the bucket was counted by the reed
switch.
15
Figure 01: Prototype of anemometer Figure 02: Tipping bucket mechanism
Rainwater collected in the receptacle is channeled through the funnel and poured into a tipping bucket.
When it reaches a predetermined amount, the bucket tips and dumps the water into a drain cylinder,
causing the reed switch to generate a pulse. Subsequent rainwater is poured into the other
bucket. As long as precipitation continues, this operation is repeated and a pulse is generated each
time a bucket tips. For the calibration, the volume of one side of the bucket was measured. The total
amount of rainfall over a given period is expressed as the depth of water which would cover a
horizontal area if there is no runoff, infiltration and evaporation. This depth is generally expressed in
millimeters. Finally, the rainfall rate calculated in mm for the past 24 hours using the mathematical
formula; r = 4𝑉/𝜋𝑑 2 Where V is the bucket volume, and d is the rain gauge diameter (of the outer
funnel).
Three cup Tipping

anemometer 9V battery bucket unit
Hall-effect Reed switch

sensor signal Brain module sensor signal
PIC16F877A
Display unit
Figure 03: Block diagram of automated weather station: three cup anemometer and tipping bucket rain gauge
To measure the speed of wind this prototype uses the time taken by the cups to rotate one round. When
the cups rotate iron rod also rotate with the same speed and it makes the magnet attached to the rod
move along and due to the moving magnetic field the Hall Effect sensor produce a pulse. Controller
circuit measures the length of this pulse in milliseconds. To obtain accurate readings it is important
to place the anemometer in a horizontal plane and in a place where the wind blows without
disturbances like trees and buildings. Also when constructing, the mechanical parts should be
constructed to minimize frictional losses and electrical losses. Calibration is very important for any
measuring instrument, to calibrate this prototype we have to generate wind of known speeds using a
wind tunnel and take the reading of the instrument and plot a graph and develop an equation to convert
time taken by the magnet to pass the Hall Effect sensor in one rotation into wind speed. In standard
instruments the instantaneous wind speed in measured for a period of 10 minutes and the average is
calculated.
16
The rain gauge was successful worked with measuring rainfall and displaying it on the lcd display.
Funnel diameter was 10 cm and volume of one bucket was 5 ml. if the both buckets have toggle in
different volumes calibration screws can used to equal both volumes. To conduct a good flow of water
and prevent form spreading water it is need to cut the funnel’s bottom part into around 45 degree
angle. The funnel should also fixed well to the plastic jar to avoid water entering because of leakage.
The advantage of the tipping bucket rain gauge is that the character of the rain whether it is light,
medium, or heavy may be easily obtained. Rainfall rate is decided by counting the number of 'clicks'
in a short fixed period and lets the observer decide the character of the rain.
As a further improvement, rainfall and wind speed measurement data can store in a database for
further analysis.
References
Catalog of Meteorological Instruments in the Museum of History and Technology, W.E. Knowles
Middleton, Smithsonian Institution Press, City of Washington, 1969.
Chapter 4 Wind, Measurement of Surface Wind, Lecture Notes of the JMA/WMO Training
Workshop on Calibration and Maintenance of Meteorological Instruments in RA II (Japan, 2013)
Yu.B.Pavlyulov (2007), Precipitation measurements with automated tipping bucket rain gauges, 32,
711-718. retrieved June 6, 2014, from World Wide Web
17
Radio frequency remote controller for domestic AC loads
K.G.H.A. Somasiri* and W.K.I.L. Wanniarachchi

Faculty of Science and Technology, Uva Wellassa University of Srilanka
Introduction
In today’s electronic market, there are two primary types of remote control systems available to
consumers, they are IR (Infrared) based systems and RF (radio frequency) based systems. The most
common type of remote control receiver is the IR based. It works well, but with limitations. With an
IR remote control, typically, one must have a very clear line of site from the remote to the device that
is trying to control. IR transmitting and receiving systems are inexpensive and are generally reliable.
The carrier frequency of such infrared signals is typically in the order of around 38 kHz. In most
cases, the IR signals are send only one way, in a low-speed burst for distances of up to 30 feet. Even
though IR remotes are the most common due to the low cost and most of the time it used to control a
single device, RF remote controls are easier to use because they do not require line of sight and do
not have to be aimed at the equipment. The RF remote can also be operated from another room. RF
remotes use radio frequencies that travel far and can easily pass through walls and floors and also it
can control more than one device with a single remote controller. So it offers a far better range in
terms of distance. In this work RF remote controller was developed to control domestic AC appliance
like CFL/incandescent bulbs, fans, heaters, single phase motors, pumps, etc…
Methodology
(a) (b)
RF receiver
module
RF transmitter 5V regulated
module power supply
5V battery
power supply
Brain module Main power
Brain module PIC16F877A MCU supply
PIC16F84A MCU 240V 50Hz
Trial module with

Keypad module opto-isolators
AC loads
(a) Portable RF remote controller (b) RF receiver/AC load unit

(transmitter )unit
Figure 01: System Overview
18
Figure 02: RF receiver and transmitter pair
As shown in above figure the developed system consist with two main units, portable RF transmitter
unit and RF receiver/ AC load unit which was fixed in a remote location. The transmitter and the
receiver modules use 433MHz radio frequency for data communication. Even though the low power
(10mW) transmitter (MX05) was used it covered 20m radius area which is well enough for domestic
usage. The used receiver module (MX-FS03) has high sensitivity as -100 dBm which provides better
receiving signal/noise ratio for the signal coming through walls.
In both transmitter and receiver ends PIC microcontrollers were used as shown in the figure 01. The
built system can control four AC loads remotely. At the transmitter end, four mico-switch keypad
inputs were used for selecting particular AC load. The brain module at the transmitter end identifies
each input and transmits the data in predefined protocol as shown below.
Figure 03: Data transmitting protocol
The first eleven bits were used confirm the data were received by the relevant RF remote unit. The
next four bits used to identify the AC load. In this case four AC loads were controlled. This protocol
can customize according to the user needs. The received data decode by the brain module at the
receiver end and controls (turn on/off) the corresponding opto-isolator (MOC3041). The opto-isolator
isolated the circuit that drives DC voltages and AC voltages where it minimize the risk of damages
which will happen by short circuiting the AC and DC circuits. The opto-isolator switches the relevant
BT139 triac which will leads to control the particular AC load.
As shown in figure 02 the built in antenna cannot be used for long distance controlling. To improve
the signal strength at the receiver end 18cm wire was attached to the built in antenna. As RF signals
are Omni-directional so it doesn’t need a specific antenna configuration.
19
Figure 04: Transmitting signal vs receiving signal
Figure 04 shows the transmitting waveform (white) of the transmitter end and receiving signal pattern
at the receiver end after implementing the external antenna to the receiver unit. Accuracy of the remote
controller depends on the power supply of the remote. A 9V battery was used in our case. Receiver
power supply also needed to rectify smoothly otherwise small voltage changes can reduce the
accuracy of the remote.
When comparing IR remotes vs. RF remotes, RF remotes offer great advantages when controlling a
device from a longer distance or a device that is tucked away in a cabinet. It allows more flexibility
in the install, more reliability, and better ease of use. It is Omni-directional and allows the control of
devices in other rooms. So RF system is usually the better choice.
Reference
How to do serial comms using the cheap ebay RF 433/315 MHz modules. Retrieved October 14,
2014, from the World Wide Web: http://www.romanblack.com/RF/cheapRFmodules.htm
RF 315/433 MHz Transmitter-receiver Module and Arduino. Retrieved October 14,

2014, from the World Wide Web: http://www.instructables.com/id/RF-315433-MHz-Transmitter-
receiver-Module-and-Ardu/
RF_TX_User's_Manual.pdf
http://www.cytron.com.my/datasheet/WirelessDevice/RF_TX_User%27s_Manual.pdf
RF_RX_User's_Manual.pdf
http://www.cytron.com.my/datasheet/WirelessDevice/RF_RX_User%27s_Manual.pdf
The First Portable Wireless Remote Power Meter. Retrieved October 14, 2014, from the World Wide
Web: http://embedded-lab.com/blog/?p=3557
20
The Arduino controlled incubator to control temperature and

humidity
S. Selvanigethan, W.K.I.L. Wanniarachchi and R.M.T.C.B. Ekanayake

Faculty of Science & Technology, Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
The incubator with the aid of a tungsten bulb to maintain the temperature and the water and a
desiccator to maintain humidity was developed. The aim here is to enhance the ability of maintaining
accuracy in temperature and humidity to keep them in desired value with bulb, water, and copper
sulfate desiccator. Obtained results show a tolerance of 2% in temperature, and 3% in humidity inside
the incubation area for a finite range. Incubators are widely used for hatching the eggs, food
preservation, and laboratory purposes. Overall the incubator was made to study the ability to maintain
humidity simultaneously with the temperature and also the accuracy of the both factors in relation to
the expected output values. There were ways to maintain a temperature with a reduced error
percentage but not clear ways exist to maintain the humidity with minimized error. The system is a
closed loop one with feedbacks of the outputs time to time to check and reduce the error percentage.
The controller is an on-off controller and the system is controlled by Arduino programming board
(Arduino Mega – AT Mega 2560). Since the system is a simple on-off controller system the accuracy
of the system is not perfect as well as a fuzzy logic controlled system or Proportional-plus-integral-
plus-derivative controller system. Anyway the system suits for normal purposes in agriculture, food
preservation, and egg hatching where a range of the temperature or humidity is only required. The
system uses sensors to sense the temperature and humidity. The use of heat emitted from a bulb in
temperature change is studied in this setup. The effect of exposure of water in adding water vapor to
a space to increase the humidity, and the effect of copper sulfate desiccator in absorbing the water
vapor to decrease the humidity are also studied throughout the research.
Methodology
A wooden box was made and the lower part of the box was separated by a wooden plate. In the
separated lower part a water containing basin was fixed under the separation plate. The plate was
drilled and an opening was created to make an interface between the face of water and the upper part
of the area. The opening was closed by a plastic door and a 5.0 voltage gear motor was fixed with the
door in order to control the opening and closing of the door. A tube like structure was created in the
upper surface of the wooden plate and 100grams of dehydrated copper sulfate was added inside the
tube. The opening of the tube towards the upper area of the incubator was closed by a plastic door and
another 5.0 voltage gear motor is fixed with the door in order to control the opening and closing of
the door. A 220 voltage, 100 Watts Tungsten bulb is fixed inside the upper part of the incubator which
was the incubation area. Two sensors DHT22 humidity sensor, and LM35temperature sensor were
fixed in the incubation area in order to measure the humidity, and temperature values. Adequate
wirings were made to connect the motors, bulb, and sensors with the control circuit. The control circuit
was created using PCB wizard software. A Relay (125VAC, 5VDC), ULN2003A integrated circuit,
and L293D motor controller were used to create the circuit. The circuit was connected to an Arduino
Mega development board and adequate wiring was made to connect the circuit board with Arduino
Mega development board. The Arduino Mega development board was programmed to maintain the
system with the desired values of temperature, and humidity.
21
Figure 01: The top view of the incubation area of the incubator
Brain Module
Temperature sensor Arduino Mega
Humidity sensor
5V DC power supply
Motor driver unit

water reservoir CuSO4 desiccator
Relay module
230V AC power supply
Figure 02: Block diagram for the incubator unit
Table 01: Obtained temperature and relative humidity values
Desired Desired The range of The range of obtained relative humidity

temperature humidity obtained (%)
(0C) (%) temperature (0C)
35 62 33.20 - 35.16 61.90 - 62.70

45 70 43.69 - 45.76 69.50 - 71.00
50 75 49.00 - 50.60 74.00 – 75.70
According to the obtained results it is not possible to keep the temperature or humidity in desired fix
value but it can be kept within a range differing with a value percentage from the expected values.
This kind of result is obtained because the system is an on-off system. If the fuzzy logic system or
PID system is used here it might have been possible to maintain a fixed value with a less percentage
of error. Moreover, the system deals with a real world issue. The water vapor added inside the
incubation area absorbs the heat from the area if it is in a lower temperature than the area’s
temperature. It will lead to a fall in the temperature. And once the temperature is raised to the level
using the bulb, now since the temperature has changed the relative humidity may change. Now again
the humidity has to be controlled. Therefore, the system has to be doing some actions all the times to
maintain our desired output. This real world problem may affect the results of the system and this
22
issue cannot be solved electronically. Another problem faced here is related to the desiccator. Here
the copper sulfate has to be replaced periodically once it reaches its maximum level of absorbing
water. Otherwise we may not be able to decrease the humidity if it goes beyond the preferred level.
The exposed area of the desiccator affects the effectiveness of absorbing water. If the area is increased
the rate of absorbing water will increase. Hence the effectiveness of the system will also be increased.
The copper sulfate desiccator being a chemical is somewhat poisonous. It can cause the food items to
be poisoned if they are kept to be incubated. Therefore the food items should be prevented from being
incubated using the system. This is one of the important limitations of the developed system. The
water molecules can spread very quickly into the incubation area once the door is opened. Therefore
it is wise to keep the area of the opening as small as possible. Else the humidity increases so quickly
before the sensors sense and identify the values. It is also important to keep the doors air tightened to
maintain the humidity value stable. Moreover, some plants need to have a specific light density for
their growth. In that case also this system may not be used since a light emitting bulb is used here to
control the temperature. The light emitting bulb works depending in the temperature value; not in the
light intensity value. In order to reduce the conduction of heat to the outside the wooden part of the
incubator was painted in white color inside and outside. White color does not either absorb or emit
any rays. Therefore this technique was used to keep the system working in an effective way. When it
comes to the issues with the electronic devices, gear motors are not most suitable to the door system.
Generally for any door system, servo motors are ideal. They can be brought to any position and we
can easily state the positions of opening, and closing at any time. But, gear motors are not such ideal.
We should know which terminal should be given high, and which should be given low to open and
close the door. And it is important to consider whether the door is opened or closed at each moment.
Therefore here I forcefully kept the system to close the door immediately after a delay of each time
of opening. Then again the sensor has to inform the humidity value and if it is higher than the stated
value the procedure will be repeated. Another factor to be discussed is the time delay of relay. The
relay coil takes some time to get charged, and discharged when the command is given. This time delay
also affects the effective function of the system in a minor way. It is wise to use optocoupler instead
of relay since it is much quicker than the relay. The future direction of the incubator system can be
focused on controlling the temperature of the water kept for humidity purposes in order to prevent it
from absorbing heat from the incubation area. The incubator is less expensive and it can be considered
as a main advantage related to the system.
Conclusions
The temperature values can be kept in a range including the desired value and the error can be reduced
to a small value in this incubator. But, humidity maintaining has a much higher error percentage and
it is not stable for a long time also. And the humidity controlling was found to be effective within a
finite range of humidity values and not for all humidity values desired. Change in each value affects
the other variable itself. The incubator is acceptable for temperature controlling purposes but not
suitable for long term purposes related to humidity.
References
DHTArduinoNerd (2013). The Arduino Chicken Incubator. Retrieved August 17, 2014, from the
World Wide Web: http://www.instructables.com/id/The-Arduino-Chicken-Incubator
WWC (2013). Arduino LCD Thermometer with LM35 Temp Sensor. Retrieved August 19, 2014,
from the World Wide Web:
http://www.instructables.com/id/Arduino-LCD-Thermometer-with-LM35-Temp-Sensor/
23
Development of manioc (Manihot esculenta) based nutria mix

S.F. Faeema*, E.P.S.K. Ediriweera
and
B.M.K.S Tilakaratne
Institute of Post Harvest Technology, Research and Development Centre, Jayanthi Mawatha,
Anuradhapura
Introduction
A simple, convenient and quick to prepare food product besides being hygienic and convenient to eat
is ‘Instant food’. Various technologies are being used to develop “Instant foods” and add immense
value to raw material (Pathania et al., 2013). Fruits and vegetables nutritional value is highest when
they are fresh, but it is not always possible to consume them immediately. Preserving of vegetables
as a means of improving storability has been practiced for many centuries.
Life expectancy of Sri Lankans is 68 years for males and 76 years for females in 2006 (Hans et al.,
2008). Despite the relatively high literacy rate (90.8% in 2006) in the country (Central Bank Annual
Report. 2008), and achievements in economic growth and the nutritional status of children is not
satisfactory. The nutrition status shows a wide variation across the districts & as for wasting, it ranges
from 10.5% to 28.1% substantiating the geographical disparity (Hans et al., 2008). Therefore, the
need to find inexpensive sources of nutritional food of good quality can be over emphasized. Once it
is harvested, the agricultural product is edible for only a limited time, which can vary from a few days
to weeks. Therefore processing of blends of manioc with murunga leaves, soy beans and banana
blossom into forms which combine the advantage of nutritive value, convenience and preservation of
use stands a better chance of success.
Methodology
Manioc flour, soy bean flour (Pb-1), muruga leaves flour and banana blossom flour were prepared.
Flour items were analyzed for protein, fat, fiber, ash and moisture following AOAC(1990) methods.
Prepared flours were used to prepare nutria mix with either 80% manioc flour and 10% soy bean flour
(T1) or 75% manioc flour and 15% soy bean flour (T2) or 70% manioc flour and 20% soy bean flour
(T3) or 60% manioc flour and 30% soy bean flour (T4) or 55% manioc flour and 35% soy bean flour
(T5), following nutria mix preparation methods. Nutria mixes were analyzed for physico chemical
characteristic following Sri Lanka standard methods of SLS 280 (2009). Sensory evaluation was
conducted to evaluate and comment on sensory characteristics by untrained twenty sensory panels.
Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was performed to compare values obtained from proximate
composition. The data gathered from sensory evaluation were analyzed by using Friedman statistical
technique.
24
Result and Discussion
Table 1: Physico -chemical analysis of prepared flour
Flour Protein Fat Ash Fiber Moisture

Manioc 0.13±0.02 0.22±0.02 1.67±0.34 0.87±0.11 6.13±0.16
Soy bean 37.38±0.81 12.10±0.36 3.94±0.16 0.72±0.02 5.45±0.11
Murunga 24.31±0.00 3.46±0.44 9.13±0.20 8.29±0.50 8.31±0.09
B.Blossom 4.63±0.00 5.36±0.38 10.92±0.22 13.56±0.32 6.20±0.08
Values are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate (n=3)
As the results showed in Table 2 the moisture content of T 5 was lower than T1, T2, T3 and T4 and
moisture content was slightly decreased with increased of soy bean flour. The pH of 3 different
treatments T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 6.33±0.01, 6.35±0.01, 6.40±0.01, 6.36±0.01 and 6.27±0.01,
respectively. The results have (Table 2) shown that the fat content was slightly increased with the
increase of soy bean flour. The result (Table 1) shown that the fat content of soy bean flour was
12.10±0.36. This might be a reason to observe increased fact content with increased of soy bean
flour.
There is no treatment effect on fiber. The result (Table 2) shown that the T5 had higher crude fibre
content than T1, T2, T3 and T4. There is no treatment effect on ash. The result (Table 2) shown
that the T5 had higher crude ash content than T1, T2, T3 and T4. The result (Table 2) shown that
the protein content was slightly increased with increased of soy bean flour. The result (Table 1)
shown that the protein content of soy bean flour was 37.38±0.81. This might be a reason to observe
increased protein content with the increased of soy bean flour.
Table 2: Physico-chemical properties of mix
Treatment Protein Fat Fiber Ash Moisture pH

1 1.66±0.00 3.78±0.12 2.20±0.06 4.07±0.29 7.13±0.12 6.33±0.01
2 1.74±0.00 4.13±0.11 2.19±0.00 4.30±0.22 7.16±0.16 6.35±0.01
3 2.91±0.00 5.17±0.11 2.20±0.00 3.73±0.22 7.09±0.16 6.40±0.01
4 6.95±0.06 7.41±0.08 2.15±0.19 4.23±0.11 7.25±0.11 6.36±0.01
5 10.32±0.29 9.31±0.02 2.21±0.01 4.41±0.42 7.03±0.27 6.27±0.01
Values are mean ± standard deviation of triplicate (n=3)
The developed treatments 3, 4 and 5 were tested for appearance, color, aroma, taste, texture and
overall acceptability. There is no significant different in characteristics of the mix versus samples.
25
4.5
4
Estimated Median
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5 T3
1
0.5 T4
0
T5
Sensory Charates
Figure 01: Estimated medians for sensory quality attributes of the mix
Conclusions
There is treatment effect on protein and fat. However treatment 5 (Manioc flour 55% and soy bean
flour 35%) is best in protein and fat content. Other Treatments not equal to treatment 5 in protein and
fat. There is no treatment effect on fiber, ash and moisture. But Treatment 5(Manioc flour 55% and
soy bean flour 35%) is good in Fiber ash and moisture content. There were no significant difference
in Appearance, Aroma, Color, Texture, Taste, Overall acceptability of the mix versus samples.
Therefore treatment 5 (Manioc flour 55% and soy bean flour 35%) was selected as best treatment.
This mix will be selected for later testing and extrusion processing. Moreover more investigations are
necessary to improve the shelf life and packaging materials.
Acknowledgement
Laboratory facilities provided by the Institute of Post Harvest Technology, Anuradapura are
acknowledged.
References
AOAC. (1990). Official Methods of Analysis. Vol.2. Association of Official Analytical Chemist,
Inc.,Verginia 69-81.
Hans H.S., Larry L.B., James. K.D, George.F.F, Jr., David .C. H., and Carl .M.P.,2008, Nutritional
Properties and Feeding Values of Soybeans and Their Coproducts, Department of Animal Sciences,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801.
Pathania.S., Singh.B and Sharma.S.,2013 ,Development of low cost multipurpose instant mix by
extrusion process using response surface methodology,Volume 2 , Issue 6.
SLS 280. (2009). Sri Lanka Standard, Specification for Papadam, UDC 664.69.
26
Structure modification of mefenamic acid and evaluate their

bioactivities
J.M.S.S. Jayamaha, E.P.S.K. Ediriweera

Faculty of Science and Technology, Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka
and
U.L.B. Jayasinghe, N.S. Kumar

Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka
Introduction
Thousands of years medicine and natural products have been closely linked through the use of
traditional medicines and natural poisons (Phillipson et al., 2001). Lately, pharmaceutical industries
mainly pay their attention on natural products and their bioactivities to develop novel drugs which
shows promising activities on diseases in humans as well as in plants. Since biological assays are used
to detect the biological activity on synthetic compounds and natural products. There are several kinds
of bioassays such as, antioxidant, antifungal, phytotoxicity, cytotoxicity and enzyme inhibitory
activities (e.g. lipase, α-amylase, α-Glucosidase etc). Though there are several types of bioassays,
most pharmaceutical manufacturing industries limited their research activities only towards one or
few types of bioassays. There can be hidden bioactivities which are important in medicinally,
agriculturally and environmentally. Therefore it is important to study about the other bioactivities too
by doing the structure modifications of existing drugs and evaluate their bioactivities using various
types of bioassays. By doing the modification of the exiting drug that can be enhanced the efficiency
of the drug usage.
Mefenamic acid (MFA) which is used as a pain killer from many years ago. It is a Non-Steroidal Anti-
Inflammatory Drug (NSAID) which exhibits poor water solubility properties (Dixit et al., 2012). MFA
is a prescription medicine used for the relief of mild to moderate pain, including painful menstrual
periods (Asl et al., 2008). There can be some hidden important bioactivities which were not studied
yet in addition as a pain-killer. The aim of this study was to improve the usages of the drug for
industrially, agriculturally and environmentally. Therefore the drug was synthetically modified by
acetylation/acylation reaction methods.
Methodology
Pure MFA was separated from the tablet by using column chromatography technique. Separated pure
MFA was subjected to acetylation and acylation reactions according to Arnold et al., 2007. Acylation
was carried out with acid chlorides such as acetyl chloride (AC), benzoyl chloride (BC) and crotonoyl
chloride (CC), while acetylation with acetic anhydride. Efficiency of the drug and its synthetic
derivatives were tested by subjecting to bioassays such as α-amylase inhibition assay (Giancarlo et
al., 2006), antioxidant assay (DPPH radical scavenging assay) (Mensor et al., 2001), phytotoxicty
(bio-assay with lettuce seed germination) (Drewes et al., 1995) and cytotoxicity (brine shrimp
lethality assay) assay using Artemia salina (Subbaraju et al., 2005).
The Inhibition percentage was plotted against the sample concentration and the fitted line plot was
established. Then IC50value (Inhibitory Concentration) was calculated in order to the 50% inhibition.
27
This would represent the concentration of sample (μg/ml) necessary to decrease the 50% activity of
the particular sample.
Brine shrimp lethality assay

120
100
% Inhibition
80
60 MFA
40 BC
20
0 Acetylated
0 A B C500 1000 1500
A- 123.95 ppm
B- 282.64 ppm
C- 310.64 ppm
Concentration/ ppm
Figure 01: Inhibition of brine shrimp lethality assay
According to the figure 1 brine shrimp lethality assay shows positive inhibition activity in lower
concentrations of all three samples (MFA, BC, Acetylated product). After performing the statistical
analysis using one-way ANOVA and Tukeys test (P- value= 0.077 > α value) MFA sample shows
significant toxicity effect than synthetic derivatives. Pure MFA was shown the lowest IC50 value than
its derivatives (123.95 ppm).
Shoot Growth Inhibition

120
100
% inhibition
80
60 MFA
40 BC
20 Acetylated
0 A= 156.39ppm
0 A B 500 1000 1500 B= 248.35 ppm
Concentration/ppm
Figure 02: Shoot growth inhibition for phytotoxicity assay
28
Root Growth Inhibition

120
100
80
% inhibition
60 MFA
40 BC
Acetylated
20
A A= 170.18 ppm
0 B B= 232.28 ppm
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Concentration/ ppm
Figure 03: Root growth inhibition assay for phytotoxicity
IC50 values for phytotoxic assay for all 3 samples were observed in the figure 2 and 3. According to
those two figures synthetic derivatives have shown better IC50 values than the pure MFA. All three
samples were found to be non active for DPPH antioxidant activity (>1000 ppm) and α-amylase
inhibition assay (765.53 ppm) when compared to the positive controls. Positive control for DPPH
assay was ascorbic acid and acarbose was the positive control for amylase enzyme assay and its IC50
value was 4.16 ppm.
Conclusions
Pure MFA was shown the lowest IC50 value (123.95 ppm) in brine shrimp lethality assay. And also
it was shown IC50 values for anti-oxidant activity, phytotoxicity activity for lettuce seeds and amylase
enzyme inhibition activity in upper range. Synthetic derivatives of pure MFA (BC/Acetylated
product) were shown lowest IC50 values for brine shrimp lethality assay and phytotoxicity assay.
IC50 values in upper range of those derivatives were shown for the anti-oxidant activity. Pure MFA
as well as its synthetic derivatives also were shown the lowest IC50 values for brine shrimp lethality
assay. From one-way ANOVA and Tukeys test (P- value= 0.077 > α value) MFA sample shows
significant toxicity effect than synthetic derivatives of the product for brine shrimp lethality assay.
These interesting results lend further support to their traditional use. Synthetic derivatives
(BC/Acetylated product) were shown the lowest IC50 values rather than Purified MFA in
phytotoxicity assay. Because of that they are good for the use as inhibitors against dicotyldonae plants.
They can be use in agricultural purposes such as weed-killers by conducting further analysis. Anti-
oxidant activity of all three samples were shown significantly higher IC50 values (>1000 ppm) than
the positive control. Although the IC50 values were much higher, pure MFA as well as its synthetic
derivatives were shown anti-oxidant activity too. Since the purified MFA was showed the amylase
enzyme inhibition activity, it can be said that MFA has good enzyme inhibition activity also. Then it
can be check for the amylase enzyme inhibition activity of the synthetic derivatives too. It can be
great benefit for the industrially as well as for pharmaceutical industries. So, by modifying the existing
drugs they can be use for various purposes instead of the pharmaceutical usages. And also, by
synthesizing various types of derivatives for the existing drugs and evaluate their activities using
various types of bioassays, there can be enhance the utility of the drugs than the traditional usages.
29
References
Arnold, A., Dallavalle, S., Merlini, L., Musso, L., Farina, G., Moretti, M., and Jayasinghe, L., (2007).
Synthesis and antifungal activity of a series of N-substituted [2-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-3-(1,2,4-triazol-
1-yl)]propylamines, Agricultural and food chemistry,55, 8187-8192.
Dixit, M., Kini, A.G., and Kulkarni, P.K., (2012). Enhancing the dissolution of polymorphs I and II
of mefenamic acid by spray drying, Turkish journal of pharmaceutical sciences9(1), 13.
Drewes, F.E., Smith, M.T. and van Staden, J., (1995). The effect of a plant-derived smoke extract
on the germination of light-sensitive lettuce seed. Plant Growth Regulation16(2), 205.
Edrissi, M., Asl, N.R., and Madjidi, B., (2008). Interaction of Mefenamic Acid with Cobalt(II) Ions
in Aqueous Media: Evaluation via Classic and Response Surface Methods. Turkish journal of
chemistry32, 505.
Giancarlo, S., Rosa, L.M., Nadjafi, F. and Francesco, M., (2006). Hypoglycaemic activity of two
spices extracts: Rhus coriaria L. and Bunium persicum Boiss. Natural Product Reources20, 882-886.
Kapaustka, L.A., (1997). Selection of phytotoxicity tests for use in ecological risk assessments. In:
WANG, W., GORSUCH, J.W., HUGHES, D. Plant for environmental studies. New York:CRC Press,
516-548.
Krishnarajua, A.V., Raoa, T.V.N., Sundararajua, D., Vanisreeb, M., Tsayb, H.S. and Subbarajua,
G.V., (2005). Assessment of bioactivity of Indian medicinal plants using brine shrimp (Artemia
salina) lethality assay. International Journal of Applied Science and Engineering3(2), 126-127.
Mensor, L.I., Menezes, F.S., Leitao, G.G., Reis, A.S., dos Santos, T., Coube, C.S. and Leitao,
S.G.(2001). Screening of Brazilian Plants extracts for antioxidants activity by the use of DPPH free
radical method. Phytotherapy Research15, 127-130.
Phillipson, J. D., (2001). Phytochemistry and medicinal plants. Phytochemistry, 56, 237.
30
Antioxidative properties and Lactobacillus population in

traditional Sri Lankan pickle during fermentation
K.S. Madusanki,
Faculty of Science & Technology, Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka
and
R. Liyanage, C.Jayathilake
Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana Road, Kandy
Introduction
In recent years, probiotic products have become a primary choice for the consumers because of their
health attributes (Yen-Ping Tan, 2007). Pickle may be a suitable product of carrying probiotic
bacterial strains to the host. Pickling is a method of fermentation of vegetables to extend their shelf
life. That process consists with the basis of reducing the pH value due to conversion of sugar to acid
by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB are greatly important for human health as they help balance human
intestinal flora, thereby boosting overall immunity (Amit et al., 2012). Antioxidant compounds in
fermented foods play an important role as a health protecting factor. Scientific evidence suggests that
antioxidants reduce the risk for chronic diseases including cancer and heart disease. There is no
reported study done on evaluating the nutritional properties of Sri Lankan vegetable pickles fermented
with coconut vinegar. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the population growth of
Lactobacillus, pH, total phenols and antioxidant activity during fermentation of Sinhala pickle.
Sample preparation, determination of pH and Lactobacillus population
The samples for the isolation of LAB included the fermented mixed vegetables which was prepared
by mixing thoroughly, cleaned and diced vegetables (carrot, red onion, raw papaya, green chili) in
coconut vinegar solution, and was allowed to ferment at ambient temperature (32 0C±2). The microbial
spread plate method was used to isolation of LAB in the MRS media from the pickle sample. The pH
of the withdrawn aliquots at every 24h during the fermentation was monitored using a digital pH
meter (HI 2211, USA) at 32oC (Shori et al., 2011).
Determination of Antioxidant Activity and Total Phenolic Content
Antioxidant activity (AOA) was measured by DPPH radical scavenging activity method according to
the method developed by Adak et al. (2013) with little modifications. Total phenol content (TPC) was
measured by Folin-Ciocalteu method with some modifications (Kriengsak et al., 2006).
31
Population of Lactobacillus in pickle

Traditionally, the fermentation of Sinhala pickle is processed by the LAB. The results showed that
the bacteria population increased from an initial number of 8.0997 0.56 Log10 cfu/g after 24 hours
fermentation at 37 ⁰C. The maximum bacteria growth was observed after 48 hours fermentation which
had significant difference with other ratios of bacteria except 72 hours bacteria count. After three days
storage at 37 ⁰C, the bacteria population decreased but, no significant difference was observed among
other storage time. In contrast, the numbers of LAB were much reduced at the end of storage (Table
1).
Table 01: LAB and functional property variation during the storage at 7 days after fermentation
Time Log 10cfu/g pH AOA TPC

0h - - 174.6735.82d 11.7353 0.16b
24 h 8.0997 0.56c 3.51000 0.11a - -
48 h 9.4248 0.23a 3.5450 0.08a 205.00 9.90cd 13.1281 0.22b
72 h 9.2322 0.16a 3.59000 0.10a 256.82  4.69bc 15.0893 0.58a
96 h 8.7894 0.17b 3.62000 0.08a 537.64  0.96a 12.3382 0.57b
120 h 8.8253 0.21b 3.69500 0.05a 277.60  28.76b 12.1821 1.03b
168 h 8.6262 0.16b 3.47500 0.91a - -
Values followed by the same letters are not significant, and different letters indicate significant difference at p<0.05
pH variation during fermentation

The results showed that, pH was almost same during the 7 days of storage, and it consists within the
optimal pH level for growth of the LAB. A study revealed that various ratios of the probiotic bacteria
did not cause significant difference in pH reduction and increase of lactic acid however, various
concentrations of vegetables and spices which used caused a marked difference in pH reduction and
lactic acid increasing (Tiktiek et al., 2013).
Determination of Antioxidant Activity variation
The statistical results showed that there was a significant difference in DPPH radical scavenging
activity during fermentation. The lower the IC50 value, the greater is the AOA. Highest antioxidant
activity/ the lowest IC50 value was recorded in 0 hours extraction. The least activity was recorded in
96 hours after preparation. Difference in scavenging activities might be due to the changes in the
phenolic compounds during fermentation. Previous studies have reported that strictly controlled
fermentation by some isolated strains of lactic bacteria resulted in no change in the AO potency of
final sauerkraut compared to fresh vegetable (Tolonen et al., 2004).
Total Phenolic Content

As the results were shown fresh pickle had TPC of 11.7353 0.16 mg/ml while fermented pickle form
had 15.0893 0.58. However, TPC in the pickled form is still considered high as compared to TPC of
other fruits in fresh form, obtained from the previous research (Lako et al., 2007). Sample preparation
methods and, ingredients which used to prepare the pickle may also influence the results.
32
Previous studies have demonstrated the strong relationship between TPC and AOA found in different
varieties of fermented foods (Kriengsak et al., 2006). However in this study, there was no clear
correlation observed.
Conclusions
The present study demonstrated that after second and third day of preparation LAB, and TPC reached
to their optimum value and after that they started declining. pH value remained almost constant and
fermentation retained 90-95% AO capacity during the 7day of storage at 370C. With the findings it
could be concluded that maximum health benefits could be obtained after second of preparation, and
after third day all the properties were started to declining.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to acknowledge the Institute of Fundamental studies, Kandy for facilities
provided for research.
References
Chang J.H. Shim Y.Y. Cha S.K. Chee K.M. (2010), Probiotic characteristics of lactic acid bacteria
isolated from kimchi. Journal of Applied Microbiogy 220-230.
Kriengsak, T., Unaroj, B., Kevin, C., Luis, C. and David, H.B. (2006), Comparison of ABTS, DPPH,
FRAP, and ORAC assays for estimating antioxidant activity from guava fruit extracts. J. Food Comp.
Anal. 19, 669-675.
Shori B., ( 2011), Antioxidant activity and viability of lactic acid bacteria in soybean-yogurt made
from cow and camel milk, Journal of Taibah University for Science,Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 202–
208.
33
Market orientation of firms in food processing industry: Effect of

outside-in capabilities
K.N. Kalupahana, K.W.S.N. Kumari

and
W.M.P.G.C. Weerakoon
Faculty of Management, Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
Market Orientation is a business culture committed to the continuous creation of superior value for
the customers and can be defined as the organization wide generation of market intelligence
pertaining to current and future customer needs, dissemination of the intelligence across
departments, and organization- wide responsiveness to it (Narver and Slater et al., 1990; Jaworski
and Kohli, et al., 1990). For that successfully market-driven organizations should have a strong
relationship between market orientation and marketing capabilities. It was suggested that when
successfully implementing a market orientation development of, “superior market-sensing;
customer-linking; channel-bonding and technology-monitoring capabilities (Day et al., 1994)
is required. Therefore, this study aims to identify the relationship between outside-in capabilities
and market orientation in food processing industry in Sri Lanka.
Methodology
Data was collected by using a structured questionnaire and in the absence of a sampling frame, a
random sample of 44 companies were selected as the population with use of Stock Exchange and
other resources. All these 44 companies were taken as the sample because of the less number of
companies in the population and only 31 companies had responded. The reliability of the
questionnaire was assessed by using Cronbach’s Alpha. Descriptive statistics were used to
identify the level of market orientation in food processing firms in Sri Lanka. Correlation analysis
and multiple linear regression analysis were applied to identify the relationship between outside-
in capabilities and market orientation in the food processing firms in Sri Lanka.
Table 01 : Descriptive statistics of Market Orientation
Variable Mean St Dev Coefficient of variance Skewness

Market Orientation 4.2201 0.4655 % 11.03 -0.488
Market sensing 4.2460 0.5425 12.78 -0.717
Customer linking 4.1521 0.4989 12.02 -0.429
Channel bonding 4.4892 0.5091 11.34 -0.753
Technology monitoring 4.4476 0.5212 11.72 -0.801
34
All considered variables had symmetrically distributed with law variability, according to the
summary statistics of market orientation and outside-in capabilities as shown in the Table 01.
Level Value
Low 3.2024 - 3.63855
Moderate 3.63855 - 4.51085
High 4.51085 - 4.9470
Figure 01- Scale of Market Orientation
Market orientation pattern of the Food processing firms are shown in the Figure 01. It is implied
that most of the food processing firms have followed the moderate level of market orientation.
According to the Pearson correlation coefficient in the Table 02, overall outside-in
capabilities and level of outside-in capabilities were highly correlated with market orientation in
each and other separately.
Table 02- Correlation between Outside in capabilities and Market orientation
Variabl Pearson correlation P-value

Outside-ine Capabilities 0.790 0.000
Market sensing 0.803 0.000
Customer linking 0.724 0.000
Channel bonding 0.678 0.000
Technology monitoring 0.675 0.000
Furthermore, highest positive linear correlation was observed between market sensing and
market orientation. This is implied that market sensing is highly affecting factor to market
orientation than other factors.
The multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to find out the relationship between
level of outside-in capabilities and market orientation. The results showed that multiple linear
regression model was significant at 0.05 significance level (P-value = 0.000). According to the
P-values of the estimated model parameter coefficients, market sensing capability (P-value =
0.003) is only a significant variable to the market orientation. However, other variables
(customer linking (P-value = 0.896), channel bonding (P-value = 0.536), and technology
monitoring capabilities (P-value = 0.134)) were not significant with market orientation. This
implies that total variation of the market orientation can be described by using market sensing
capability. This is due to the high multicollinearity between market sensing with other three
outside-in capability factors, because of Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was greater than three.
35
Therefore, the linear relationship between market orientation (MO) and market sensing (MS)
capability can be modeled by using the Equation (01).
= 1.325 + 0.683𝑀� (01)
The fitted model is significant at 0.05 significance level with �2 = 64.6%.
All model assumptions were satisfied.
Conclusions
According to the constructed scale, most of the food processing firms in Sri Lanka are in the
moderate level (3.63855 - 4.51085) of market orientation. This is achieved by firms by introducing
market-oriented products and services, and re-orientation of firms operating in the economy to be
market oriented in their processes, routines, and outputs.
There is high positive linear relationship between market sensing and market orientation while
negative linear relationships present in market orientation andcustomer linking, channel bonding and
technology monitoring. Due to the multicorllinarity and high correlation, total variability of the
market orientation can be predicted by using market sensing without other considerable outside-in
capability factors. It can be concluded that the critical factor influencing market orientation of the
food processing firm was market sensing and it was contributed to the statistically model
significance. Finally, the new findings developed in this study provide more support to
implementing market orientation with the outside-in capabilities effectively in food processing
industries in Sri Lanka.
References
Day, G. S. (1994). The Capabilities of Market-Driven Organizations. Journal of Marketing, 58, 37-
52.
Kohli, A. J., & Jaworski, B. J. (1990). Market Orientation: The Constructs, Research Propositions
Managerial Implications. Journal of Marketing, 54, 1-18.
Narver, J. C., & Slater, S. F. (1990). The Effect of a Market Orientation on Business
Profitability. Journal of Marketing, 20-39.
36
Proceedings of the 5th Research Symposium of Uva Wellassa University, January 29-30,
Synthesis and characterization of in-situ precipitated silica filled

rubber composite
H.P. Amarathunga and C.K. Jayasuriya *

Faculty of Science and Technology,Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka
Introduction
In-situ precipitated silica can be used to replace carbon black partly in tires as well as in other rubber
materials to increase strength, to reduce rolling resistance and heat build-up and hence to bring down
the fuel consumption in tires. There have been numerous efforts to improve silica dispersion in
conventional rubber/silica composites such as varying the chemistry and content of the coupling
agents (Bokobza, 2006), improving the mixer rotor design (Miloskovska et al., 2012), ultrasound
pre-treatment of the silica particles (Prasertsri et al., 2011), but dispersion still remains a serious issue
for conventional rubber/silica composites.
The current research was carried out to enhance the properties of rubber such as tensile strength,
swelling properties, hardness, water absorption properties and density using in situ precipitated silica.
A relatively high cost method for reinforcing natural rubber (NR) using in-situ precipitated silica by
swelling method has been reported previously (Murakami et al., 2000). The present work aims to
prepare in-situ precipitated silica filled rubber composites with a better in-situ silica dispersion within
rubber matrix than conventional silica composites using a low cost method (using solvent
combination) of sol-gel technique.
Methodology
Sample was compounded according to the tire tread formulation (Murakami et al., 2000). The
resulting sample was half cured and was cut in to five pieces (15 cm × 5 cm). Using a swelling test,
the best solvent combination of Toluene:T-butylalcohol was found to be 70:30 volume ratio. Four
half-cured samples were soaked for different times in a solution containing the best solvent and
Tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS). Next they were soaked in 10% aqueous .n-butylamine for two days
and the samples were dried. Finally, the remaining half of the curing process was carried out and in-
situ silica percentage in each sample was calculated. Using the same procedure, four more samples
were prepared by gradually increasing the in situ silica percentage by weight. A sample without in-
situ precipitated silica was used as the reference. Mechanical properties of the samples such as tensile
strength, modulus, tensile strain at break and hardness were determined. Finally, samples were
characterized for its density, swelling in toluene and water absorption.
Results of swelling analysis are graphically represented in Figure 01. In principle, the presence of
inorganic filler should lead to a reduction of the swelling ratio with respect to the unfilled vulcanized
rubber, since the filler does not absorb the solvents during the experiment. In the present case an
opposite trend is observed. Results show that the swelling ratio is increased with increasing silica
percentage thus decreasing the cross linking density of the rubber matrix (Kapgate et al., 2012). This
clearly indicates an interfering effect of the sol–gel reaction of TEOS to silica on the vulcanization
*
Permanent address: Faculty of Science, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
37
process of the rubber (Morselli et al., 2013) and the extent of the cross linking of the natural rubber
phase was limited.
300
Increase in weight (%)
250 Reference
200
A (6.67%)
150
B (8.56%)
100
C (11.70%)
50
D (15.43%)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time / Hours
Figure 01: Variation of increase in weight percentage with time for in-situ silica composite samples with varying amount of
in-situ silica filler percentage
The variation of tensile strain at break of the samples is graphically represented in Figure 02.
According to the Figure 02, maximum value for tensile strain at break is observed for the sample A
(6.67%). Reason for this may be a result of a complex balance between the increasing content of rigid
filler (introducing additional cross links) and the decreasing cross linking density of the rubber
matrix. At lower silica percentages the silica filler aggregates into chair like structures producing a
greater stiffening which gives additional cross links into the network by filler (Morselli et al., 2013).
240
Tensile strain at
230
220
break
210
200
190
180
170
Reference A (6.67%) B (8.56%) C (11.70%) D (15.43%)
Sample Name
Figure 02: Variation of Tensile Strain at break with varying amount of silica filler percentage
At lower content of silica, the dispersion is better than at higher content of silica (Miloskovska et al.,
2012). Therefore tensile strain at break of sample A (6.67%) is higher compared to those of other
samples. However, when silica percentage is increased, the silica tends to form agglomerates
(Miloskovska et al., 2012) and the interfering effect for vulcanization due to silica could not be
balanced. Therefore, tensile strain at break of sample B (8.56%) and sample C (11.70%) are getting
lower. At higher in-situ silica concentrations (more than 15% of in-situ silica) bridging gel structures
between silica particles can be formed (Morselli et al., 2013). It could provide a positive influence to
increase tensile strain at break of sample D (15.43%) slightly higher than those of samples B (8.56%)
and C (11.70%), though there are lot of agglomerates in sample D (15.43%).
38
As expected, the density is increasing with in-situ precipitated silica percentage. When filler is added
to natural rubber matrix, mass per unit volume (density) is increasing.
Tensile strength, modulus, hardness properties of the samples are decreased with increasing in-situ
silica percentage. This may be due to the interfering effect of silica on vulcanization.
Water absorption properties of rubber composites are increased with in-situ precipitated silica. One
reason for the observed increase in water absorption could be due to the decrease in cross linking
degree of the rubber matrix and the other reason could be due to the water absorption of silica
(Bokobza, 2006).
Conclusions
According to the results, it seems that there is an interfering effect by in-situ generated silica on the
vulcanization process. Silica particles generated before the full vulcanization of rubber may hinder
the cross-linking reaction of the rubber compound by sulfur. Therefore in-situ generated silica reduce
the cross linking density of the rubber matrix.
According to the results it is possible to conclude that in-situ generation of silica should do after the
complete vulcanization of natural rubber or by simultaneous curing and filling with the presence of
a suitable coupling agent (for example: (bis (3-triethoxysilylpropyl) tetrasulfide) for the enhancement
of filler-matrix adhesion (Miloskovska et al., 2012). Thus the mechanical properties will be increased
due to strong filler-filler interactions and filler-matrix interactions in the absence of possible
interfering effect due to silica on vulcanization process.
Acknowledgement
The support given by Mr. Asitha Gunasekara, Deputy General Manager, CKITL Plant, CEAT Kelani
International Tyres (Pvt) Ltd by providing chemicals is greatly appreciated. Laboratory facilities and
the support provided by Dr. Gamini Seneviratne, Director, Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka
(RRISL) and Dr. Dilhara Edirisinghe, Acting Head, Rubber Technology and Development
Department of RRISL are acknowledged.
References
Bokobza, L. (2006). Some new developments in rubber reinforcement. Composite Interfaces, 13,
345-354.
Kapgate, B.P., Das. C., Das. A., Basu. D., Reuter. U., Heinrich G. (2012). Effect of sol–gel derived
in situ silica on the morphology and mechanical behavior of natural rubber and acrylonitrile
butadiene rubber blends. J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol., 56, 556-560.
Miloskovska, E. (2012). Structure-property relationships of rubber/silica nanocomposites via sol-gel

reaction, PhD Thesis,Department of Polymer Science and Technology, Dutch Polymer Institute
(DPI), Eindhoven, Netherlands.
39
Morselli, D., Bondoli, F., Luyt, A. S., Mokhothy, T.H., Messori, M. (2013). Preparation and
characterization of EPDM Rubber modified with in-situ generated silica. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 128,
2525-2532.
Murakami, K., Lio, S., Tanahashi, T., Kohjiya, S., Kajiwara, K., Ikeda, Y. (2000). Reinforcement of
NR by Silica Generated In Situ: Comparison with Carbon Black Stock. Raw Materials and
Applications 54, 668-672.
Prasertsri, S. and Rattanasom, N. (2011). Mechanical and damping properties of silica/natural rubber
composites prepared from latex system. J. Polymer Testing 30, 515-526.
40
Development of a mosquito-repelling paint
T. Kanagasundram and C.K. Jayasuriya*

Introduction
Mosquito-borne diseases affect millions of people worldwide each year. They are the carriers of
many harmful diseases such as West Nile Virus disease; Malaria, Dengue Fever, Chikungunya, Lyme
disease, etc. (Aremu et al., 2009). A mosquito repellent is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or
other surfaces which discourages mosquitoes from landing or climbing on that surface. However,
existing products used for mosquito control have varying degrees of effectiveness (Patel et al., 2012).
In this research, attempts were made to develop a mosquito repelling paint. In general, paints are
stable mechanical dispersions of pigment, binder and solvent. Upon evaporation of the solvent, the
pigment and binder form a continuous film that can be protective or decorative or both. Also some
additives are normally added to paint formulation in order to tailor the paint to a specific purpose. In
this research, Neem oil was used as an additive on emulsion paint for the purpose of developing a
mosquito-repelling paint.
Methodology
Neem oil was extracted from Neem seeds by mechanical pressing method. A known quantity of
Neem oil was added to the desired amount of the pure paint. The mixture was stirred vigorously for
20 minutes by using a magnetic stirrer. The above procedure was repeated for four different pure
paint/ Neem oil ratios of 90:10, 88:12, 85:15 and 80:20. Two paints, one light and other dark were
used in the study. The samples prepared using the light colour paint with varying amounts of Neem
oil were named as L10, L12, L15 and L20, respectively. The samples prepared using the dark colour
paint with varying amounts of Neem oil were named as D10, D12, D15 and D20, respectively.
A box with desired dimension was prepared using cardboard in which the upper part was removed
and replaced with a glass. The modified paint was applied to two vertical surfaces and pure paint
which was used as the control was applied to the rest of the two vertical surfaces of the box. Then it
was allowed to dry. The mosquitoes were caught by using a net and then placed them in the box
already coated with paint. The above procedure was repeated for the samples prepared with both light
and dark colour paints. The mosquito-repellency of the paints were calculated by counting the
number of mosquitoes landed on each vertical surface over a testing period of 4 hours between 17.00
h and 21.00 h. Readings were taken at each 30 min interval, at 25- 30 °C and a relative humidity of
60 – 80% under both the presence and absence of light.
Finally, the effect of Neem oil on desired paint properties such as glossiness, contrast ratio, abrasion
resistance and water resistance were determined.
The mosquito-repellency was calculated according to the number of mosquitoes that were prevented
from landing compared to the number of mosquitoes that landed on the control by using the following
equation (Kazembe et al., 2012).
*
Permanent address: Faculty of Science, University of Kelaniya,
41 Sri Lanka
% Repellency= [(C-T)/C] x 100
where C is the number of mosquitoes that landed on the total coated areas of the box and T is the
number of mosquitoes that landed on the Neem oil modified paint coated areas of the box.
The results for mean percentage mosquito-repellency of light colour paint with varying amounts of
Neem oil in the absence of light is shown in Figure 01. Results indicate that 100% repellency is
shown by samples L10, L12, L15 and L20 for 8 days, 11 days, 16 days and 16 days, respectively.
According to the results, mosquito-repellency remained above 80% for 30 days.
100
Percentage
Repellency
L10
90
Mean
80 L12
70 L15
1 6 11 16 21 26 L20
Time/ Day
Figure 01: Mean percentage repellency of the light colour paint with varying amount of Neem oil in the absence of light
The results for mean percentage mosquito-repellency of light colour paint with varying amounts of
Neem oil in the presence of light is shown in Figure 02. According to the results, 100% repellency is
shown by samples L10, L12, L15 and L20 for7 days, 11 days, 16 days and 17 days, respectively.
Mosquito-repellency remained above 80% for 30 days in the presence of light as well.
100
Mean Percentage
95 L10
Repellency
90
L12
85
80 L15
75 L20
1 6 11 16 21 26
Time/ Day
Figure 02: Mean percentage repellency of the light colour paint with varying amount of Neem oil in the presence of light
Similar results were obtained for dark colour paint with varying amounts of Neem oil in the absence
as well as in the presence of light. Mosquito-repellency remained above 85% for 30 days in the
absence of light and above 80% in the presence of light.
The observed results could be explained by the fact that when the mosquitoes sense the discomfort
of the chemical constituent of Neem oil added paint, they left the surface. Azadirachtin, a complex
tetranorterpenoid limonoid compound from the Neem seeds, is the main component responsible for
the toxic effects in mosquitoes (Aremu et al., 2009). The mean percentage repellency increased with
the Neem oil concentration due to the increase in active ingredients with the increase in Neem oil
concentration. Mean percentage repellency decreased with time due to the evaporation of Neem oil
to the atmosphere. Mean percentage mosquito-repellency is affected by several factors such as
42
ambient temperature, humidity, wind speed, level of activity, species of mosquitoes, amount of
perspiration, density of mosquitoes’ population and several other factors. Some desired paint
properties of the samples L10, L12, L15 and L 20 are given in Table 01.
Table 01: Effect of Neem oil on paint properties
Paint Property Sample Sample Sample Sample Reference

L10 L12 L15 L20
Gloss D65/ 10̊ 2.08 2.25 2.15 2.33 2.58
Contrast Ratio (%) 94.80 92.22 92.23 91.79 98.27
Abrasion resistance (Number of 25 17 6 2 6700
cycles for 1st erosion)
Water resistance (Time/ min) 17 50 16 10 95
Leveling and flow properties Less Good Less Less Good
pH 7.40 6.82 7.23 7.02 7.88
Total solid content (wt %) 54.77 49.76 56.65 58.60 51.91
Viscosity (Cps) 5300 2500 5200 5900 3700
According to the results, paint properties such as glossiness, contrast ratio, pH and total solid content
remained in acceptable range of values when compared with the control sample. However, the
abrasion resistance and the water resistance have been drastically reduced. This could be due to the
less compatibility of Neem oil with paint and possible evaporation of the active ingredient.
Conclusions
In this research, attempts were taken to develop a mosquito-repelling paint using Neem oil as an
additive. Results indicate that Neem oil added paint has a great repellency effect on mosquitoes. The
mean percentage mosquito-repellency remained above 80 % for 30 days and increased with the Neem
oil concentration. Paint properties such as glossiness, contrast ratio, viscosity, pH and total solid
content are within the standard range. However water resistance and abrasion resistance have been
decreased. Further research has to be carried out to maintain all the desired paint properties at
acceptable levels and to maintain mosquito-repellency for a longer period of time. This could be
achieved by enhancing chemical bonding to achieve better compatibility of the phases involved.
Acknowledgement
The laboratory facilities provided by Mr. Nihal Jayaweera, Plant Manager,Union Chemicals Lanka
(PLC) Ltd. is greatly acknowledged.
References
Aremu, O.I., Femi-Oyewo, M.N. and Popoola, K.O.K. (2009). Repellent action of Neem
(Azadirachta indica) seed oil cream against Anopheles Gambiae mosquitoes. An International Multi-
Disciplinary Journal 3 (3), 12-22.
Kazembe,T.C. and Nkomo,S. (2012). Use of Blumea alata, Bidens pilosa and
Chenopodiumambrosioidesas mosquito repellents and mosquitocides. Bulletin of Environment,
Pharmacology and Life Sciences 1(7), 59 – 66.
Patel, E.K., Gupta, A. and Oswal, R.J. (2012). A review on: mosquito repellent methods.
International journal of pharmaceutical, chemical and biological sciences 2(3), 310
43
Investigation on the use of coconut shell powder replacing carbon

black as filler in natural rubber
T. Tharmaratnam and J.K. Premachandra*

Faculty of Science and Technology, Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka.
Introduction
Natural rubber is an elastomer which mainly consists of cis-1, 4-polyisoprene. It is used in a wide
range of applications, mainly in tire manufacturing. Vulcanizates of natural rubber are reinforced by
incorporating fillers such as carbon black and silica.
There is a demand in replacing these fillers by fillers made of natural materials such as coconut shells,
since natural filler possesses environment friendly processing, with no wear of tooling and no skin
irritation (Bhaskar and singh, 2013). Coconut shell powder (CSP) is a natural lignocellulosic material
which has been used as reinforcing natural filler in a broad range of applications such as building
materials, marine cordage, fishing nets, furniture, and other household appliances (Sapuan and
Harimi, 2003). The presence of highly polarized hydroxyl groups on the surfaces of the
lignocellulosic fillers makes it difficult to achieve strong interfacial bonding with non-polar polymer
matrix. As a result, lignocellulosic fillers show poor mechanical properties in polymer composites.
However, the interfacial bonding can be improved by employing surface treatments methods
including alkaline treatment, esterification and silane treatment (Egwaikhide et al., 2007). In the
current research it was expected to improve the properties of natural rubber vulcanizates by
incorporating CSP and surface modified CSP replacing carbon black filler.
Methodology
Coconut shells were crushed into powder and it was dried in an oven at 80 ºC for 24 hours
(Tengkufaisal et al., 2010). The powder having the particle size range of 150 µm to 300 µm was
separated by sieving and used for this research (Koayseong chun et al., 2013).
Surface modification of coconut shell powder was achieved by acid treatment. The powder was
soaked in an aqueous acetic acid solution with powder to solution ratio of 1g/20 l and the mixture
was stirred for 1 hour. The treated powder was separated by filtering. It was washed with distilled
water and dried in an oven at 80 ºC for 24 hours. Two sets of natural rubber (RSS 1) compounds
were prepared according to the tire inner layer compound formulation by milling the ingredients. A
series of compounds were prepared by varying the relative amounts of carbon black (N330) and
untreated CSP. Another series of compounds were prepared by varying the relative amounts of
carbon black and treated CSP. The reference compound was prepared by adding carbon black.
Processing characteristics of prepared compounds were investigated by using a Rheometer.
Vulcanized samples were prepared using a hydraulic press maintaining the temperature at 150 ºC for
the relevant cure time determined from rheographs. Tensile properties of the samples were
determined following ASTM D412 using Intron machine model 2713. Abrasion test was performed
on the samples following DIN 53516 using Hampden machine model APH-40 and the hardness test
was performed following IRHD using Elastocon machine.
*
Permanent Address: Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
44
The effect of filler composition on tensile strength of the samples of natural rubber vulcanizates is
shown in Figure 01. In the sample designation, the letters C, U and T stand for the type of filler,
carbon black, untreated CSP and treated CSP, respectively. In addition, the amount of each type of
filler in phr is given by the number following each letter of designation. The sample with only carbon
black filler shows the highest tensile strength. As the relative amount of untreated and treated CSP
filler is increased the tensile strength decreases. This is due to the weak interfacial adhesion, low
wettability, and poor dispersion between hydrophilic CSP and hydrophobic rubber matrix with
compared to carbon black. The samples having treated CSP show a higher tensile strength than those
having untreated CSP except the sample C90U60. This behaviour attributed to the improved
interfacial adhesion and better dispersion between treated CSP and Rubber.
25
Tensile Strength/ MPa
Untreated CSP and

20 carbon black filled
sample
15
10 Treated CSP and
carbon black filled
5 sample
0 Carbon black
C150
C120U30
C60U90
C30U120
C120T30
C60T90
C30T120
C90U60
U150 filled sample

C90T60
T150
Samples
Figure 01: Variation of tensile strength of samples with different filler compositions
The samples with treated CSP show higher elongation at break than those with untreated CSP. In
addition, the sample with only carbon black filler shows the lowest elongation at break. Resilience
of treated CSP filled samples also higher than the untreated CSP filled samples and reference sample.
Tear strength is essentially measure of resistance to the propagation of a crack under tension. As
shown in Figure 02, all the samples except C120T30 show lower tear strength than the reference
sample.
100
Untreated CSP and
80
Tear Strength/ KNm-1
carbon black filled

60 sample
40
20 Treated CSP and
0 carbon black filled
sample
C150
C120U30
C90U60
C60U90
C30U120
C120T30
C90T60
C60T90
C30T120
U150
T150
Carbon black filled

sample
Samples
Figure 02: Variation of tear strength of samples with different filler compositions
As the untreated and treated CSP amount is increased, there is a trend decreasing the tear strength of
samples. However, tear strength of samples having treated CSP is higher than that of the samples
having untreated CSP at each corresponding relative CSP composition except the sample C90U60.It
45
may be due to the fact that treated CSP filler particles act as a barrier to the propagation of micro
cracks.
Hardness values of treated CSP filled samples are higher than those of untreated CSP filled samples
at each corresponding relative CSP composition. This is also due to the improved interfacial bonding
of treated CSP filler and rubber. Volume loss values in abrasion of all the samples are higher than
that of reference sample. In addition, volume loss values in abrasion of treated CSP filled samples
are lower than those of untreated CSP filled samples at each corresponding relative CSP composition.
In other words, untreated CSP filled samples show higher abrasion resistance than treated CSP filled
samples.
Conclusion
Mechanical properties such as tensile strength, tear strength, resilience, hardness and abrasion
resistance of samples containing CSP are lower than those of the reference sample. However, for
many properties the sample having 120 phr of carbon black and 30 phr of treated CSP shows higher
values or values in an acceptable range with compared to the reference sample. At many relative
compositions, treated CSP filled samples show higher properties than untreated CSP filled samples.
This confirms the improved interfacial bonding of CSP filler and rubber by the surface treatment
method used. It can be concluded that carbon black can be replaced by treated CSP as a reinforcing
filler for natural rubber vulcanizates.
Acknowledgement
Authors would like to express their sincere gratitude and appreciation for Dr. Gamini Senevirathne,
Director Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL), Dr. Dilhara Edirisinghe, Acting Head of
Rubber Technology and Development Department and the staff of the same Department in RRISL
for providing laboratory facilities and numerous supports. The support given by Mr. Asitha
Gunasekera, Deputy General Manager, CEAT Kelani International Tyres (Pvt.) Ltd. Plant, by
providing natural rubber and required chemicals is greatly appreciated.
References
Bhaskar, J. and singh,V. K. (2013). Water absorption and compressive properties of coconut shell
particle reinforced-epoxy composite. Journal of Material and Environmental Science, 4(1), 113-118.
Egwaikhide, P. A., Akporhona, E. E. and Okirimen, F.E. (2007). Effect of coconut fibre filler on the
cure characteristics physic-mechanical and swelling properties of natural rubber vulcanizates.
International Journal of Physical Sciences, 2(2), 39-46.
Koayseong Chun, Salmah Husseinsyah and Fatin Nasihah Azizi (2013). Characterization and
properties of recycled polypropylene/ coconut shell powder composites: Effect of sodium dodecyl
sulfate modification. Informa Ltd England, 37-41.
Sapuan,S.M. and Harimi,M. (2003). Mechanical properties of epoxy/ coconut shell filler particle
composites. Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering, 2(8), 59-71.
Tengkufaisal,Z.H., Faisal Amri, Salmah,H.and Iqmaltahir (2010). The effect of acetic acid on
properties of coconut shell filled low density polyethylene composites. Indonesia Journal of
Chemistry, 10(3), 334-340.
46
Effect of substrate on biochemical expression of Bacterial Biofilms

N.A.D. Lakmali, I.D. Singhalage and E.P.S.K. Ediriweera
Faculty of Science and Technology,Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka
and
G. Senevirathne
Microbial Biotechnology Unit, Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana Road, Kandy
Introduction
Single or multi species bacteria are agglomerated together with the help of Extracellular Polymeric
Substance (EPS) forming bacterial biofilms (BBs). BBs get attached to the biotic or abiotic surfaces.
This surface based adhesion alters the biochemical expression of BBs. Under the optimum
conditions, the biochemical expression of BBs can be maximized. The BBs can be used in various
biotechnological applications like biofertilizers, drug discovery, biofuels etc. (Senaviratne, et al.,
2008). Thus, present study figure outs preferable surface for the BBs, which would enhance the
functional properties of BBs.
Methodology
In this experiment, single species bacterial biofilms were formed in glass wool (G), metal fibers (M)
and fungal filaments (F) immersed in a Low Cost Medium (LCM). Control (C) was maintained
without surfaces or bacterial strain. There were three replicates for each treatment. Completely
Randomized Design was followed as the experimental design. Attachment of bacterial biofilm with
different surfaces was observed through the microscopy. Biochemical expressions of different
biofilms were examined by analyzing the exudates using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy. FTIR spectra were analyzed under six spectral windows viz finger print,
polysaccharide, amide, fatty acid I, II, and mixed. Cluster analysis was performed under each window
to see the similarity and the differences of the biochemical expressions of bacterial biofilms attached
with different surfaces. Statistical analysis was done by using Minitab statistical package (version
16).
Morphologically, bacterial biofilm loosely attached with abiotic metal fibers where as it was tightly
attached with the abiotic glass wool and biotic fungal filaments (figure 01).
A B C
Figure 01. Bacterial biofilm attached to the metal surface (A), glass wool (B) and fungal filament (C).
47
Cluster analysis showed that, the biochemical expressions of bacterial biofilms totally depend on the
surface of attachment. Dendrograms of amide window after a week of incubation and fatty acid I
window after two weeks of incubation are given in figure 02 (A and B). Accordingly, the similarity
of expressions of both amide and fatty acid compounds between treatments was 67%.
Dendrogram A Dendrogram B
Amide region after 1 week of inoculating bacteria Fatty acid region 1 after II weeks of inoculating bacteria
66.61 66.76
Similarity
Similarity
77.74 77.84
88.87 88.92
100.00 100.00
C1 C2 C3 F1 F2 F3 G1 G2 G3 M1 M2 M3 C1 C2 C3 F1 F2 F3 G1 G2 G3 M1 M2 M3
Treatments Treatments
Figure 02. Dendrogram of amide window after one week of incubation (A), and fatty acid I window after two weeks of
incubation (B)
When considering the changes of biochemical expression of treatments with the time, glass wool and
metal fibers attached biofilms showed significantly high (p < 0.05) numbers of peaks in amide and
fatty acid windows, respectively, after one week of incubation. During second week, metal fiber
attached biofilm showed significantly higher (p < 0.05) peak numbers than other treatments.
Production of surface based unique compounds was a remarkable observation of this experiment. It
depended on the incubation time. Fungal surface attached bacterial biofilm released a range of unique
compounds (table 1), because direct contact of bacteria with fungus would make a biotic interaction
altering the production of new compounds (Volker et al., 2009), compared to the abiotic surface
attached bacterial biofilms.
Table 01: Numbers of unique functional groups observed under four different treatments used in this
stu
Control Glass wool Metal fiber Fungal filament
Before attachment 4 1 5 5
After attachment 5 1 3 2
One week after attachment - 1 - 2
Two weeks after attachment 1 5 1 9
48
Conclusions
It is concluded that morphologies of the attachment of bacterial biofilms are surface specific.
Biochemical expression of bacterial biofilms is also affected by the provided surfaces. Bacterial
biofilm-surface interaction produces unique chemical compounds specific to the surfaces. The fungal
surface-attached bacterial biofilm produces a wider variety of compounds, possibly as a result of
molecular interactions between the fungus and the bacterium.
References
Seneviratne, G., Zavahir, J., Bandara, W.M.M.S. and Weerasekara, M.L.M.A.W., 2008, Fungal-
Bacterial biofilms: their development for novel biotechnological applications. World Journal of
Microbiology and Biotechnology 24: 739-743.
Volker, S., Kirstin S., Hans-Wilhelm, N., Ekaterina S., Schmidt-Heck, W., Schuemann, J., Martin,
K., Hertweck, C., Brakhage, A.A., 2009, Intimate bacterial–fungal interaction triggers biosynthesis
of archetypal polyketides in Aspergillus nidulans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
106(34): 14558–14563.
49
Phytoremediation potential of
Brassica juncea Ac. 1774 for mitigation of Cu (II) and As (V)
H.M.S.D. Herath and K.B. Wijesekara

Introduction
Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that employs the use of higher plants to clean up
contaminated environments. Use of plants to extract toxic metals from contaminated soil and water,
has emerged as a cost-effective, environment-friendly clean up alternative. In Sri Lanka large areas
of soil and water contain high levels of heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Co, Ni and Zn and other
pollutants (Dissanayake et al., 2002). Members of the Brasicaceae are promising candidates for
phytoextraction of metals (Kumar et al. (1995, Weerakoon and Somaratne, 2009).Sri Lanka has
genetically diverse mustard (B. juncea (L.) Cazen) germplasm of over sixty accessions (PGRC
Catalogue, 1999) and their true phytoextarctive potentials are yet to be determined. Most of the
previously reported research on phytoremediation has conducted in vivo using soil to establish plants.
Use of soil which is a highly heterogeneous medium could not unveil the true phytoremediation
potential of plants due to micro-variations in the composition of soil. Hence, this study was performed
in vitro and the plants were grown in well-defined plant tissue culture media where all other physical
parameters such as light intensity and relative humidity were kept constant. The main objectives of
this study was to investigate the maximum accumulation level of copper Cu (II) and Arsenic As (V)
by in vitro raised plants of Brassica juncea Ac:1774 which has already been identified as a hyper-
accumulator of Cr (VI) and multiple metal bio-accumulator (Wijethunghe et al., 2010).
Methodology
Authenticated seed samples of Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) of AC: 1774 was obtained from the
Plant Genetic Recourses Centre (PGRC) at Gannoruwa, Sri Lanka. Seeds were surface sterilized by
rinsing with a 10% solution of commercial bleach for 5 min followed by rinsing with 70% ethanol
solution for 2 min and three times through washings with sterilized distilled water. Sterilized seeds
were briefly dried on filter papers and cultured on solid MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) media.
One week old seedlings were transferred on to a wick placed in liquid MS media in 15 cm culture
tubes supplemented with 0, 50, 150, 200 ppm Cu (II) and 0,5, 15, 25 ppm As (V) separately.
Seedlings were allowed to grow for three weeks in this medium. After that plantlets were removed,
washed with tap water and dried in an oven. Dried platelets were grounded separately to obtain a fine
powder which was acid digested following dry-ash-method and the accumulated heavy metal
concentration for each sample was determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Varian,
Australia). Each treatment had three replicates within an experiment and each experimented was
repeated three times.
50
Plants of Brassica juncea Ac:1774 demonstrated relatively a high bioaccumulation of two heavy
metals tested, As (V) and Cu (II). For As (V) the maximum tolerance level was 25 ppm while for Cu
(V) it was 150 ppm (Fig 1 and 2). Plants showed a significantly (p≤ 0.05) higher Cu (II) tolerance
than As (V). At high concentrations plants showed signs of necrosis and retarded growth due to toxic
effects of As (V). There was no significant effect by replication (Table 1 and 2) and this provides
evidence that by growing plants in vitro, plant to plant variations as well as environmental effects
could be kept at a minimum levels. Sings of toxicity was shown by plants after two to three days
from transfer to MS media supplemented with high concentrations of heavy metals. The effect of AS
(V) was prominent and physiological breakdown of plants is so fast. It has been reported that
Arsenate replaces phosphate when taken up by plants that disrupts the production of ATP which
results in sudden cell death. Also arsenic is inhibitory towards cell function because it reacts with
sulfhydryl enzymes and disrupts their activity (Luongo and Ma, 2005).
Table 01: Accumulation of As (V) (µg/g) in in vitro grown plants of Brassica juncea Ac:1774 after
21 days
0 ppm 5 ppm 15 ppm 25 ppm
R1 0.0 35.1 45.6 56.9
R2 0.0 26.6 49.5 64.6
R3 0.0 35.1 41.2 61.8
Main effects plot forAs(V) mitigation

Mean for As(V)
100 fitted means

mitigation
50
0
0 5 15 25
Concentration of treatments (ppm)
Figure 01. Comparison of means of accumulated As (V) (µg/g) after 21 days of Mitigation against As (V) concentration (ppm)
of the different treatments.
51
Table 1: Accumulation of Cu (II) (µg/g) in in vitro grown plants of Brassica juncea Ac:1774 after
21 days
0 ppm 50 ppm 150ppm 200 ppm
R1 2 689 982 871
R2 8 600 1005 824
R3 6 702 1018 747
Figure 02. Comparison of means of accumulated Cu (II) (µg/g) after 21 days of Mitigation against Cu (II) concentration
(ppm) of the different treatments.
The results indicate that plants of Brassica juncea Ac:1774 could tolerate As (V) at levels higher than
the maximum level (25 ppm) used in this study. The concentrations of As (V) in different treatments
tried in this experiment were determined according to previously reported literature. The results of
this study shows that Brassica juncea Ac:1774 could tolerate even higher As (V) concentrations than
previous studies for Brassica juncea. This study also demonstrates that Brassica juncea plants could
even be used to treat not only contaminated soils as reported by Weerakoon and Somaratne ( 2009),
but also to treat heavy metal contaminated ware water.
Conclusions
This study demonstrated that plants of Brassica juncea Ac 1774 have hyper-accumulative ability of
heavy metals such as As (V) and Cu (II). The amount of accumulation of AS (V) reported in this
study by accession 1774 was higher than any previously reported amounts for other Brassica juncea
varieties. Adaptation of in vitro technique has shown to reduce the replication error and
environmental effects compared to the commonly adapted method of growing plants in soil which is
highly heterozygous. The protocol adapted in this study is suitable for treatment of industrial waste
water contaminated with heavy metals.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge PGRC, Gannoruwa for supplying seed samples of Brassica juncea Ac 1774
and the Department of Geology, Uuniversityof Peradeniya for their assistance in sample analysis.
52
References
Dissanayake, U. S., Tennakoon, K. U. and Priyantha, N. (2002). Potential of two invasive plant
species, Lantana camara L. and Wedelia trilobata L., for selective heavy metal uptake, Cey. J. Sci.
(Bio. Sci.) 29: 1-11.
Kumar, P.B.A.N., Dushenkov, V., Motto, H., Raskin, I. (1995). Phytoextraction: The use of plants
to remove heavy metals from soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 1232-1238.
Luongo, T., and Ma, L.Q. (2005) Characteristics of Arsenic Accumulation by Pteris and non-Pteris
Ferns.Plant Soilx, 117. -277
Murashige, T. and Skoog, F. (1962). A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco
tissue culture. Physiol. Plant. 15:473-497
PGRC Catalogue. (1999). Plant Genetic Resources Catalogue Passport Information. Plant Genetic
Resource Centre (PGRC), Gannoruwa, Sri Lanka. 10-12.
Weerakoon, S.R. and Somaratne, S. (2009). Phytoextractive potential among mustard (Brassica
juncea) genotypes in Sri Lanka. Cey. J. Sci. (Bio. Sci.) 38 (2): 85-93.
Wijethunghe, W.M.K.T. ,Wijesekara ,K.B, and Weerasooriya, R. (2010). Phytoremediation potential

of Brassica juncea (Indian Mustard) genotype for Cr (VI) mitigation. Research proceeding of Uva
Wellassa University .Vol.2 ; 33-35.
53
Enhancement of physical properties of natural rubber

vulcanizates by incorporating rice husk ash with carbon black as a
filler
M. Gnanasubramaniam and J.K. Premachandra*
Introduction
There is a higher demand for carbon black and silica as reinforcing fillers in manufacturing of various
rubber products which enhance the properties such as modulus, tensile strength, resilience and
hardness of vulcanized rubber. Because of their increased prices, it has become a major concern for
finding new fillers replacing carbon black and silica. One of the possible candidates in this regard is
rice husk ash (RHA) which is an agricultural waste causing environmental pollution (Chuayjuljit, et
al., 2001). RHA mainly consists of silica and carbon. Two types of RHA, white rice husk ash
(WRHA) and black rice husk ash (BRHA) can be produced by controlled burning of rice husk
(Sarkawi, et al., 2003, Ramasamy, et al., 2013). In this research the use of WRHA and BRHA as
fillers in enhancing the properties of natural rubber vulcanizates replacing carbon black was
investigated.
Methodology
Two cylindrical metal baskets, one is smaller than the other, were placed coaxially and space between
the cylinders was filled with dried rice husk. Ignition was done inside the small basket which
contained small holes. It formed a little smolders which slowly spread into the rice husk facilitating
controlled burning (Allen, 2004). The burning was continued for a day and obtained WRHA. In order
to produce BRHA the dried rice husk was burnt in an open place for an hour. Both WRHA and
BRHA were sieved to obtain particles with a size range from 150 μm to 300 μm.
Rubber compounding formula for tire side wall was used to prepare the natural rubber (RSS 1)
compounds with different amounts of fillers. A series of rubber compounds having varying amounts
of carbon black (N 330) and BRHA filler. Mixing of the ingredients was carried out in an internal
mixture followed by mixing on a two-roll mill for 5 minutes at 80 °C. Two rubber compounds were
prepared varying the amounts of carbon black (N 330) and WRHA filler employing the same mixing
process. Investigating the processing characteristics of the resulting compounds using a Rheometer,
optimum curing time for each sample at 150 °C was determined. The rubber samples were prepared
by curing the compounds in a hydraulic press at 150 °C for relevant curing time periods.
The tensile properties of resulting vulcanizates were determined following ASTM D412 standard
using Instron machine model 2713. For tear testing the same machine was used following ASTM D-
638 standard. Hardness test was performed using Elastocon machine following IRHD standard.
*
Permanent Address: Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
54
The samples were designated according to the types of fillers and the amounts of fillers in grams
incorporated. In the designation the letters C, B and W represent the presence of carbon black,
WRHA and BRHA, respectively. Each number following the each letter in the sample designation
represents the amount filler in grams present in each sample. Variation of the tensile strength upon
the filler composition in samples is shown in Figure 01. Values of tensile strength of all the rice husk
ash containing samples are considerably higher than that of the reference sample which contains only
carbon black. The samples C81B54, C27B108 and C67.5B67.5 show tensile strength values greater
than 20 MPa. Tensile strength of C67.5B67.5 is little less than the doubled value of the tensile
strength of reference sample. The improvement of tensile strength of RHA containing rubber samples
can be attributed to enhanced rubber-filler interaction and good filler dispersion in the rubber matrix.
This is resulted by relatively high surface area of small RHA particles enabling better wetting of the
particles by the rubber matrix (Onyeagoro, 2012).
25
strength(Mpa)
20
15
Tensile
10
5
0
Sample name
Figure 01: Variation of tensile strength of samples with different filler compositions
The variation of tear strength on the filler composition of the samples is shown in Figure 02. The
highest tear strength is attained by the sample containing only carbon black (C135). The samples
C81B54 and C27B108 show tensile strength values which are nearly three fourth of the value of
tensile strength of C135. The samples W135 and B135 show law values tear strength.
100
Tear strength/KNm-1
80
60
40
20
0
Sample name
Figure 02: Variation of tear strength of samples with different filler compositions
In the case of investigation on hardness of the filled rubber vulcanizates, the reference sample showed
the highest hardness value and the samples B135 and W135 showed very close and considerably high
hardness values. Considering the samples containing BRHA and carbon black mixed filler systems,
it was observed that the hardness of samples decreases with increasing the amount of BRHA filler
and with decreasing the amount of carbon black incorporated. This may be due to relatively large
particle size of carbon black filler which obstruct the movement of the rubber matrix when the matrix
is subjected to indentation (Rahman, et al., 2009).
55
Resilience is a measure of rubber-like elasticity of vulcanizates. It can be observed that the resilience
of the filled rubber samples increases as the amount of RHA increases. The sample W135 shows the
highest resilience (72.67 %) whereas the reference sample shows a low resilience value (58.33%).
Conclusion
The incorporation of RHA as a filler replacing carbon black into natural rubber vulcanizates has
improved some of the mechanical properties of the resulting vulcanizates. Especially, the RHA and
carbon black mixed filler systems and WRHA alone as a filler can considerably improve the tensile
strength of the vulcanizates. Although the tear strength of RHA containing vulcanizates are lower
than that of only carbon black filled sample, tear strength values of samples C81B54, C28B108 and
C67.5W67.5 show promising values. It has been proved that RHA as a filler can better improve the
resilience of rubber vulcanizates than carbon black. However, the mixed filler systems of RHA and
carbon black cannot considerably contribute to the hardness of the vulcanizates. The results of this
investigation confirm that the carbon black can be partly replaced by RHA filler maintaining the
required mechanical properties of natural rubber vulcanizates resulting in reduced cost and
environmentally friendly processing.
Acknowledgement
For providing laboratory facilities and offering valuable assistance in many ways, authors are very
grateful to Dr. Gamini Senevirathne, Director Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RRISL), Dr.
Dilhara Edirisinghe, Acting Head of Rubber Technology and Development Department and the staff
of the same Department in RRISL. The support given by Mr. Asitha Gunasekera, Deputy General
Manager, CEAT Kelani International Tyres (Pvt.) Ltd. Plant, by providing natural rubber and
required chemicals is highly acknowledged.
References
Allen, M. L. (2004). The manufacture of a cement extender from rice-husks using a basket burner,
Thailand Journal of Construction materials, 123-127.
Chuayjuljit, S., Eiumnoh, S. & Potiyaraj, P. (2001). Using silica from rice husk as a reinforcing
filler in natural rubber, Journal of Science and Research, 26(2) 127-138.
Onyeagoro, G.N. (2012). Cure characteristics and physico-mechanical properties of carbonized

bamboo fibre filled natural rubber vulcanizates, International Journal of Modern Engineering
Research, 2(6), 4683-4690.
Rahman, M.W., Rahman, M.E. & Abedin, M. (2009). Improvement of physic mechanical properties
of rice husk powder filled polypropylene composites with latex films by adding urea, Journal of
Polymer, plastic technology and engineering, 48(7), 696-700.
Ramasamy, S., Ismail, H., & Munusamy, Y. (2013). Effect of rice husk powder on compression
behavior of natural rubber latex foam, BioResources, 8(3), 4258-4269.
Sarkawi, S. S. & Aziz, Y. (2003). Ground rice husk as filler in rubber compounding, Journal of
Technology, 135–148.
56
Effect of TiO2 nano-filler on ionic conductivity of poly (ethylene

oxide) based gel polymer electrolyte for magnesium ion batteries
R.A. Jayarathna, H.M.J.C. Pitawala*

and
M.A.K.L. Dissanayake
Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana Road, Kandy
Introduction
Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) have been identified as novel materials for magnesium ion
rechargeable batteries. Among different polymers, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) based systems
are the most studied candidates due to their solvation power, complexion ability, and proper
chemical structure to support ion transport directly connected with Mg 2+ (Dissanayake et al.,
2012). However, ionic conductivity of PEO based polymer electrolytes at ambient temperature is
not high enough for most practical applications. In order to improve the ionic conductivity, the
addition of nano sized oxide fillers into the PEO-salt matrix have been regarded as the most
promising method (Agrawal et al., 2013). We here present the synthesis and characterization of
PEO based Mg2+ ion conducting GPE by incorporating titanium dioxide nano filler (TiO 2).
Methodology
PEO (Mw~1×105), magnesium triflate (MgTf) (purity˃97%), ethylene carbonate (EC) (purity
˃99%), propylene carbonate (PC) (purity ˃99%) were purchased from sigma Aldrich and used
as starting materials along with titanium dioxide (TiO 2) nano-filler. Prior to use, polymer, salt
and TiO2 were vacuum dried using appropriate temperatures. Nano composite polymer
electrolytes were prepared by adding different amounts of TiO 2 (2,5,7.5,10,15 wt.%) in the
PEO:MgTf :EC/PC (1:1) mixture with weights of 0.20 g, 0.12 g, 0.30 g and 0.30 g respectivel y.
The mixtures were heated to 80 oC and magnetically stirred for 12 hours without heating until a
homogenous gel was formed. The cathode film was prepared using vanadium pentoxide (V 2O5),
carbon black and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVdF) with the weight percentages of 76%, 14% and
10% respectively with the solvent of 1-methyl -1, 2-dipyrrolidine using doctor blade method.
The prepared electrolytes were characterized in order to obtain their ionic conductivity using
complex impedance spectroscopy whereas electrochemical tests were performed using the cells,
Mg/electrolyte/V2O5:C. DC polarization tests were done using both blocking (stainless steel) and
non-blocking (Mg) electrodes. Microscopic images of the electrolytes were taken using the
polarization microscope to investigate the change of crystallinity with the addition of nano-filler.
57
Figure 01(a) shows the temperature dependence of ionic conductivity for the GPEs,
PEO:MgTf:EC/PC (1:1), incorporating different wt. % of nano-sized TiO2 filler. Among studied
systems, highest ionic conductivity is observed for the GPE with 5 wt. % filler content. Figure
01(b) shows the variation of conductivity with different wt. % TiO 2 at various temperatures
(conductivity isotherms) for the PEO:MgTf:EC /PC (1:1) GPEs. This plot also shows that the 5
wt.% filler containing electrolyte has the highest ionic conductivity in the studied temperature
range. A possible explanation to this effect could be the availability of extra hopping sites for
migrating ionic species due to formation of Lewis acid-base type interactions of ionic species with
O/OH surface groups on TiO2 nano filler (Pitawala et al., 2008).
(a)
(b)
Figure 01: (a) Variation of temperature dependence of ionic conductivity for different compositions of titanium dioxide
filler (b) Conductivity isotherms.
It is clear that the conductivity starts to decrease when the filler concentration exceeds 5 wt. %. This
implies that excess amount of filler may reduce the solubility of Mg-salt and increase the probability
of formation of ion-pairs and higher ionic aggregates thus reducing the number of free Mg++ ions
available for ionic transport. The blocking effect due to higher concentration of TiO2 would also
contribute to this conductivity drop.
A comparison of the surface morphology of filler free and filler added (5 wt. %) GPEs shows a
marked change in the polarization micrographs (results are not shown here). This is related to the
increase of amorphous phase of material which favors the decrease of the crystallinity after addition
of filler. The increase of the amorphous phase content would directly contribute to the observed
conductivity enhancement (Mohan et al., 2005).
Figure 02 shows the electrochemical test results for Mg/electrolyte/V2O5:C cell, when (a) filler free
electrolyte and (b) electrolyte with 5 wt. % filler. The capacity of the battery calculated using
these results is 43.59 mA h/g (filler free electrolyte) and 65.40 mA h/g (5 wt. % filler added
electrolyte). According to these observations, due to the addition of TiO 2 nano filler into the parent
electrolyte, the cell capacity has enhanced due to the increase of ionic conductivity of the GPEs as
discussed.
58
Figure 02: Electrochemical test for Mg/electrolyte/V2O5:C cell (a) filler free electrolyte (b) electrolyte with 5 wt.% filler.
Our DC polarization test results are summarized in Table 01. The ionic transference number has
increased from 0.045 to 0.075 with the addition of 5wt. % filler into the PEO:MgTf:EC/PC (1:1)
GPE.
Table 01: DC polarization test results for the electrolytes without filler and with 5 wt. %
filler.
Electrolyte Electronic transference number Ionic transference number
SS/electrolyte/SS system Mg/electrolyte/Mg system
without filler 0.005 0.045
with 5wt.% filler 0.010 0.075
Conclusion
In this work, we have studied the effect of titanium dioxide nano filler (TiO 2) on the ionic
conductivity of gel polymer electrolyte based on PEO polymer. Our results show that the
incorporation of titanium dioxide nano filler into PEO:MgTf: EC/PC (1:1) gel polymer
electrolyte has resulted a significant enhancement of ionic conductivity with the values of 2.63
mS cm-1 (without filler) and 3.48 mS cm-1 (with 5 wt.% filler) at 30 oC. In addition, the cell
consisting of electrolyte with 5wt. % filler has shown a higher capacity than the filler free
electrolyte. The polarization micrographs show that the decrease of crystallinity and increase of
amorphous phase content of the parent electrolyte with the addition of filler. DC polarization test
results show that the conduction is predominantly due to ions rather than electrons. The possible
explanation of this conductivity enhancement can be explained by the increase of the amorphous
phase content of the parent electrolyte due to addition of filler. In addition, the conductivity
enhancement is directly associated with surface interactions of the filler particles with ionic
species providing extra ion hopping sites in the system.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mr. C.A. Thotawattage, Research Assistant, IFS and the research team
in the Condensed Matter Physics laboratory at IFS for their great support. Also the advice and
guidance by Prof. G. K. R. Senadheera and Dr. V. A. Senaviratna are gratefully acknowledged.
59
References
Agrawal, R.C., Sahu, D.K. (2013). Mg2+ Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes: Materials
Characterization and All-Solid-State Battery Performance Studies. Journal of Physical Science
and Application, 3 (1), 9-17.
Dissanayake, M.A.K.L., Rupasinghe, W.N.S., Jayasundara, J.M.N.I., Ekanayake, P., Bandara,

T.M.W.J., Thalawala, S.N., Senavirathna, V.A. (2013). Ionic conductivity enhancement in the
solid polymer electrolyte PEO9LiTf by nanosilica filler from rice husk ash. Journal of Solid State
Electrochemistry, 17, 1775-1783.
Mohan, V. M., Raja, V., Sharma, A. K., Rao, V.V.R.N. (2005). Ionic conductivity and discharge
characteristics of solid state battery based novel polymer electrolyte (PEO+NaBF4). Materials
Chemistry and Physics, 94, 177-181.
Pitawala, H. M. J. C., Dissanayake, M. A. K. L., Seneviratna, V. A., Mellander, B. E., Albinson,

I. (2008). Effect of plasticizers (EC or PC) on the ionic conductivity and thermal properties of
the (PEO)9 LiTf: Al2O3 nanocomposite polymer electrolyte system. Journal of Solid State
Electrochemistry, 12, 783–789.
60
Synthesis and characterization of sodium ion conducting solid

polymer electrolytes based on poly (ethylene oxide)
W.A.A.E.B. Wanithunga, H.M.J.C. Pitawala*
and
V.A. Seneviratne
Department of Physics, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya,
Introduction
Developments of novel ion conducting materials for energy storage devices are presently
receiving much attention due to demand of energy. Among different strategies, polymer based
solid electrolytes have several advantages such as light weight, flexibility and absence of leakage
of electrolyte, compared to the conventional liquid electrolytes (Gray, F. M., 1991). In this work,
synthesis of poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) based sodium ion conducting electrolytes and
characterization them using complex impedance spectroscopy, polarization microscopy, and FTIR
spectroscopy are discussed.
Methodology
The polymer electrolytes were synthesized using common solvent casting method. Prior to use,
PEO and salt (NaClO4) were vacuum dried at 50 °C and 120 °C respectively. Appropriate
quantities of PEO and NaClO4 were mixed keeping the oxygen to Na+ molar ratios as n:1, where
n=80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 15. Mixtures were dissolved in acetonitrile and stirred well for 24hrs
at room temperature and the slurry was cast on a Teflon support. Prior to take measurements, the
prepared electrolyte films were vacuum dried over 24 hrs. In order to study the temperature
dependence of ionic conductivity, the complex impedance measurements were carried out. The
surface morphology and polymer-salt interactions of some selected samples have been studied
using polarization microscopy and FTIR spectroscopy respectively.

The temperature dependence of ionic conductivity for the solid polymer electrolytes (PEO)n
NaClO4 (n=80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 15) is shown in Figure 01(A). It is clear from this figure
that the electrolyte (PEO)20NaClO4 shows the highest ionic conductivity at room
temperature(25 °C). The room temperature conductivity of the sample (PEO)20 NaClO4 is
1.01x10-4 S cm1. The plots of the variation of conductivity versus Na +/PEO molar ratios at
various temperatures (conductivity isotherms) is shown in Figure 01(B). These results also indicate
the highest ionic conductivity for the sample (PEO)20NaClO4 for different temperatures.
A closer inspection of the curves of Figure 01(A) reveals that the semi-crystalline to amorphous
phase transition occurs around 60 °C and that a much greater conductivity enhancement occurs in
the crystalline phase compared to that of amorphous phase. The crystalline to amorphous phase
transition of the samples (PEO)nNaClO4 (n=80, 60, 50, 40, and 30) is much more visible compared
to the samples of (PEO)15NaClO4 and (PEO)20NaClO4 and transition has almost disappeared
61
for those two samples. This is revealed that the ionic conductivity of electrolytes (PEO)15NaClO4
and (PEO)20NaClO4, does not follow the Arrhenius type but Vogel-Tamman- Fulcher (VTF)
behavior indicating their amorphous nature (Pitawala et al., 2007).
(B)
(A)
Figure 01: (A) Variation of ionic conductivity with inverse temperature for the polymer electrolyte samples,
(PEO)n NaClO4 (n=80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 15). (B) Conductivity isotherms for some selected temperatures, 27 °C,
40°C, and 80°C electrolyte
Figure 02: Polarization micrographs of some Figure 03: FTIR spectrums of (PEO)nNaClO4
selected electrolytes, [a](PEO)20NaClO4 electrolytes (a) pure PEO, (b) n=60, (c) n=30,
[b](PEO)30NaClO4 [c](PEO)60NaClO4, and (d) n=20, and (e) n=15 in the region around
[d]100% PEO. spectra
Figure 02 shows the polarization micrographs of the samples, (PEO)nNaClO4 (n=20, 30, and 60),
together with pure PEO. A comparision of the surface morphology shows a remarkable change in
the surface properties and texture of polymeric thin films with different salt contents. The
concentration (size) of spherulites decreases (increases) with increase of salt concentration, having
larger spherulites for the (PEO)20NaClO4. The micrograph of pure PEO does not show clear
spherulites may be due to its high crystallinity. These results clearly shows the increment of
amorphous phase content of the sample and favors decreasing the crystallinity by preventing
agglomeration of the polymer chains. Thus, the transition of the semi-crystalline to amorphous
phase is discussed above in conductivity results can be further confirmed with the aid of these
micrographs.
62
FTIR spectra can provide information on both structural changes of the polymer in the
electrolyte and interactions between salt and the polymer (Dissanayake et al.,1995; Seneviratne et
al., 2002). Figure 03 shows the FTIR spectrums of the (PEO)nNaClO4 electrolytes (n=60, 30, 20,
and 15) alone with pure PEO in the region around the C-O-C vibrational mode of the PEO.
The sample having high crystallinity, (PEO)60NaClO4, shows almost similar spectral shape as seen
in pure PEO. In addition, the shape of the peak for other three samples has clearly broadened
while they have small differences between each other. These spectra indicate that there is a small
but clear influence on this vibrational mode when the salt concentration change in the PEO:salt
complex. However, more work should be done for detail analysis of these interactions.
In order to understand the nature of the charged transport of the sample having highest ionic
conductivity, the DC polarization test was carried out using the stainless steel (SS) blocking
electrodes in a cell, SS/electrolyte/SS (graph is not shown here). According to the results, the
electronic transference number of the electrolyte (PEO)20NaClO4 is 0.0075. This indicates that the
charge conduction is predominantly due to ions rather than electrons.
Conclusion
In this work, we synthesized and characterized Na + ion conducting solid polymer electrolytes based
on PEO polymer. The Na-ion conduction was obtained by incorporating appropriate quantities of
NaClO4 into the polymer with oxygen to Na+ molar ratio, n : 1, where n=80, 60, 50,40, 30, 20, and
15. In the (PEO)nNaClO4 polymer salt complex, the highest ionic conductivity is observed for the
system (PEO)20NaClO4. The polarization micrograhs shows a remarkable change in the surface
properties and texture of polymeric thin films with different salt contents. In addition, FTIR spectra
indicate that there is a small but clear influence on the vibrational modes of the polymer for different
PEO:salt complexes.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Dr. Kalinga Bandara, Head, Department of Physics, University of
Peradeniya for providing the opportunity to carry out this work in his department. Also the great
support by Ms. V. Amarasinghe, Research Assistant, Solid State Ionics laboratory is gratefully
acknowledged.
References
Dissanayake, M.A.K.L., Frech, R. (1995). Infrared Spectroscopic Study of the Phases and Phase
Transitions in Poly(ethylene oxide) and Poly(ethylene oxide) -Lithium Trifluoromethanesulfonate
Complexes, Macromolecules, 28, 5312-5319.
Gray, F. M. (1991). Solid Polymer Electrolytes: Fundamentals and Technological Applications,

John Wiley & Inc.
Pitawala, H. M. J. C., Dissanayake, M. A. K. L., Seneviratne, V. A. (2007). Combined effect of
Al2O3 nano-fillers and EC plastizer on ionic conductivity enhancement in the solid polymer
electrolyte (PEO)9LiTf, Solid state Ionics, 178, 885-888.
Seneviratne, V., Furneaux, J. E., Frech, R. (2002). Far-Infrared Spectroscopy of the
Poly(ethylene oxide)xLiCF3SO3 System, Macromolecules, 35, 6.
63
An assessment on the possibility of process modification for crumb

products, from manual packing to a semi-automated packing
mechanism
H.S.S. Fernando, I. Wickramasinghe
Department of Food Science & Technology University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka
and
N. Lalantha
Department Research & Development , Keells Food Products PLC, Sri Lanka
Introduction
Production management is an area of management concerned with overseeing, designing and

redesigning business operations in the production of goods and services. Automation of a
packing line will increase the productivity and will reduce contamination. Modern warehouses
are called distribution centres, to emphasize that they only profit by moving goods. To a
distribution centre, storage represents unproductive assets. In present era, fast food consumers
are looking for readymade products and increased interest is shown in partial replacement of
meat system with extenders/binders/fillers (Sohila, 2008). In recent times there has been a
remarkable increase in demand for ready to eat meat products (Duxbury, 1989). Therefore food
industry is now forced to develop a variety of convenience products with improved quality and
lower cost to meet increasing demand for meat based food products (Thomas et al., 2007). The
study evaluated the current packing mechanism with new, planned semi-automated mechanism
relevant to the aspects such as overall labour effectiveness, warehouse utilization and etc. After
analyzing the current and future scenarios, the study focused on the suggesting a vacuum
packing operation for crumb products.
Methodology
The packing volume and the consumed labour hours were observed and noted in the data
collection sheet as to evaluate the productivity difference between labour and machine. Then the
chicken drumstick samples were subjected to a transport trial and the number of non- conformance
units of chicken drumstick occurred in the transport trial was observed and noted regarding the
current pack arrangement and new pack arrangement. Then two different arrangement methods
were compared by using two sample T test to see whether there is a significant difference in
defects/non conformances occurred during transportation (ISTA Guidelines). Also the number of
non-conformance units of chicken drumstick occurred in the transport trial was observed regarding
the new pack arrangement relevant to 310 gsm and 350 gsm pack densities. Then two different
gsm packs were compared by using two sample T test to find out whether there is a significant
difference in defects/non conformances occurred during transportation (ISTA Guidelines). The
sample (10 g) was taken in to a 100 ml beaker and 25 ml of distilled water was added and mixed
64
well. Then the pH measure was taken. About 5 g of the sample was weighed in to a moisture dish
which was previously dried in an oven maintained at 105˚c and weighed. Once in every week
TPC, E.coli count, Streptococci spp. count and fungus count were tested for each vacuum packed
and non- vacuum packed samples. The sensory qualities of vacuum packed and non vacuum
packed crumbed products (Chicken drumstick) were evaluated by a panel of ten panelists who
were trained to familiarize with the sensorial attributes of fried chicken drumsticks using
differentiating and descriptive tests.
According to One sample T test results, Labour packing productivity was significantly different
(P<0.05) from the given machine packing productivity and unionized labour packing
productivity was significantly different (P<0.05) from the non-unionized labour packing
productivity. Also the “c” of cobb-dougles function was less than 1 and it reveals that non-
unionized labour is more productive. According to the Two sample T test result, defects
occurred in current packing arrangement was significantly different (P<0.05) from the defects
percentage that occurred in new packing arrangement for 1kg and 300 g packs and defects
occurred in 350gsm packs was not significantly different (P<0.05) from the defects percentage
that occurred in 310gsm packs which are arranged in new packing arrangement for 1kg and
300g packs. Space saved by the new arrangement, for 1kg pack was 0.84 x 10-3 m3 and for 300g
pack it was 0.85 x 10-4 m3. In the Two sample T test, vacuum packed chicken drumsticks and
normal packed chicken drumsticks had a significant difference (P<0.05) in moisture levels
measured in the consecutive storing weeks. Vacuum packed chicken drumstics have a less
variation pattern compared to the normal packed chicken drumstics in moisture percentage. But
there was no significant difference in pH variation (P>0.05) between the two samples. Salmonella,
E.coli, Staphylococci. Spp., Yeast and mold were not observed during the 8 weeks of storing
period (-18 ˚C) in both the vacuum packed and normal packed chicken drumstick samples. But
the Total plate count increased with the storing period (-18 ˚C) according to the packing method.
According to the Kruskal-Wallis test results colour, texture, taste and overall acceptability were
significantly different in the vacuum packed (sample 622) and non vacuum packed (sample 351)
chicken drumsticks. But odour was not significantly different between the two samples. Also the
panelists more preferred the vacuum packed sample.
Mean Preference
Figure 01: Graphical representation of the sensory analysis
65
Conclusions
From the results of this study, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in
productivity of the labour and the automated packing machine in terms of packs per hour. Packing
machine has a considerable higher productivity. There is a significant difference in labour
productivity of unionized labour and non-unionized labour. Unionized labour productivity
is lesser than the productivity of non-unionized laboures. Sometimes total stoppages of packing
(Production) can happen due to union actions and it will lead to higher losses during seasons of
higher demand. The new arrangement method of Chicken drumsticks reduces the defects than the
current practice during transportation, storage and handling. New arrangement has few defects
compared to the current method. The chicken drumsticks packed in 350 gsm packs and 310 gsm
had no significant difference in number of defects during transportation, storage and handling. Even
though current practice is to pack, chicken drumstick in a normal cardboard box and shrink wrap
it, this can be changed in to vacuum packing, as it is having lesser increment in total plate count.
Also the vacuum packed chicken drumsticks contained lesser percentage of moisture compared to
the normal pack in the time of storing (-18˚C) and the variation with the storing period is smaller
than the normal pack variation. But the pH variation is not considerably different between two
packing methods. Also the sensory evaluation conclude that the vacuum packed chicken
drumsticks are preferred over normal packaged drumsticks with respect to sensory attributes
such as colour, texture, taste and overall acceptability. Sensory analysis revealed that the products
were better preserved under vacuum conditions.
Acknowledgement
University of Sri Jayewardenepura and Keells Food Products PLC are acknowledged.
References
Keells Food Products. Retrieved May 01, 2014, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.keellsfoods.com
Krishnaswami, K. (1990). Operations Management. Hall of India (pvt) Ltd India.
Mueller, S. (2009). The Productivity Effect of Non-Union. Friedrich Alexander University.
Paneerselvan, R. (1987). Production and operations management. Asoke Ghosh (pvt) Ltd India.
303-308.
Poste, L. (1991). Laboratory methods for sensory analysis of food. Ottawa: Canadian
Cataloguing in Publication Data.
Punchira, V., Aporn, W., Nongpanga, K.., & Niporn, D.(2008). Asian Journal of Food and
Agro-Industry, 1(04), 197-204.
Suslow, T. (1998). Key lessons from applied transportation projects. Perishables Handling :5-8.
66
Degradation of vulcanized natural rubber using soybean and

sesame oils
R.M.M.D. Rathnayake and C.K. Jayasuriya
Faculty of Science, University of Kelaniya
Introduction
Vulcanized rubber products used in various applications cause serious environmental issues due to
their very slow degradation (Treloar, 2005, Blackley, 1997). The present research focuses on
enhancing degradation of vulcanized rubber products which are discarded after their usage. Due to
the unsaturated nature, rubber molecules are susceptible to degradation in the presence of peroxide
radicals (Adhikari, et al 2000). Therefore, it is expected that the peroxide radicals produced in the
oxidation of natural oils can enhance degradation. The oxidation of a natural oil increases with it’s
degree of unsaturation which increases the rate of degradation. Therefore, highly unsaturated locally
available soybean and sesame oil were used in the study.
Vulcanized rubber samples were prepared according to the tire tread formulation. Technically
specified rubber (TSR) (100.00 g) was added into the internal mixer and allowed to crush well. Then
stearic acid (2.00 g) and zinc oxide (5.00 g) were added and mixed well. After about 3 minutes carbon
black (N 375 black) (73.00 g) and process oil (naphthenic oil) (5.00 g) were collected into the internal
mixer. Finally, antidegradent N- isopropyl- N- phenyl-p- phenylenediamine (IPPD) (2.70 g) and wax
(1.00g) were added and allowed to mix well. The prepared mixture was taken out from the internal
mixer and set aside to cool. After cooling, the mixture was processed in the two roll mill for about 7-
8 minutes at the same time adding the accelerator N- tert- butyl- 2- benzothiazolesulferamide (TBBS)
(1.00 g) and sulphur (2.50 g). Finally a thick rubber sheet was obtained. Then the sample was cooled
for 16 h and vulcanization of the samples was carried out in the hydraulic hot press at 150 ºC for 28
minutes to produce sheets of thickness approximately 3 mm (White, 1995). The resulting rubber
sheets were cut into square pieces (7.5 × 11.0 cm2) and immersed in soybean and sesame oil for
different period of times at room temperature. In addition, the effect of these oils on degradation in
the presence of sun light and copper catalyst, only for 5-week time period was also studied. At the
end of the each time period, samples were taken out from the oil and wiped well before testing and
characterization. Tensile properties (ISO 37-1977) and tear strength (ISO 34-1979) were determined
with reference to the vulcanized rubber sample which was not immersed in oil (blank). The thermal
properties were obtained by exposing the samples to a temperature range of (23-500) °C at an
increasing rate of 5 °C min-1 using the Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA).
Stress- Strain curves for natural rubber samples immersed in soybean oil and in sesame oil are given
in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. According to the results all the samples immersed in sesame oil and
67
soybean oil, have reduced their tensile strengths compared to the blank. The tensile strength values
of the samples immersed in soybean oil for equal time period are lower than those immersed in
sesame oil. According to the results, when the exposure time is increased the tensile strength values
in both type of oils have decreased significantly. The greater losses of tensile strengths were shown
by the samples in the presence of sun light and copper catalyst. Similar pattern of results were
obtained for tear strength (Figure 3). TGA results show that the degradation temperatures of all the
samples immersed in sesame oil and soybean oil have been reduced compared to the blank sample.
The degradation temperatures of the samples, immersed in soybean oil are lower than those immersed
in sesame oil for the same time period.
10
9
8
7
Stress / MPa
6 blank
5 5 wk
4 9 wk
3
5 wk/ light
2
1 5 wk/ Cu
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Strain
Figure 01. Stress- Strain curves of natural rubber samples immersed in soybean oil
10
9
8
7
Stress / MPa
blank
6
5 5 wk
4 9 wk
3
2 5 wk/ light
1 5 wk/ Cu
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Strain
Figure 02. Stress- Strain curves of natural rubber samples immersed in sesame oil
68
18.00 In Sesame oil In Soybean oil

16.00
Tear Strength (N/mm)
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
No of weeks
Figure 03: Tear strength of natural rubber samples immersed in sesame oil and soybean oil
Degradation can occur by breaking the existing cross links in the vulcanized rubber or by promoting
scission of the main chain of the polymer or by both processes and resulting in hardening, softening,
tackiness, random or orientated cracking, loss of tensile and tear strength, loss of elasticity, etc.
(Rajan, et al, 2006) Loss of tensile strength and tear strength in the present research show evidence
of enhanced degradation. In addition, the reduction in degradation temperatures also provides more
evidence. In the presence of sun light and copper catalyst loss of these parameters is higher than
sample immersed in room temperature for the same time period. Usually oxidation of edible oils is
influenced by sun light, metals (iron, copper), etc and it can produce more peroxide radicals which
may account for the enhanced degradation of rubber molecules. Loss of the tensile and tear strengths
is considerably higher in soybean oil than in sesame oil due to high amount of polyunsaturated fatty
acids in soybean oil compared to sesame oil. The polyunsaturated fatty acid amounts in soybean oil
and sesame oil used in this research are 61% and 47%, respectively.
Conclusions
The degradation of vulcanized rubber can be enhanced using soybean and sesame oil. Longer the
time immersed in oils, lower the tensile strength, tear strength and the degradation temperature of
vulcanized rubber samples indicating enhanced degradation. In addition, the presence of sun light
and copper catalyst also has enhanced degradation. From the two types of oils used, soybean oil
shows better enhanced properties. The enhanced degradation which could possibly be achieved by
simply immersing the vulcanized rubber products in highly unsaturated oils before they are discarded
will provide a solution for environmental problems caused due to non-degradable rubber waste.
Acknowledgement
Laboratory facilities provided by Departments of Chemical Engineering and Materials Engineering,

University of Moratuwa and the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka are greatly acknowledged.
69
References
Adhikari, B., De, D. and Maiti, S. (2000). Reclamation and recycling of waste rubber.
Prog. Polym. Sci. 25, 909- 948.
Blackley, D,C. (1997) Polymer lattices, science and technology fundamental principles. Chapman &
Hall, New York, U.S.A.
Rajan, V.V., Dierkes, W.K., Joseph, R. and Noordermeer, J,W,M. (2006). Science and
technology of rubber reclamation with special attention to NR-based waste latex products. Prog.
Polym. Sci. 31, 811- 834.
Treloar, L. R. G. (2005) The physics of rubber elasticity. Oxford University Press, U.K.
White, J.L. (1995). Rubber processing technology- materials and principles. Techse composition
Ltd, New York, U.S.A.
70
Development of light weight bricks using red clay and rice-husk

G. Vyshnavi, J. Pitawala, D.D.C. Wanniarachchi*
and
H.M.T.G.A. Pitawala
Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Introduction
Bricks are one of the oldest building materials that can be made at relatively low cost. They have
been in continual use for more than 5000 years and still used in Sri Lanka, because of their many
advantages (El-Mahllawy et al., 2013). Mud bricks, burned bricks and cement bricks are types of
bricks using in construction purposes (Society of Civil Engineers, 1996). The composition of red clay
minerals used in brick production is SiO2 (60.67%), Al2O3 (15.18%) and Fe2O3 (7.61%) (Hettiarachchi
et al., 2010). Certain admixtures such as rice-husks, sawdust, etc. are added to brick raw mixtures to
produce different effects such as color, high strength, or low weight in the finished product.
Admixtures consists of organic matter are burned out when bricks undergo firing. Consequently,
porous bricks are produced. This permits the control of the bulk density of brick products and help in
producing lighter bricks with low material cost. In this research work, bricks are made using red clay
and 5 wt. % of rice-husk or 5 wt. % of rice-husk ash as admixtures. The fabricated bricks were
analyzed to measure material properties such as compressive strength, weight, volume, density, water
absorption, and color changes during firing process. Results are then compared with the values
obtained from commercial bricks.
Methodology
Preparation of prototype bricks

The dimensions of the bricks studied in this project were 25% of the commercial brick dimensions.
Accordingly, length.41/4” (10.79 cm) x width 23/4” (6.98 cm) x height 11/4” (3.17 cm) mold was
used to make prototype bricks. Bricks were made with both premixed clay (obtained from brick
makers) and dried clay with rice husk.
Procedure 1 (Premixed Clay)

The amount of water added to the clay material was unknown as it was obtained as a wet sample
from the brick makers. The purpose of making bricks with this premix is to set standards for tensile
strength and weight of the bricks similar to market quality bricks. Accordingly, five brick blocks
were made with premixed clay (500 g). These bricks are labeled as sample 1.
Procedure 2 (Dried Clay)

Clay material and rice-husk sample were dried until a constant weight was obtained (2-3 days). Then
dried clay and a known amount of water were mixed to produce bricks to be used as the control
(sample 2) to compare the effect of rice husk. The same amount of clay and water were mixed with
either five percent of rice-husk (sample 3) or rice-husk ash (sample 4). In each case, five bricks were
made. All the brick samples were dried under sunlight for four days. Firing process of the bricks was
71
done using a common rice-husk burning kiln or using an electrical furnace at 1000 oC during this
research.
All bricks were tested for compressive strength, weight, volume, density, water absorption, and color
changes. Bricks made with rice husk (sample 3 and 4) were compared against premix samples
(sample 1) and bricks made without rice husk (sample 2).
Density of the prototype bricks

The dimensions and weight of the bricks were recorded for all samples before and after firing. These
data were used to calculate the volume and density of bricks. According to the results, volumes of
unfired bricks samples are almost equal, but after firing the bricks have different values for volume
due to evaporation of water and burning of organic matter during firing process. The lowest density
was recoded for sample with rice husk (3) compared to the control sample (2). Also addition of rice
husk in sample 3 resulted in lower density compared to the sample with rice husk ash (4). This
observation is in agreement with the expected trend in density where rice husk burning will result
higher loss in weight compared to rice husk ash.
Table 01. Changes in density of bricks

Density/gcm-3
1 2 3 4
Before Fired 2.00 1.97 1.82 1.84
After Fired 1.94 1.93 1.69 1.79
Water Absorption of the prototype bricks

The amount of water absorbed by bricks were measured by dipping the sample in to a beaker filled
with water (400 – 500 ml) for 60 minutes followed by measuring the change in weight of the brick.
The percentage of weight rise is given as amount of water absorbed by the brick. Water absorption
of the red clay bricks with rice husk are less than others, due to water resistant nature of rice husk.
Also this value is within the accepted standards of construction bricks, (Brick Industry Association,
2007) which indicate higher durability for such bricks.
Table 02: Water absorption of fired bricks
Samples 1 2 3 4 Commercial Brick

Water Absorption (%) 3.43 3.02 1.55 2.04 6.33
Strength of the prototype bricks

Bricks made with rice husk indicated higher tensile strength (measured by Universal Tensile
Machine, J. T. M. Technology) compared to other types of bricks as shown in Figure 1. Main
composition of rice husk is SiO2 (93.59%)(German et al., 1985). Therefore, enhanced Si-O bonds
between red clay and silica from rice husk could be a reason for higher tensile strength (Cleerfield,
et al., 1982). SiO2 presents as SiO4 units inside the body of the brick block and each oxygen atom
72
interacts with other impurities such as Al3+, Fe2+ and etc. Thus, the formation of strong bonds inside
the brick results it hard to break. (Sutas et al., 2012, German et al., 1982).
Color change
The unfired clay bricks were brown in color and became red after firing. It is because of chelation of
iron with oxides and silicates in clay when supplying heat energy.
Figure 01. Compressive strength of brick samples
Conclusions
By addition of rice-husk into the red clay, we observed an increase in the strength, decrease in the
water absorption, and ecrease in the density of the brick block. Final conclusion of this research
suggests that by adding admixture of rice-husk into the red clay we can develop light weight bricks
with high compressive strength than commercial bricks or red clay with rice-husk ash.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge all the staff and the Faculty of Science and Technology, Uva
Welleassa University, Sri Lanka. Further they would also like to thank to Department of Chemical
Engineering and Processing, Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya and Mahiyangana
Brick Producers, CECB UWU site Manager and Passara rice mill for providing materials.
References
Brick Industry Association, 2007, Technical notes on brick construction, www.gobrick.com

Cleerfield, 1982, Comparative Study of Compressive Strength of Bricks Made With Various
Materials to Clay Bricks.
El- German, R. M., 1985, Liquid Phase Sintering, facsimile ed. New York, Plenium Press
Hettiarachchi, P., Motha1, J. T. S., and Pitawala H. M. T. G. A., 2010 Identification of an appropriate
body composition for red clay products, Cerâmica 56, 285-290
Mahllawy, M.S., Kandeel, A.M., 2013, Engineering and mineralogical characteristics of stabilized
unfired montmorillonitic clay bricks, HBRC Journal.
Society of Civil Engineers, 1996, Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures American
New York, NY, (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-95)
.Sutas J., Mana, A., Pitak, L., 2012, Procedia Engineering 32 1061 – 1067.
73
Anticoagulant activity, antibacterial activity and toxicity effect of

selected plant in Asteracea family
H.S.U. De Silva, K.B. Wijesekara and S.N. Premathilake

Introduction
Traditional herbal medicine is used for maintain the health of people since ancient time. Herbal
medicinal related drugs are safe and have fewer side effects. Due to that reason the usage of herbal
medicine is popular in all around the world. Medicinal plants play major role in various types of
medicinal activities (Ramya et al., 2009). Among those treatments medicinal plants have the wound
healing activity and anticoagulation activity. Plants have the ability of management and treatment of
wounds due to its antibacterial activity (Ukwueze et al., 2013). Various types of plant have the ability
of anticoagulation and such plants claimed in the traditional system still remain to be scientifically
investigated (Narjis, 2013). Among such medicinal plants Emilia sonchifolia, Ageratum conyzoides
and Mikania micrantha have various medicinal activities. At the same time Emilia sonchifolia,
Ageratum conyzoides and Mikania micrantha show some toxicity effect. Due to that reason it is
necessary to identify toxic effect of these plants. Zebrafish eggs are used in toxicological and
pharmacological activities due to its small size of fish and transparency of eggs and embryos.
Changes in the morphology of development of zebrafish embryos can easily observed. Due to that
reason zebrafish eggs is used as a toxicological model to test toxic effect of these three plants
(Rahman et al., 2012).
The aim of this research is to formulate and evaluate the antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus
aureus which is one of the major wound infective pathogen, anticoagulation activity and toxicity
effect of these three plants.
Methodology
Plants were collected from university premises with the consideration of environmental conditions.
Powdered plant materials were extracted with methanol, using Soxhlet apparatus at a controlled
temperature. The extracts were concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure using rotary vacuum
evaporator at 40°C. Various concentration of extract solution were prepared using stock solutions.
Agar well diffusion method was used to test antibacterial activity. MIC was determined for extracts
lowest concentration that showed more than or equal 7 mm diameter growth inhibition zone.
Prothrombin Test (PT) was used measure coagulation time for test anticoagulation activity.
Zebrasfish eggs were used as toxicological model for test toxic activity of three plants.
Highest amount of plant extract were showed by leaves part of each plant while roots were given
lowest amount of plant extracts.
74
Table 01: Percentage of leaves extraction yield obtained from three plants
Plant Percentage of extraction yield (%)

Ageratum conyzoides 9.17
Emilia sonchifolia 13.75
Mikania micrantha 13.33
In antibacterial activity test leaves extracts of three plants were showed highest inhibition zone and
root parts were showed lowest inhibition zone. It means that leaves parts of three plants have highest
antibacterial activity. Minimum inhibition concentration was obtained by the concentration which
was showed inhibition zone more than or equal 0.7cm.
Table 02: Minimum Inhibition Concentration (MIC) of leaves part of three plants
Plant MIC(mg/mL)
Ageratum conyzoides 12.5
Emilia sonchifolia 12.5
Mikania micrantha 12.5
Statistical analysis was done by using Minitab 15 version. According to the analysis of variance, there
were significant relationship between concentration and plant part with inhibition zone (P-value
<0.05). According to the mean value comparison highest inhibition zones were showed by leaves
parts of each plant and inhibition zones were increased with concentration. Therefore best
combination of each plant was leaves with 200 mg/mL.
Tukey comparison was done to pair wise comparison and it was showed that there were significant
difference in between each plant part of three plants (P-value <0.05). Dunnet test was proved that
there was no other effective plant part other than leaves part of each plant (P-value <0.05).
In anticoagulation activity test, prothrombin time was measured to test anticoagulation activity of
each plant part to the analysis of variance, there were significant relationship between concentration
and plant part with prothrombin time (P-value <0.05).
According to the mean value comparison highest prothrombin times were showed by flower of
Ageratum conyzoides, root of Emilia sonchifolia and leaves part of Mikania micrantha and
prothrombin times were increased with concentration. That means flower of Ageratum conyzoides,
root of Emilia sonchifolia and leaves of Mikania micrantha have highest anticoagulation activity.
Tukey comparison was done to pair wise comparison and it was showed that there were significant
difference in between each plant part of three plants (P-value <0.05). Dunnet test was proved that
there were no other effective plant part other than best part of each plant (P-value <0.05).
75
Acute toxicity was determined by using whole plant extract of each plant and it was determined by
probit analysis using LC50 value. LC50 value was the concentration that was lethal to 50% of the test
embryos. When the LC50 value in between 500 μg/ml-1000 μg/ml it was considered as least toxic, in
between 100 μg/ml to 500 μg/ml moderate toxic, strong in between 0-100 μg/ml and non-toxic above
than 1000 μg/ml.
Table 03: LC50 values for selected plants
Plant Antilog value LC50 value(μg/ml) Toxicity
Ageratum conyzoides 1.68590 48.5177 Toxic
Emilia sonchifolia 1.64740 44.4017 Toxic
Mikania micrantha 1.78230 60.5759 Toxic
Conclusion
Methanolic extracts of Emilia sonchifolia, Ageratum conyzoides and Mikania micrantha have
antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Leaves parts of three plants have highest
antibacterial activity.Aqueous extract of three plants have anticlotting activity by increasing clotting
time. Flower of Ageratum conyzoides, leaves of Mikania micrantha and root of Emilia sonchifolia
were showed highest anticlotting activity. At the same time these three plant extracts were showed
toxic effect on zebrafish embryos. Further studies are recommended to identify and isolate toxic
compounds which are responsible for observed toxic activity before they used as medicine for human
beings.
Acknowledgement
Goat blood sample provided by the Slaughter House, Dematagoda are acknowledged.
References
Amador, P.M.C., Ocotero, V.M., Balcazar, R.I. and Jiménez, F.G.(2013). Phytochemical and
pharmacological studies on Mikania micrantha H.B.K.(Asteraceae). International journal of
experimental botany 79, 77-80.
Cao, A.C., Li, Y., Shen, B.B., Li, J. and Wang, X.X. (2013). Antimicrobial potential and chemical
constituent of Mikania micrantha H. B. K. African Journal of Microbiology Research 7, 2009-2015.
Chambers, H.F. and DeLeo,F.R. (2009).Waves of Resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the
Antibiotic Era. Nature reviews microbiology 7, 629-641.
76
Esimone, C.O., IBezim, E.C. and Chan, K.F. (2005). The wound healing effect of herbal ointments
formulated with Napoleona imperialis. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Allied Sciences 3, 294 – 299.
Mitra, P.K., (2013). Antibacterial Activity of an Isolated Compound (AC-1) from the Leaves of
Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, 145-150.
Narjis, H.M.A., (2013). In vitro study of the anticoagulant activity of some plant extracts. Indian
Journal of Applied Research 3, 120-122.
77
Evaluating the potentials of adopting cleaner production

techniques to reduce the manufacturing cost of rice flour and
coffee
T.P. Wijesinghe *, E.P.S.K. Ediriweera
and
V.R.S Peris
National Cleaner Production Center, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Introduction
The increment of cost of production (COP) whilst consumer pressure for a lower price is a major
constraint for the sustainable growth of rice and coffee processing sector in Sri Lanka. Several studies
have been investigated to find effective ways of minimizing COP, (Brezet and Schelleman, 1995)
however literature do not evidence any use of cleaner production, a waste zeroing system. This study
was aimed to evaluate the cleaner production concept in rice and coffee processing sectors, as a
solution for minimizing COP. Cleaner production is the continuous application of an integrated
preventive strategy to processes, products and services, to increase eco-efficiency and to reduce risks
to humans and the environment (Brezet and Schelleman, 1995).
Methodology
Using Ruhunu Foods (Pvt). Ltd flour and spice processing factory as the host, the production process
was analyzed to identify possible waste streams and their causes. Using direct measurements and
material balance calculations, the waste streams were then quantified. This was done during a period
of one month batch production from both processing sections. The quantified wastes were then
expressed in terms of their monetary value. Significant waste streams were identified using Pareto
analysis. Control measures for them were suggested using CP philosophy and CP techniques as a
guide. Ten minute power logger data were obtained from both hammer mill machine and flour mill
machine. Then the power factor correction was done to find the payback period for the energy saving
process.
According to the findings of this study, both avoidable and unavoidable wastes occur in the coffee
flour manufacturing process. The average loss per batch of money due to avoidable wastes of red
rice, white rice and coffee processing are respectively LKR.3885.07, LKR.7612.5, and LKR.1529.39.
Significant waste streams which contribute to this monetary loss are stuck red and white rice flour
and coffee powder inside the milling and grinding machines (89.75%, 93.59%, 97.46%), rejected
coffee beans (59.51%). The possible control measures for these waste streams are good
housekeeping, better process controlling and equipment modifications. Ten minute power logger data
were indicted both flour mill and hammer mill have a low power factor. According to the power
78
factor correction both milling process takes less than 4 years payback period to recover the cost of
the energy upgrade from the energy savings. Usage of premium efficiency motors and capacitor
banks will save the energy. Immediate implementation of cleaner production will uphold the
company image and increase the quality, productivity, worker satisfaction and profit.
30 100.0
90.0
25 80.0
20 70.0
60.0
15 50.0
40.0 average
10 30.0 wastage (kg)
5 20.0
10.0
0 0.0
powder in machine…
Roasted & unroasted…

Powder spills(S)
Unknown loss(S)
Unknown loss(P)
Dust and hulls(C)
Powder spills(G)
Unknown loss(G)
Powder spills(P)
Cumilative %
Rejected coffee(C)
Figure 01: Pareto Diagram of monetary losses of wastage during the coffee processing
Table 01: Energy Saving in Hammer mill machine by power factor correction
Conclusions
79
Avoiding of flour packet weighing process done under the packing process can save LKR. 211 per
batch, also the all wastages occurred in processing steps emphasize even the low material loss
percentage can lead to considerable monetary loss due to the value of its final product. In terms of
monetary losses, the highest waste streams occur from the rice milling, coffee grinding and cleaning
processes. During those steps, 89.75%, 93.59%, 97.46% and 59.51% of total money loss of wastes
occurs as red and white rice flour, coffee powder and rejected coffee. The possible control measures
for these waste streams are good housekeeping, better process controlling and equipment
modifications. Less power factor (PF) in both milling machines it could be corrected by using
premium efficiency motors instead of old motors used in the factory and also designed active and
passive PF correction circuits will bring the PF of a system closer to unity (PF = 1.0) (Nalbant and
Klein, 1990). Highly efficient electrical systems have the advantage of supplying less current to drive
a load. This will be beneficial to the factory that have low power factor problems because utilities
sometimes charge penalties for low power factor. Both milling processes take less than 4 years to
recover the cost of the energy upgrade from the energy savings as a result of financial decision for
the company.
Acknowledgement
Facilities provided by the Ruhunu foods (Pvt). Ltd, Kundasale and National Cleaner Production
Center, Colombo are acknowledged.
References
Brezet, H., Schelleman, F., 1995, Cleaner Production.Evaluation of the Industry and Environment
Program. , pp .739-743.
Nalbant, K., Klein, J., 1990,"Design of a 1kW Power Factor Correction Circuit'," PCIM Conf. proc.,
pp. 17-24.
80
Effect of heat moist treatment on functional properties of rice flour

of selected traditional rice varieties in Sri Lanka
R. Chandrani *, C.M. Pries, K.B. Wijesekara
and
S.B. Navarathna
Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda
Introduction
Rice flour is good food crop which has been found to be an important calories source. Gluten-free
nature can play important role in preventing celiac problem. The substitution of selected traditional
rice flour to the wheat flour can provides beneficial nutraceutical properties than the commercial
hybrid rice flour. The traditional rice varieties contain higher amounts of Glutamic acid, higher
concentrations of vitamins, richer in fiber and a lower Glycemic index (Oyarekua and Adeyeye,
2008). Heat moisture treatment (HMT) is used to modify the rice flour which can change the
functional properties of rice flour. The functional properties of flours play important role in the
manufacturing of bakery products. These hydrothermal treatments could suppress granule swelling,
retard gelatinization and increase starch paste stability. HMT of rice flour could enhance the cooking
and textural qualities of rice flour (Sandoval et al., 2008).
Methodology
Four different traditional rice varieties (Madathuwalu, Kaluhenati, Pachaperumal and Rathadal) were
obtained depending on their availability and the nutritional status, from Rural Network Farmers
organization and certified the varieties from the rice research institute, Bathalegoda, Sri Lanka.
Subsequently, eight percent of bran was removed from all the brown rice grains. White rice flour
were obtained from the rice grains by dry grinding process of Pin Mill machine sieving the 160 μm
mesh (IPHT, Anuradhapura). The moisture content of selected rice flour was adjusted to one percent,
followed by heating at 100 0C for one hour (HMT 01) and two hours (HMT 02) and soaking slightly
at 80 0C for five hours by adding 65% (w/w) of excess water.
Native and modified rice flour (Madathuwalu F1, Kaluhenati F2, Pachaperumal F3 and Rathadal F4)
obtained from the rice grains before and after different flour modification methods were analyzed
separately for different functional properties such as water solubility (WS), swelling power (SP),
water absorption index (WAI) and bulk density. Native rice flour obtained from traditional rice
varieties were maintained as a control for each treatment. Experiments were conducted in triplicates
and data obtained were analyzed using ANOVA in model Minitab 16.0 software.

The functional properties of rice flours play important role in the manufacturing of bakery products.
The bulk density obtained for both HMT 1 and HMT 2 were lower than that of the native flour in F1
and F2 flour types (Fig.1 A). Further, the bulk density for treatments HM1 and HM2 were
approximately similar in F2 and F3 flour types. The lowest significant bulk density was recorded for
the treatment HMT2 in F4 flour type compared to all other treatments (p < 0.05).
81
Figure 01: Functional properties of rice flour modified after different treatments. Figure 1A-
Bulk Density of modified rice flour for different treatments; Figure 1B- Water solubility (WS)
of modified rice flour for different treatments; Figure 1C- Water Absorption Index (WAI) of
modified rice flour for different treatments; Swelling Power (SP) of modified rice flour for
different treatments. Treatments: HMT 1- Heating 100oC 1 hour followed by soaking water at
80oC 5 hours , HMT 2 - Heating 100oC 2 hours followed by soaking water at 80oC 5 hours Flour
types: F1- Madatuwalu, F2- Kaluhenati , F3- Pachaperumal , F4- Rathadal
It has been reported that the low bulk density enhances the digestibility and provides well-organized
bread crumb to the bread and bakery products (Sandoval et al., 2008). The highest significant WS
was recorded for both treatments HMT1 (p< 0.05) and HMT2 (p<0.05) in flour type F4 compared to
the native flour type (Fig.1B). It has been well documented that the flour with very high solubility
resulted in soggy and less cohesive dough which provides favorable characteristics for bakery
products when applied in baking (Eriksson, 2013). All four flour types were showed higher WAI and
SP properties for HMT 01 and HMT 02 compare to the native rice flour (Fig.1C and Fig.1D).
However, the highest WAI and SP properties were recorded from flour type F1 and F2 for the
treatment HMT1 compared to the other flour types. A previous study has proven that the high WAI
and SP enhance the product cohesiveness and that can be used to diversify rice flour into different
categories of food. Further, baking performance of the dough can be improved by the presence of
high WAI and SP properties due to the enhancement of organoleptic characteristics (Naivikul and
Lorlowhakarn, 2006).
Conclusions
Treatment HMT2 for the flour type F4 can be considered as the best treatment in terms of the bulk
density and WS whereas treatment HMT1 for the flour type F1can be considered as the best treatment
82
in terms of WAI and SP functional properties. Heat moist modification method (HMT 1 and HMT
2) enhances the functional properties of all selected rice flour types compared to the un-modified
flour and can be used to develop bakery products.
Acknowledgement
Milling laboratory facilities provided by the Institute of Post-Harvest Technology, Anuradhapura are
acknowledged.
References
Eriksson, E. (2013). Flour from three local varieties of Cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz): Physico-
chemical properties, bread making quality and sensory evaluation. Food Science, 1 – 5.
Naivikul, O., Lorlowhakarn, K. (2006). Modification of Rice Flour by Heat Moisture Treatment
(HMT) to Produce Rice Noodles. Food Science and Technology, vol. 40, 135 – 142.
Oyarekua, M. A., Adeyeye, E. I., (2008). Comparative evaluation of the nutritional quality, functional
properties and amino acid profile of co-fermented maize/cowpea and sorghum/cowpea Ogi as infant
complementary food. Food Nutrition, 1, 31-39.
Sandoval, E. R., Quintero, A. F., Aldana, A. S., Cuvelier, G. (2008). Effect of processing conditions
on the texture of reconstituted cassava dough. Chemical Engineering, 25, 713 – 720.
83
The persistence of vision (POV) LED globe
R.M.C.P. Karunarathna, T. Ekanayaka, and W.K.I.L. Wanniarachchi

Introduction
Every day we see a new display technology emerging around us. One of most important technology
development is Persistence of Vision or POV. Persistence of Vision is the ability of the eye to retain
the impression of an image for a short time after the image has disappeared. This ability can be used
to create an illusion of images/characters floating in the air, by rapidly flashing a column of light
emitting diodes (LEDs) while moving the display in air. The developed POV globe is a half ring
consists of 32 LEDs that is rotated axially at high-speed (300 rpm). Due to this high-speed and the
phenomenon of persistence of vision (POV), our brains interprets this moving half ring of light as a
solid, spherical surface. When each of the LEDs is illuminated in proper frequency it appears as a 3
dimensional globe.
Methodology
Power Supply Motor

5VDC 1A
Brain
PIC16F877A
Timing signal LED Array Power Supply

20MHz 12VDC 1A
Crystal
Oscillator
Figure 01: System Overview
The PIC16F877A microcontroller was the brain of the developed LED globe. The available 32 I/O
pins under ports A, B, C, D, and E were directly used to control the 32 LEDs. The maximum rating
for I/O pin of the used microcontroller is 20mA. Therefore 330 ohms resistor connects serially with
each LED where it helps to protect the microcontroller from draining more current and also it
provides necessary current and forward voltage for LED. The 5V DC voltage regulated circuit
consists with LM7805 was used to power the microcontroller. PCB wizard software was used to
design the required circuits.
84
Brain LEDs
Module 32 rows
Motor
Figure 02: LED half-ring and frame
The mechanical structure of the globe is made PVC ring that has been carefully-designed to be
balanced and hence stable when rotated at speed. The heavy basement also supported to stable the
system when it is in action.
Figure 03: 32x60 matrix of the world map
The corresponding LED illuminated according to the digitized data obtained from the 32x60 matrix
of the world map as shown above. Each LED represent a raw, in this case 32 LEDs were used. The
85
60 columns of a single raw represent the positions to illuminate that particular LED. The used motor
rotates 5 frames per second (300 rpm). Therefore each 3.3ms the status of each of the LEDs was
updated to synchronize with the rpm.
The Figure 04 shows the final output of the developed POV LED Globe. One of the main difficulty
was to balance the whole structure when it is in action. To overcome that problem several parameters
were optimized, such as the rotational speed, dimensions, weight of the system and the center of mass
of the entire system, by trial and error method. Also in this work we used cogwheel to increase the
speed. Large cogwheel used for driver and little small cogwheel used for driven to increase the speed
of the globe. By increasing the number of rows, resolution can be increased. In this work 32 rows
were used.
Figure 04: Capture of the LED GLOBE
References
PROPELLER (ROTATING), LED DISPLAY, retrieved 13 th of March 2012, from the World Wide:
http://homemaderobo.blogspot.com/2012/03/propellerrotating-led-display.html
Stuff and Nonsense, Making a POV globe, retrieved 29 th of September 2012, from the World Wide:
http://hotchk155.blogspot.com/2012/09/making-pov-globe.html
86
Wireless gesture control vehicle

S.M.B.P.B. Samarathunga, and W.K.I.L. Wanniarachchi
Introduction
Gesture is a movement of part of the body, especially a hand or head. Gesture has many properties
which shows significant different from speech. There for gestures are being used for the creation of
expressive forms. Interaction between human and computer is based on human gestures. Gesture is
behaved as an input for the computer and it might make computer more accessible for the physical
impaired and make interaction like more natural.
In this project hand gestures are used to control a vehicle wirelessly. For that there are two modules
are involved. One is the band and the other one is the vehicle. Band is consisting with gyro meter that
gives the coordination according to the hand motion and RF module transmits the data that given by
the gyro to the vehicle. The vehicle comprehends the signal sent by the gyro meter and it starts to
move itself with respect to the signals that given by the hand gesture using gear motors.
Methodology
RF transmitter RF receiver
Brain module Brain module

9V battery ATmega328 ATmega2560 9V battery
Gyro meter Motor driver

MPU6050
Motors
(a) Hand band unit (b) Vehicle robot
Figure 01: Block Diagram of wireless gesture control vehicle robot

As shown in figure 01. MPU6050 Gyro meter was used to sense the hand movements. The Gyro
sensor integrated with 6-axis Motion Tracking device that combines a 3-axis Gyroscope, 3-axis
87
accelerometer, and a Digital Motion Processor. It is very accurate, as it contains 16-bits Analog to
digital conversion hardware for each channel. Therefor it captures the x, y, and z channel at the same
time. With its dedicated I2C sensor bus, it directly accepts inputs from an external 3-axis compass to
provide a complete 9-axis Motion Fusion output. To read the raw data, the sleep mode has to be
disabled, and then the registers for the accelerometer and gyro can be read. But the sensor also
contains a 1024 byte FIFO buffer. The sensor values can be programmed to be placed in the FIFO
buffer. And the buffer can be read by the Microcontroller. The Arduino Duemilanove microcontroller
(ATmega328) board was used for hand band unit as the brain module.
Figure 02: Predefined hand gestures
The data which were given by the gyro according to the predefined hand gesture as shown in Figure
02 were sent to the vehicle by transmitter. Two nRF24L01, single chip 2.4GHz transceivers were
used for wireless communication between the hand band unit and the vehicle robot. The Arduino
mega microcontroller board (brain module) was used at the receiver end. To control motor speeds,
dual bidirectional motor driver based on L298 circuit was used. Signals which were sent by the
transmitter according to the hand gesture were received by the receiver, and that data were taken by
Arduino Mega board, and gear motors were controlled by the motor controller (H-bridge) in
accordance with the commands that given by the microcontroller.
Figure 03: Connections of components in vehicle robot
88
In this project a vehicle was controlled by hand gestures. The rotation angle of the hand was given
by the gyro meter, and with that data code was constructed to control gear motors in vehicle. As the
wireless communicating agent nRF24L01 transceivers were used. Readings of the gyro meter were
sent by RF transmitter and RF receiver which was placed on the vehicle received that data. While
sending data through transceivers there was a little delay. Therefore a delay in micro second scale
was shown by the vehicle with the hand gesture.
Speed of the vehicle can be controlled by the power source or a motor which was used. In this project
only two axis (x and y) were used, so this can be improved by using three axes (x, y, and z). The
developed robot not consists with a feedback mechanism. Therefore user would not know what he is
working on. So is convenient if feedback system use. There are many areas that this concept can be
used, such as when working in fields of medical science, hazardous waste disposal, construction,
military approaches, etc.
References
Arduino. Products. Retrieved October 05, 2014, from the World Wide Web:
http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Products
Blostein, D. Kwon, Y.B. (2002). Graphics Recognition Algorithms and Applications. 4 th edition.
Germany. Pringer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
Inven sense. MPU6050. Retrieved October 05, 2014, from the World Wide Web:
http://invensense.com/mems/gyro/mpu6050.html
Kale, K.V., Manza, R.R. (2008). Advances in Computer Vision and Information Technology. I.K.
International Pvt Ltd.
Nordic semiconductor. nRF24L01. Retrieved October 05, 2014, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.nordicsemi.com/eng/Product/2.4GHz-RF/nRF24L01
Roth, F.H., Amor, D. (2003). Radical Simplicity: Transforming Computers into Me-centric
Appliances. Prentice Hall Professional.
89
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The Arduino controlled incubator to control temperature and

Conference Paper · January 2015

Radio Transmission View project

Development of tea factory monitoring device View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Technical Session - Science and Technology

 Role of microorganisms against hydrocarbon contamination;

 Landmine contaminated area scanning robot ................................................ 7

 Characterization of zero valent iron used for nitrate removal in drinking

 Construction of apparatus for production of carbon nanotubes (CNTs)... 12

 Development of automated weather Station: three cup anemometer and

 Radio frequency remote controller for domestic AC loads ......................... 18

 The Arduino controlled incubator to control temperature and humidity . 21

 Development of manioc (Manihot esculenta) based nutria mix ................... 24

 Structure modification of mefenamic acid and evaluate their bioactivities

 Antioxidative properties and Lactobacillus population in traditional Sri

 Market orientation of firms in food processing industry: Effect of outside-

 Synthesis and characterization of in-situ precipitated silica filled rubber

 Development of a mosquito-repelling paint .................................................. 41

 Investigation on the use of coconut shell powder replacing carbon black as

 Effect of substrate on biochemical expression of Bacterial Biofilms .......... 47

 Phytoremediation potential of Brassica juncea Ac. 1774 for mitigation of

 Enhancement of physical properties of natural rubber vulcanizates by

 Effect of TiO2 nano-filler on ionic conductivity of poly (ethylene oxide)

 Synthesis and characterization of sodium ion conducting solid polymer

 An assessment on the possibility of process modification for crumb

 Degradation of vulcanized natural rubber using soybean and sesame oils 67

 Anticoagulant activity, antibacterial activity and toxicity effect of selected

 Evaluating the potentials of adopting cleaner production techniques to

 Effect of heat moist treatment on functional properties of rice flour of

 The persistence of vision (POV) LED globe .................................................. 84

 Wireless gesture control vehicle ..................................................................... 87

Coconut shell activated charcoal as a counter electrode for a novel

Figure 01: Schemetic structure of devices

Results and Discussions

Figure 02: Diffuse Reflectance Spectra

1. Excitation of the dye molecules at p-CuI/Dye interface

5. Electron transfer from electron acceptor to ITO through CAC

Cu/p-CuI/dye/(I-/I3-) redox solution/CAC/ITO PEC device was fabricated and a remarkable

Hemachandra K.A.S.K., Fernando, C.A.N., (2013).Photocurrent enhancement in the Cu/p-CuI//R-

Role of microorganisms against hydrocarbon contamination;

Results and Discussion

Name of the Bacterial strain Pathogenisity (Disease Caused)

Reduced Reduced Volume (mm3)

Paenibacillus odorifer 1.5 920 mm3

A. oleivorans and P. odorifer bacterial species showed significant potential in removing/detoxifying

Financial assistance from ITI TG No. 11/5

Okoh, A. I. (2006). Biodegradation alternative in the cleanup of petroleum hydrocarbon

Landmine contaminated area scanning robot

Figure 01: Moving pattern of the robot

Results and Discussion

Uva Wellassa University is acknowledged for providing laboratory facilities.

Ghribi, W. Badawy, A.S. Rahmathullah, M. Changalasetty, S.B. Design and Implementation of

Majumdar, N. Banerjee, S. MATLAB Graphics and Data Visualization Cookbook. Birmingham:

World Vision. (2009). About Landmines. United states: World Vision.

Characterization of zero valent iron used for nitrate removal in