DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

VISAKHAPATNAM, A.P., INDIA

PROJECT TITLE

PURUSHARTHAS

SUBJECT

SOCIOLOGY-II

NAME OF THE FACULTY

PROF LAXMIPATHI RAJU

Name of the Candidate: AMANDEEP MALIK

Roll no: 19LLB076

Semester: 2nd

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher PROF LAXMIPATHI

RAJU, M.A, M.S.W, PhD , who gave me the opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic PURUSHARTHAS, which also helped me in doing a lot of research and I came to know
about so many new things about problems which are faced by the country.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 4

INTRODUCTION- ............................................................................................................. 5

PURUSHARTHAS .............................................................................................................. 5

Meaning- ........................................................................................................................... 5
Types of Purusharthas- ...................................................................................................... 6
DHARMA- THE REGULATING PRINCIPLE ................................................................ 9

The Word and Concept of Dharma- ................................................................................... 9

A Brief History of dharma- .............................................................................................. 10
Categories of Dharma- ..................................................................................................... 11
Svadharma- ..................................................................................................................... 12
ARTHA - THE ACQUISITIVE PRINCIPLE ................................................................. 12

Meaning- ......................................................................................................................... 12
Artha and Arthasastra- ..................................................................................................... 13
Gandhi's View of Artha- .................................................................................................. 14
Some Critical Remarks on Artha- .................................................................................... 14
KAMA - THE INSTINCTIVE PRINCIPLE ................................................................... 15

Meaning & Explantation of Kama by Different Authors- ................................................. 15

The Five Senses Work As Media- .................................................................................... 17
Meaning of kamasutra described by our literary tradition ................................................. 18
Samkalpamulah Kamo-.................................................................................................... 18
MOKSHA .......................................................................................................................... 19

Meaning- ......................................................................................................................... 19
Concept of moksha in different Upanishads- .................................................................... 20
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 23

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 ABSTRACT

Title- purusharthas
Research problem- is purusharthas has importance in the modern life.
Identification of variables-

Dependent- taking information about purusharthas from books and online resources.

Independent- purusharthas defined in different upanishands and vedas.

Tools of collection- sociology books, and different books on ethics.

Findings- importance of purusharthas in modern world.
Conclusion- on the basis of research and findings I will draw the conclusion.

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INTRODUCTION-

Human life without purpose would be meaningless. One needs to have an end or purpose in
life towards which our actions can be directed. Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha are the aims
or goals of human life which man ought to strive for attaining it throughout his life, and in all
births. These ‘arthas’ are meant for the ‘purusa’ meaning, meant for the human beings. Till
man lives or the species of human beings is alive, purusharthas are going to add meaning to
our life. It was there earlier; it is sought today, and is going to be there till man lives. The order
in which these purusharthas are given in different texts of Indian Philosophy may vary. The
manner in which I am going to present these purusharthas, in this paper will be, Dharma, Artha,
Kama, and Moksha. The reason why I have chosen this order will be clear as we go through
each of them one by one1. The literal meaning of the classical expression purushartha is 'any
object of human striving, human effort'. And, when used adverbially, purushartha conveys the
nuance 'for the sake of man'. 'on account of man'

Dharma- Dharma is living experience, guiding principle of life, Complete rule of life, It leads
way towards ultimate reality, It is not supernatural belief.

Artha- Artha means the attainment of riches and worldly prosperity, advantage, profit and
wealth.

Kama- Kama is ordinarily termed as pleasure. “Kama is the enjoyment of the appropriate
objects by the five senses of hearing, feeling, seeing, tasting and smelling, assisted by the mind
together with the soul.”

Moksha- Moksha is Ultimate aim of life, Salvation, liberation from bondage of the world is
called moksha.

PURUSHARTHAS
Meaning-

Puruṣārtha literally means an "object of human pursuit". It is a key concept in Hinduism, and
refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four puruṣārthas are Dharma
(righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love,
psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values). All four Purusarthas are
important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama

1
Sneha sharma, purusharthas- aims of life.

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in Hindu philosophy. Moksha is considered the ultimate ideal of human life. At the same time,
this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the
hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.

Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit
of wealth (Artha purusartha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure
for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or
"craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called Nishkam Karma as a possible solution to the
tension.

Puruṣartha is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha and Artha. Purusha means "human
being", "soul" as well as "universal principle and soul of the universe". Artha in one context
means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning". Together, Purusartha literally means
"purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit". Alf Hiltebeitel translates Purusartha
as "Goals of Man". Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and
medieval Indian texts. Olivelle translates it as the "aims of human life". Purusartha is also
referred to as Caturvarga2.

The concept of moksha developed only in the Upanishads, while the early Vedas treating the
goals of human life commonly refer to kāma, artha and dharma as the "trivarga" or "three
categories" of possible human pursuits. The Dharmaśāstras and the epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata are the first known sources that comprehensively present the notion that
integrated living entails the pursuit of four goals or ends. Prasad (2008) states that the division
between the trivarga and mokṣa is intended to highlight the context between the social
(trivarga) and personal (mokṣa) spheres. The Sannyasa is entirely focussed on the pursuit of
Moksha without violating Dharma.

Gautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana and Vāsiṣṭha) and Dharma-sastras particularly Manusmṛti,

Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Nāradasmṛti and Viṣṇusmṛti, Arthashastra, Brihaspati Sutra, Kamasutra
etc are the key text which discuses about the purushartha.

Types of Purusharthas-

1. Dharma

2
Mithun Howladar, Impact of Puruṣārthas in modern life: An observation, International Journal of Sanskrit
Research 2017.

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The first of the goals is dharma. The word Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘dhṛi’
which means to hold together or to preserve. Dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights
and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct and
those that are virtuous. Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian Philosophy and
religion. Hence, the social implication of Dharma as a principle to maintain the stability of the
society is brought out in various classical Hindu texts. Dharma is so called because it protects
all. Dharma is for the welfare of mankind. It protects and preserves all human beings. Hence,
Hindu view of Dharma is that it is the force of power which protects man from all kinds of
dangers. Manusmṛti states dharma is four footed in the Krita age and loses one leg in each
successive age. Dharma exists in all planes, in all aspects and at all levels of creation. In the
context of human life, dharma consists of all that an individual undertakes in harmony with
divine injunctions and his own sense of morality and justice. The sources of dharma are the
vedas, the vedangas, the sūtra literature of which the most important are the Dharmashāstras
and scriptures namely the Bhagavadgīta. In ancient India Dharmashāstras played an important
role in guiding people on the path of dharma. As a matter of fact, though the concept of dharma
evolved in ancient India, its has been an eternal companion of human life. In fact, the world
needs a better and clearer understanding of this concept no other time period than the present
day3.

2. Artha-

Artha is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy. The word artha literally
translates as "meaning, sense, goal, purpose or essence" depending on the context. Artha is also
a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all of
which imply "means of life", activities and resources that enable one to be in a state one wants
to be in. Artha applies to both an individual and a government. In an individual's context, artha
includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity.
The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism. At
government level, artha includes social, legal, economic and worldly affairs. Proper
Arthashastra is considered an important and necessary objective of government.

In Hindu traditions, Artha is connected to the three other aspects and goals of human life:
Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment) and

3
Ibid.

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Moksha (liberation, release, self-actualization). Together, these mutually non-exclusive four
aims of life are called Puruṣārtha.

3. Kama-

Kama means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu and Buddhist literature. Kama often connotes
sexual desire and longing in contemporary literature, but the concept more broadly refers to
any desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, desire for, longing to and after, the
aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, enjoyment of love is particularly with or without
enjoyment of sexual, sensual and erotic desire, and may be without sexual connotations 4.

Kama means "desire, wish or longing". In contemporary literature, kama refers usually to
sexual desire. However, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction
and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature. The
concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in the Vedas.

4. Moksha-

Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
and Sikhism which refers to various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and
release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the
cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to
freedom from ignorance: self-realization, self-actualization and self-knowledge. In Hindu
traditions, moksha is a central concept and the utmost aim to be attained through three paths
during human life; these three paths are dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), artha (material
prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional
fulfillment). Together, these four concepts are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism5.

The concept of moksha appears much later in ancient Indian literature than the concept of
dharma. The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early
Upanishads is mucyate, which means freed or released. It is the middle and later Upanishads,
such as the Svetasvatara and Maitri, where the word moksha appears and begins becoming an
important concept.

4
Sneha sharma, purusharthas- aims of life.
5
Ibid.

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 DHARMA- THE REGULATING PRINCIPLE
The Word and Concept of Dharma-

(i). Familiar words: The word dharma needs no introducton to us Indans. Dharma-putra,
Sanatana-dharma, Sahadharmini, Dharmikam, Dharmista, Dana-dharma, Dhamma-pada,
Dharmasya glani, Dharmam cara, Dharmam saranam gacchami, Dharmo rakshati are only
some of the dharmic words we are familiar with.

Some other dharmic words and ideas that we are familiar with are: Yudhistira is called
Dharmarajan. The state of Travancore where dharma is respected is called Dharmarajyam. The
Bhagavad Gita begins with the word Dharmakshetram which means India, a sacred place.
Dharma samsthapanam is the declared purpose of Avatars. Dharmasya tattvam nihitham
guhayam says Vyasa, the author of Mahabharata. Yatho dharma sthatho jaya is a conviction
expressed by one of the characters in the Mahabharata.

(ii). Etymologically, dharma means that which maintains the universe in due order. The word
dharma is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root 'dhr-dharati'. It means to bear, hold, uphold,
maintain. In current usage, the Indian concept of dharma means ethics, morality, virtue,
spirituality, truth, good conduct and so on . Some scholars like Kangle has translated dharma
as 'law'. Some others like Shama Sastri has translated it as 'sacred law'. Yet some others like
Prof K. J. Shah understand dharma in terms of the relationship of Samanya dharmruo and
Visesa dharmsi.

It also stands for natural and positive laws, the moral code, the various distinct duties of the
individual. "The whole religio-philosophical and didactic literature of India lays great stress on
the necessity of maintaining dharma for spiritual realization or God-experience. All the various
systems of Indian thought emphasize the observance of dharma as a conditio sine qua non of
internal purification leading to eternal bliss or 'nihsreyasat.

(iii). Definition. For example, let us take the puwamimamsa school of philosophy. Its reputed
founder, Jaimini defines dharma at the very beginning of hissystem as 'codana laksano'rtho
dharmah' meaning conduct in conformity with a vedic injunction. Sabara, his commentator.
paraphrases it thus: "Dharma is a virtuous act.6"

6
R. P. Kangle, Trs., The Kautilya Arthasastra, Bombay: University of Bombay, 1972.

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What is the implication of this classical definition? Manu has brought out its implications by
saying 'Vedo'khilam Dharma-mulamh This dictum means that the veda in its entirety is the root
of dharma. To consider the Vedas as the authority in deciding what is dharma is to assume a
dangerous and untenable position that the human society has not undergone any significant
change since the time of the Vedas. But this is an area, though important, is not within the
scope of our discussion here.

A Brief History of dharma-

Let us briefly look at the history. of the concept of dharma according to the usual division of
Indian thought into three - Vedic, Classical and Modern.

(i). In the Vedic Literature. The word for dharma in the vedic literature is Rta meaning first
the cosmic order, then the field of sacrifice (Yajna) and finally the sphere of human conduct.

(ii). In the Classical Period. Like its vedic antecedent rta, dharma became an all-embracing
concept during the classical period. Dharma came to be regarded as the expression of the
highest law which is the ultimate reality - Brahman. And therefore dharma is equated with
satyam (truth). Thus, we see that the parting advice of the Guru to his disciples was: 'Satyam
Vada, Dharmam CaraI.

(a). In Buddhism. Though the history of dharma is a very detailed one, we have purposely
made it short. Yet it would be unfair if we do not mention the doctrine of Dhamma (the word
for dharma in Pali) taught by the Buddha. It is summed up in the Four Noble Truths called
Ariya Satyas. They are: a) Life is permeated by Dukkha (suffering); b) The origin of suffering
lies in craving; c) The cessation of suffering is possible through the cessation of craving; and
d) the way to do it is the noble eightfold path (Ariya attangika magga). This, it is interesting to
note, corresponds to the traditional form in which a physician expressed his diagnosis about a
patient. We can therefore validly translate dhamma as moral prescription7.

b). What about Jainism. In Jainism, dharma means something very different and technical.
Dharma means the condition of motion, just as the medium of water that support the fish to
move. Similarly, dharma is the condition of the movement of the soul or a material thing. So,
the Jains use dharma in a technical sense and not in its ordinary moral sense of merit or duty.

7
Jacob Kattackal, "Dharma the Great Goal of Life," Jeevadhara, Vol XII, No 67, 1982. p. 29.

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(iii). Modern Period. Now, coming to the modern period, we find that the equality of truth
and the ultimate reality is a point that Gandhiji also was convinced of. While explaining its
etymology, we have already enumerated the current usage of the concept of dharma. However,
one thing remains to be said. The classical concept of dharma has contributed to the
phenomenon found in modem India that matam (religion) and dharma are treated almost
interchangeably. In fact, in modem Hindi dharma means religion. One of the side effects of
this confusion of dharma with matam would be this: People who believe in one Matam or other
will have difficulty in accommodating those who accept only dharma.

As has been said already. the word 'Dharma' is used today in modem Hindi as a synonym for
'religion'. But Prof. Hiriyanna points out that in ancient Indian philosophical usage it denotes
both morality and religion. If so, dharma comprehends not only religion but also moral
principles.

Categories of Dharma-

(i). In terms of its sources, dharma is divided into srauta (related to sruti and hence Vedic)
and smartha (related to smrti and hence traditional). Srauta dharma concerns the rites and
sacrifices enjoined by the samhita-brahmana portions of the Vedas; Smarta dharma concerns
the religio-moral actions of the various castes and stations of life. This is extensively dealt with
in Dharmasastra treatises, Ramayana and Mahabharata. Some authorities like Manu speak of a
third sort of dharma called sistacara meaning exemplary actions of men respected in society.
In other words, Smti, Smrti and Sistacara tell you what dharma is.

(ii). In terms of its practice, dharma is divided into Samanya (Sadharana) and Visesa. This
is a more common division. Samanya dhanna includes all duties common to everybody
irrespective of caste or life-stations. Whereas Visesa dharma refers to duties specific to
particular castes and life-stations. Visesa dharma is also known as Varnasrama dharma which
is said to form the basis of the Hindu way of life8.

(iii). In terms of its goal, dharma is divided into pravrtti dharma and nivrtti dharma which
are from the point view of active life and of retirement from active life.

8
Ibid.

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Of these, pravrtti dharma includes all the dharmas in the field of the first three purusharthas.
Whereas, nivrtti dharma, also known as moksha dharma, has to do with the fourth purushartha;
and it entails the total abstention from every kind of activity.

In short, it is enough for our purpose here to know that dharma is divided into three -
samanya, visesa and moksha.

Svadharma-

The categorization of dharma would not be complete without a word about svadharma.

The concept of svadharma is a distinctive contribution of the Gita. Krishna tells Arjuna twice
that it is Arjuna's svadharma to fight. Therefore, if he fails in his duty he will sin. Here
svadharma means caste duties (Arjuna is a kshatriya and fighting is his kshatra dharma). If so,
it would appear that we can interpret svadharma to mean professional obligations like a
soldier's skill in fighting. But such an interpretation does not differentiate svadharma from
varnasrama dharma since every group can be regarded as professional in some way.

In another place Krishna speaks of svabhavaniyata karma. Manu also uses svadharma in the
sense of varna dharma. Here svadharma would mean doing those actions which are according
to his psycho-physical make-up, i.e., one's nature. This again does not differentiate svadharma
from varnasrama dharma since every caste is supposed to be determined taking into account
the psycho-physical make-up of its members. In short, the concept of svadharma does not add
any new content to the theory of dharma or purusharthas.

ARTHA - THE ACQUISITIVE PRINCIPLE

Meaning-

Artha is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy. The word artha literally
translates as "meaning, sense, goal, purpose or essence" depending on the context. Artha is also
a broader concept in the scriptures of Hinduism. As a concept, it has multiple meanings, all of
which imply "means of life", activities and resources that enable one to be in a state one wants
to be in. Artha applies to both an individual and a government. In an individual's context, artha
includes wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity.
The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism. At

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government level, artha includes social, legal, economic and worldly affairs. Proper
Arthashastra is considered an important and necessary objective of government.

Artha as a concept includes multiple meanings. It is difficult to capture the meaning of artha,
or related terms of dharma, kama and moksha, each in a single English word. John Lochtefeld
describes artha as the means of life, and includes material prosperity. Karl Potter explains it as
an attitude and capability that enables one to make a living, to remain alive, to thrive as a free
person. It includes economic prosperity, security and health of oneself and those one feels
responsible for. Artha includes everything in one's environment that allows one to live. It is
neither an end state nor an endless goal of aimlessly amassing money, claims Karl Potter rather
it is an attitude and necessary requirement of human life. John Koller takes a different
viewpoint than Karl Potter's interpretation. John Koller suggests artha is not an attitude, rather
it is one of the necessities of human life. A central premise of Hindu philosophy, claims Koller,
is that every person should live a joyous and pleasurable life, that such fulfilling life requires
every person's needs and desires be acknowledged and fulfilled, that needs can only be satisfied
through activity and when sufficient means for those activities are available. Artha, then, is
best described as pursuit of activities and means necessary for a joyous and pleasurable life 9.

Desire for wealth is different from greed for wealth. Selfless desire for wealth is preferable to
selfish desire for wealth. Money and wealth are a form of divine energy. Aiming for wealth is
a virtue, but greed is not. Money plays a very important role in life but is never a complete
answer to the problem of providing complete security. According to Sri Aurobindo, we have
negative attitude mostly about wealth because hostile and negative forces want us believe so
and there-by prevent its use for righteous reasons.

Artha and Arthasastra-

In the famous Arthasastra legendarily ascribed to Kautilya (4th century B.C.), minister of the
emperor Chandragupta, artha is used at least in two senses. One is the idea of artha as power.
In this sense, arthasastra is said to be a political tract which considers artha specifically as
political power. In it, Kautilya argues for the advantages of a monarchy over other forms of
government; and he identifies the welfare of the people with that of the monarch. He also gives
details of the methods of effective government and of political defence and aggrandizement.

9
R. P. Kangle, The Kautilya Arthasastra, University of Bombay, 1963, Part 11, p.1

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The other sense in which Kautilya employs the word artha is economic power. Here artha
means vrtti. Vrtti is 'the livelihood of man’. We have to 'acquire and possess' (labha-palana)
the earth for this our livelihood.Therefore artha can be described as that aspect of our endeavour
by means of which we use earthly realities for our subsistence. Incidently, this may be taken
as the reason why modem Indian languages translate 'artha-sastra' to mean 'economic-s' though
Kautilya's use of it is translated as 'science of politics10’

Confusion of these two senses of artha has resulted in a confusion regarding the meaning of
the word Arthasastra itself. Is it a science of politics or a science of economics or a science of
political economy? According to Prof. Shah, artha (political) and vartha (economic) which
Kautilya regards as two of the goals of sciences, are combined into artha the traditional human
goal. This combination may be at the root of the confusion regarding the meaning of
arthasastra.

Gandhi's View of Artha-

Kautilya's position on artha has not been totally acceptable to all. Gandhi, for instance, rejects
some of the views of Kautilya. Gandhi's views of Artha goes beyond the traditional opinion
that artha should be subservient to dharma. He regards artha (in the sense of politics) as an
inseparable aspect or branch of dharma. This view goes directly against the view of Kautilya
that artha should not be subservient to Dharma.

Further, Gandhi regarded politics as a necessary feature of daily life; and therefore he insisted
that it ought to be justly conducted and properly controlled. This again goes against the doctrine
of double standards, the common contention advocated by Kautilya. This doctrine of double
standards was totally unacceptable to Gandhi. A society governed by the principle of double
standards is bound to be self-destructive; Gandhi therefore insisted that political and personal
morality must coincide. To put it negatively. it becomes impossible for us to purify politics
without the removal of the taint of double standards.

Some Critical Remarks on Artha-

(i). The first remark we make is the remark made by Prof. Malamoud. He says that "Artha
is a most elastic notion” and he gives examples from the Arthasastra to illustrate this. Even if
this is so, this understanding is not exempt from facing difficulties. What is it that the

10
Prof. K. J. Shah. "Of artha and the Artbasastra", paper presented at the Seminar on Purushartha, ICPR, Delhi

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arthasastra is mainly concerned with? It's main concern is the purushartha of a king. If so, not
all humans are kings and therefore what is described therein cannot be regarded as purushartha.
This is of course on the assumption that political power can hardly be regarded as such. But
are there sastras to tell us how to pursue artha as a purushartha in the sense of wealth? We do
not find any unless all the diverse methods of cheating the state described in the Arthasastra
are treated as such.

(ii). Another remark concerns the definition of artha. If Kautilya is justified in his
understanding of artha, then it is beyond doubt that the word artha means not only economic
power but also political power. Even today artha refers specifically to the instinct of possession
and comprehends a vast field of active human life. Given the specific problems of ecology
today which we shall explain later, let us redefine artha as the science of acquiring and
protecting the earth. This for us today implies that we shall understand artha not merely in
economic or political terms but in terms of involvement in secular affairs. Artha is not merely
the wealth we acquire for ourselves. But it means also all our efforts to make this world a better
place to live in.

(iii). Yet another remark is about how people meet this instinct of possession. If we ask what
are some of the ways in which people struggle to meet this instinct of possession, the answer
we get is rather amusing. Some samples are: Some people amass wealth just as a means of
pleasure. Whereas some others do it for the sheer pleasure of amassing it. Still others amass it
by denying to themselves even the moderate luxuries and comforts of life, only to squander it
later at one go for mere prestige and show.

KAMA - THE INSTINCTIVE PRINCIPLE

Meaning & Explantation of Kama by Different Authors-

Kama means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu and Buddhist literature. Kama often connotes
sexual desire and longing in contemporary literature, but the concept more broadly refers to
any desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, desire for, longing to and after, the
aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, enjoyment of love is particularly with or without
enjoyment of sexual, sensual and erotic desire, and may be without sexual connotations.

Kama is one of the four goals of human life in Hindu traditions. It is considered an essential
and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing the other three goals: Dharma
(virtuous, proper, moral life), Artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life) and

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Moksha (liberation, release, self-actualization). Together, these four aims of life are called
Puruṣārtha.

Kama means "desire, wish or longing". In contemporary literature, kama refers usually to
sexual desire. However, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction
and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature. The
concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in the Vedas. For example, Book
10 of the Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. The
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism, uses the term kama, also
in a broader sense, to refer to any desire.

Ancient Indian literature such as the Epics, which followed the Upanishads, develop and
explain the concept of kama together with Artha and Dharma. The Mahabharata, for example,
provides one of the expansive definitions of kama. The Epic claims kama to be any agreeable
and desirable experience (pleasure) generated by the interaction of one or more of the five
senses with anything congenial to that sense and while the mind is concurrently in harmony
with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).

Kama often implies the short form of the word kamana (desire, appetition or appetite). Kama,
however, is more than kamana. Kama is an experience that includes the discovery of an object,
learning about the object, emotional connection, the process of enjoyment and the resulting
feeling of well-being before, during, and after the experience 11.

Vatsyayana, the author of the Kamasutra, describes kama as happiness that is a manasa
vyapara (phenomenon of the mind). Just like the Mahabharata, Vatsyayana's Kamasutra
defines kama as pleasure an individual experiences from the world, with one or more
senses: ̨hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, and feeling—in harmony with one's mind and soul.
Experiencing harmonious music is kama, as is being inspired by natural beauty, the aesthetic
appreciation of a work of art, and admiring with joy something created by another human being.
Kama Sutra, in its discourse on kama, describes many forms of art, dance, and music, along
with sex, as the means to pleasure and enjoyment. Pleasure enhances ourself appreciation of
incense, candle’s, music, scented oil, yoga stretching and meditation, and the experience of the
heart chakra. Negativity, doubt and hesitation blocks the heart chakra, openness is impaired
while attached to desires. Kamala in the heart chakra, is considered to be a seat of devotional

11
Subhash Chandra, purusharthas.

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worship. Opening the heart chakra is awareness of a divine communion and joy for communion
with deities and the self (atman).

John Lochtefeld explains kama as desire, noting that it often refers to sexual desire in
contemporary literature, but in ancient Indian literature kāma includes any kind of attraction
and pleasure such as those deriving from the arts. Karl Potter describes kama as an attitude and
capacity. A little girl who hugs her teddy bear with a smile is experiencing kama, as are two
lovers in embrace. During these experiences, the person connects and identifies the beloved as
part of oneself and feels more complete, fulfilled, and whole by experiencing that connection
and nearness. This, in the Indian perspective, is kāma. Hindery notes the inconsistent and
diverse expositions of kama in various ancient texts of India. Some texts, such as the Epic
Ramayana, paint kama through the desire of Rama for Sita a desire that transcends the physical
and marital into a love that is spiritual, and something that gives Rama his meaning of life, his
reason to live. Sita and Rama both frequently express their unwillingness and inability to live
without the other. This romantic and spiritual view of kama in the Ramayana by Valmiki is
quite different, claim Hindery and others, than the normative and dry description of kama in
the law codes of smriti by Manu for example.

Gavin Flood explains kama as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha
(material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation).

The Five Senses Work As Media-

Kama. however, is not just limited to the satisfaction of the sexual urge. For, according to the
Kama Sutra, it also is the result of the activity of all the five senses. In one sense, both are
highly related since the sexual urge is heightened by the activity of all the five senses. The
Mahabharata supports this fact when it says that the experience of harsa,'sexual excitement and
the resulting joy', can also arise from sound, taste and form. The at is to say, the mind, the ear,
the mouth, and the eyes can produce sexual delight. Why no reference is here made to sparsa
(touch) is an odd thing. For, sparsa does have a role to play in love-making. Maybe, it is not
mentioned because it has to do with the largest sense and belongs to the whole body (earth) 12.

12
P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, Poona, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.1941, I1 - 1, p. 9, fi. note
22.

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Meaning of kamasutra described by our literary tradition-

(i). Both in Rgveda and Atharvaveda kama is introduced in the creation hymn: 'Thereafter
rose desire in the beginning's Thus, the Vedas depict the origin of things as an act of begetting.
Also, we find in the Athawa Veda a philosophical hymn in which kama emerges as a god to
whom people pray.

(ii). Kamasutra. The earliest work wherein marital life and love-making are described in great
detail is Kamasutra composed by Vatsyayana sometime in the first centuries of the Christian
era. The fact that it distinguishes no less than 16 varieties of kisses gives us an idea of the
thoroughness with which it describes love-making13.

(iii). In the Mahabharata we can find two trends. On the one hand, it says that 'celibacy is the
highest virtue. And it extols the boundless power of the celibate. Celibacy is even identified
with the Absolute, the Brahman.

The idealization of celibacy does not in any way imply that it is easy. If you want to remain
chaste you should keep away from women. For their speech, nakedness and even the very sight
is capable of arousing your passion. Kama is the ally of death; and worse, it is the samsarahetu,
the cause of the chain of birth, death and rebirth.

On the other end of the spectrum, we find that Mahabharata is full of sexual allusions. It even
gives details regarding the ideal kind of sex organs.

Kama is identified with Agni, the devouring god,89 precisely because of its peerlessness. The
bodiless god of love is irresistible. And as sleep removes all shame, so does passionate love.

Samkalpamulah Kamo-

Let us now pass on from the symptoms of kama to the cause of kama. What causes kama?
'Samkalpamulah kamo' is the answer given by Manu. 'Samkalpa (fantasy) is the source
whence springs kama'. The Mahabharata also argues that from the workings of Samkalpa is
born harsa, meaning 'sexual excitement and the resulting joy. There is a related and
fundamental question here: How is it that sex has so universal an appeal? How is it that it
is the most blinding force experienced by man? Our tradition gives no direct answer to these

13
A. L. Basham, The Wonder That was India, Evergreen ed., New York, 1959, p.171.

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questions though there is an indication of the direction one might take. For instance, the
following thought is gathered from the Bhagavata Purana.

Even if we give up all our belongings, we still have our body which is our basic possession.
And sex is the most powerful expression of our corporeality. It is because of our body that all
kinds of attachments find their way into our hearts.

Therefore, to give up all our attachments and sexuality is to give up our body. This perhaps
explains why Brahma, upbraided by his own sons for his unbecoming behaviour towards his
daughter, abandons his body, the root-cause of sexuality.

We cannot afford to go into the psychology of how these are so, though such an inquiry might
he interesting and rewarding. Instead, we propose to make some observations concerning kama
in the light of what we have said so far.

MOKSHA
Meaning-

Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
and Sikhism which refers to various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and
release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the
cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to
freedom from ignorance: self-realization, self-actualization and self-knowledge. In Hindu
traditions, moksha is a central concept and the utmost aim to be attained through three paths
during human life; these three paths are dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), artha (material
prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional
fulfillment). Together, these four concepts are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.

In some schools of Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used

interchangeably with other terms such as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti,
nihsreyasa and nirvana. However, terms such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different
states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The term nirvana is more
common in Buddhism, while moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism.

The definition and meaning of moksha varies between various schools of Indian religions.
Moksha means freedom, liberation; from what and how is where the schools differ.

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Moksha is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra. This liberation can be
attained while one is on earth (jivanmukti), or eschatologically (karmamukti, videhamukti).
Some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world.
This liberation is an epistemological transformation that permits one to see the truth and reality
behind the fog of ignorance.

Moksha has been defined not merely as absence of suffering and release from bondage to
saṃsāra, various schools of Hinduism also explain the concept as presence of the state of
paripurna-brahmanubhava (the experience of oneness with Brahman, the One Supreme Self),
a state of knowledge, peace and bliss.

An understanding and balance of the Puruṣarthas is important to our individual and collective
life as we move forward into the future. The way that the world is currently moving in is
towards the blind imitation of western society- where the tendencies to pursue the values of
Kama and Artha at the expense of any sense of Dharma is very high, and is even endangering
our planet. Life without a concept of Dharma has not created any lasting sense of happiness in
the people who live like this. On an individual level, pursuing Kama and Artha alone can never
truly lead to a feeling of lasting satisfaction, because it is their nature to multiply their desire
the more they are indulged in yet when permeated with the idea of Dharma, their pursuit is
transformed into something noble, beautiful and of a more enduring value. The pursuing of
Moksha or inner spiritual endeavour is still alive in some sections of Hindu society and in fact
has even been rediscovered by the west, through an influx of many Hindu and Buddhist
teachers into the west, some of whom have vast followings. But the quest for Moksha and its
value as the highest goal of human life is not understood amongst most Hindus, nor widely
taught. The tendency amongst spiritual aspirants to have a disdain and lack of meaningful
involvement in society still exists. A study of Puruṣarthas and application of them today offer
many possibilities through which we can create a grander, more beautiful and more meaningful
existence14.

Concept of moksha in different Upanishads-

The concept of moksha appears much later in ancient Indian literature than the concept
of dharma. The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early
Upanishads is mucyate, which means freed or released. It is the middle and later Upanishads,

14
Supra,11.

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such as the Svetasvatara and Maitri, where the word moksha appears and begins becoming an
important concept.

Kathaka Upanishad, a middle Upanishadic era script dated to be about 2500 years old, is
among the earliest expositions about saṃsāra and moksha. In Book I, Section III, the legend of
boy Naciketa queries Yama, the lord of death to explain what causes saṃsāra and what leads
to liberation. Naciketa inquires: what causes sorrow? Yama explains that suffering and saṃsāra
results from a life that is lived absent-mindedly, with impurity, with neither the use of
intelligence nor self-examination, where neither mind nor senses are guided by one's atma
(soul, self). Liberation comes from a life lived with inner purity, alert mind, led by buddhi
(reason, intelligence), realization of the Supreme Self (purusha) who dwells in all beings.
Kathaka Upanishad asserts knowledge liberates, knowledge is freedom. Kathaka Upanishad
also explains the role of yoga in personal liberation, moksha.

Svetasvatara Upanishad, another middle era Upanishad written after Kathaka Upanishad,
begins with questions such as why is man born, what is the primal cause behind the universe,
what causes joy and sorrow in life? It then examines the various theories, that were then
existing, about saṃsāra and release from bondage. Svetasvatara claims bondage results from
ignorance, illusion or delusion; deliverance comes from knowledge. The Supreme Being dwells
in every being, he is the primal cause, he is the eternal law, he is the essence of everything, he
is nature, he is not a separate entity. Liberation comes to those who know Supreme Being is
present as the Universal Spirit and Principle, just as they know butter is present in milk. Such
realization, claims Svetasvatara, come from self-knowledge and self-discipline; and this
knowledge and realization is liberation from transmigration, the final goal of the Upanishad 15.

CONCLUSION

These four basic Puruṣarthas are very important to nurture in every human life for the growth
and progress as well as the welfare of human civilization in the context of 21st century. Modern
men are burdened with frustration and anger in spite of having all that should make them happy.
In this situation, it will be wise for them to try to acquire a good understanding of life and its
purpose, because human life without purpose is meaningless. In this age ‘dharma’ means an
exaggerated exposition of aristocracy. At present, each and every man has become hollow man.
They are materialistically over nourished, but spiritually mal-nourished. The are the denizen of
their self-constructed wasteland. Now –a-days ‘Artha’ makes the man forget to give importance

15
Ibid.

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upon man who begs for food or money. The term ‘Kama’ in the modern society has been
transformed into the narrow sense of sexuality or bodily pleasure. Their epicurean selves or
hedonistic selves are alive, spiritual selves are totally blind. ‘Moksha’ represents here only to
get rid-off all crises- economic crisis, crisis of comfort, crisis of enjoyment or mirth and
merriment. Man gets deviated or derailed from the right course of living. The man begins to
take part in the immoral and amoral activities misguided by the hubris or bad soul. Whereby I
feel if this ancient wisdom can be used and garbed in modern ways, it can definitely help us to
find ‘peace of mind’ which is the birth-right of every human being.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS-
3. R. P. Kangle, Trs., The Kautilya Arthasastra, Bombay: University of Bombay.
4. Jacob Kattackal, "Dharma the Great Goal of Life," Jeevadhara.
5. Prof. K. J. Shah. "Of artha and the Artbasastra.
6. P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra.
7. A. L. Basham, The Wonder That was India, Evergreen.
ARTICLES-
1. purusharthas- aims of life by Sneha sharma.
2. Impact of Puruṣārthas in modern life: An observation by Mithun Howladar.
3. purusharthas by shubhas Chandra.

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