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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No 3: Qualitative Methods

Module No and Title Module No 12: Triangulation

Module Tag PSY_P3_M12

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3.Types of Triangulation
3.1.Types of Triangulation
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Triangulation
4. Some Issues surrounding Triangulation
4.1 Assumptions in Triangulation
4.2 Addressing the Question of Validity in Qualitative Research
5. Summary

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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know about the value of triangulation in qualitative research

 Learn about the different kinds of triangulation
 Identify the use of triangulation in research
 Reflect on the issues regarding triangulation and qualitative research
 Have a critical understanding of triangulation

2. Introduction
Triangulation is a strategy where the use of more than one approach is used in the investigation of
a research question. It is suggested that this increases the validity of research findings. It helps to
overcome the limitation of any one method, data source, investigator or theory and hence provides
a means of “creating innovative ways of understanding a phenomenon, revealing unique findings,
challenging or integrating theories, and providing a clearer understanding of the problem” (Thurmond,
2001, p. 254).

2.1 History of the concept of Triangulation

Triangulation is a well known process in trigonometry and geometry. It is used to determine the
location of a point by measuring angles to it from two known points of a fixed baseline. (Figure
1). Surveyors and sailors are known to use this method for navigation. For example, in the
nineteenth century, precise measurements of large parts of Europe was made first using large
triangles which were used then to develop a grid of survey points. In today's modern technology,
triangulation is also used extensively. Handheld Global Positioning Systems (GPS) automatically
calculate the current position of the GPS using existing knowledge of the locations of satellites at
any given time (Oppermann, 2000).

Figure 1

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In the social sciences, triangulation is a relatively new concept,

first introduced by Campbell and Fiske in 1959. They
suggested that in order to measure psychological traits, more than one method should be
developed such that several traits can be measured simultaneously. The term “triangulation” was
first coined and used by Webb et al (1966) in their work on nonreactive measures in the social
science. They suggested that “Once a proposition has been confirmed by two or more
independent measurement processes, the uncertainty of its interpretation is greatly reduced. The
most persuasive evidence comes through a triangulation of measurement processes” (p. 3)
However, it was Denzin (1978) who provided a detailed discussion on triangulation and
explicated the various methods of triangulation in research.

Patton (1980) emphasizes the important but difficult nature of triangulation. "There is no magic in
triangulation. The evaluator using different methods to investigate the same program should not
expect that the findings generated by those different methods will automatically come together to
produce some-nicely integrated whole" (p. 330). The point of triangulation, he suggests, is ". . , to
study and understand when and why there are differences" (p. 331). Smith and Kleine (1986)
suggest that the use of multi-methods results in "different images of understanding" thus
increasing the "potency" of evaluation findings.

3. Types of Triangulation
Triangulation is the combination of at least two or more theoretical perspectives, methodological
approaches, data sources, investigators, or data analyses methods. The intent of using
triangulation is to “decrease, negate, or counterbalance the deficiency of a single strategy, thereby
increasing the ability to interpret the findings” (Thurmond, 2001).

3.1 Types of Triangulation

3.1.1 Data Triangulation

Data triangulation simply understood refers to collecting data from more than one source. For
example, interviewing more than one individual about a road accident they witnessed. However,
Denzin (1970) has extended this notion to include time and space such that data is collected at
different times and in various social situations, as well as on a range of people. Other examples of
data triangulation are collecting data across seasons, or different times of the day, or for example
to collect data from different settings, so if the research is on children’s play, to visit parks, school
playgrounds etc.

3.1.2 Investigator Triangulation

Investigator triangulation refers to the use of more than one researcher in the field to gather and
interpret data. This is usually considered a good practice and is often already built into the
research process because more than one person is needed for data collection. For example, in
carrying out a survey across the city of Delhi to understand the attitudes towards cleanliness and
pollution a significant number of researchers would be required in order to collect data from all
over the city. At the same time, the task is also to decide how many researchers there should be,
who they are and how they would contribute to the process of data collection (Denzin, 1978;

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Miles, 1982). The process of data collection and data analyses

is often not very clearly separate and thus who collects how
much data are important questions to which there is no clear answer. Each research and
researcher will have to come to their own answers. (Mathison,1988).

3.1.3 Methodological Triangulation

Methodological triangulation refers to the use of more than one method for gathering data. It is
the most often used and discussed form of triangulation. Denzin (1978) suggests two kinds of
approaches, within- method and between- method. In the within–method approach, variation of
the same method is used to investigate a research issue. For example, multiple scales are used
together to assess a trait like intelligence. Denzin has pointed out the limitation of the within-
method approach since only one method is being used. In the between-methods approach,
different research methods, such as a survey questionnaires and observation are used together to
collect data. Most researchers focus primarily on between -methods triangulation. "The rationale
for this strategy is that the flaws of one method are often the strengths of another: and by
combining methods, observers can achieve the best of each while overcoming their unique
deficiencies" (Denzin, 1978, p. 302). For example, in order to understand how the presence of
children affect parent’s decision making in a supermarket, one could use a combination of
observation and survey.

Another way in which methodological triangulation is used is by combining qualitative and

quantitative methods, also referred to as the mixed-methods approach. For example, a researcher
may decide to use a structured questionnaire to gather data for statistical analysis of the
correlation between drug addiction and domestic violence and complement it with focus group
discussions with drug abusers and victims of domestic violence.

3.1.4 Theoretical Triangulation

Theoretical triangulation refers to the use of more than one theoretical position in interpreting
data. For example, triangulation of theory may occur in considering a number of concepts from
anthropology, sociology, and psychology in the interpretation of the experience of mourning.

3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Triangulation

3.2.1 Advantages of Triangulation

The value of triangulation is the variety and quantity of data that is gathered and that can be used
for analysis. The method has several advantages which are as follows:
 It uses more than one method or paradigm and hence increases the confidence in results.
 It strengthens the completeness of the study by providing a holistic picture and many
researchers believe it can result in data that is richer, more complex and authentic (Foss
and Ellefsen, 2002).
 It enables one to address questions that are dissimilar in nature but nevertheless
complementary in one study itself.

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 It enhances interpretability as one set of data also helps

in understanding the other set of data.
 It requires the researcher to be deeply involved in the research situation and hence leads
to a more nuanced understanding of the focus of the study.
 It enhances the validity of the research. (Bradley, 1995)
 In using different methods together, the researcher benefits from the uniqueness of each
method and at the same time, using contrasting methods increases the chances of
overcoming the limitations of any one method.

3.2.2 Disadvantages of Triangulation

Triangulation also has several limitations:

 The data collection has to be planned thoroughly and organized effectively.

 The resources that may be required are often not available or easily accessible.
 Researchers may not be technically competent in particular methods
 It is possible that the various research paradigms used are not comptible (Duffy 1985,
Blaikie 1991, Sim and Sharpe 1998)
 Many researchers are not clear in how triangulation has been used and how it has added
value to their research (Oberst 1993).
 Undertaking replication and comparative studies may be difficult
 Researchers might be tempted to make inconsistent data sets artificially compatible in
order to produce a more coherent account.
 Some other disadvantages include the “possible disharmony based on investigator biases,
conflicts because of theoretical frameworks, and lack of understanding about why
triangulation strategies were used” (Thurmond, 2001, p. 256).

3.2.3 Overcoming Limitations

Several strategies have been suggested by various researchers in order to limit the effects of the
disadvantages that have been mentioned above. These are:

 The research question should be well formulated and precise (Mitchell 1986; Dootson
1995; Begley 1996b).
 Clarity in how the research is making use of triangulation (Miles and Huberman 1984;
Shih 1998) and why it is being used.
 Researchers (Denzin 1978; Morse 1991; Johnson et al 2001) have emphasized the fact
that each data-collection method should be applied in disciplined manner, following the
protocols and should be complete in itself.
 The researchers should be able to state how triangulation helped in making their research
more valid, credible and/or complete.

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4. Some Issues surrounding Triangulation

4.1.1 Assumption of ‘Cancelling Bias’

The idea of triangulation as a research strategy is based on two assumptions. The first is that
using more than one data source, method, investigator or theory would minimize bias or that the
bias inherent in any one method would be cancelled by the other methods that are used in
combination. This assumption often goes unexamined but some researchers (Mathison, 1988)
have criticized it on the basis that different methods produce different understandings of the same
phenomena and they might be tapping different aspects of knowledge. Scriven (1972)
distinguishes between the meaning of objectivity in the quantitative and qualitative research
paradigm (Mathison, 1988). Under the quantitative research paradigm, one individual's view is
considered to be subjective and the collective view of many individuals is taken to be objective.
In the qualitative research paradigm, objectivity points to the observation being factual, while
being subjective means that the observation has some bias in it. The quantitative notion of
objectivity seems to underlie discussions of triangulation at the expense of the qualitative notions
of objectivity. It is assumed then that just like the view of one person is biased and hence
subjective, if we use only one method, it will be necessarily subjective and hence biased.
Triangulation is the methodological counterpart to intersubjective agreement and, just as with
individuals, reliability is confused with validity (Mathison, 1988)

4.1.2 Assumption of ‘reality’ or one ‘truth’

The second assumption, related to the first, is that there is one social reality or truth that we are
trying to reach and that through the use of triangulation there would be a convergence upon the
truth about a social phenomenon. The realist notion of there being a single definitive account of
the social world has been criticized, especially by the followers of social constructionism who
argue that social reality is not created or discovered by an individual mind but that meanings are
generated in corroboration with other individuals. Thus, research findings are not ‘truths’ but one
among the many possible accounts of social phenomenon. However, social constructionists do
not consider triangulation to be a redundant research strategy. They believe that it leads to a more
complex and richer account of social reality and hence is useful.

Following the above argument it has been suggested that there are three possible outcomes of
triangulation (Mathison, 1988). These are:
 Convergence, refers to the outcome that data from different sources, methods, or
investigators will provide data that will act as evidence in support of a single premise
about some social phenomenon.
 Inconsistency, refers to the outcome when multiple sources, methods, and/or
investigators are used and the evidence suggests more than one perspectives or the
information collected does not confirm one single idea about a social phenomenon and
presents alternatives that are inconsistent with each other and have ambiguities.
 Contradication: refers to the possible outcome where not only data is found to be
inconsistent but it suggests opposing views.

The value of triangulation is not as a solution to a data collection and the problem of analyses, it
is a technique which provides more and better evidence from which researchers can construct
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meaningful propositions about the social world. Inconsistent

and contradictory data adds complexity and depth to our
understanding and has as much, if not more value in relation to convergent data.

4.2 Addressing the Question of Validity in Qualitative Research

The question of validity is an important one in qualitative research. When qualitative researchers
refer to validity, they are usually referring to research that is plausible, credible, trustworthy, and
hence, defensible. Several strategies have been developed to address the question of validity in
qualitative research (Kirk & Miller, 1986; LeCompte & Preissle, 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985;
Maxwell, 1996). A list of strategies is provided in Table 1 below:

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5. Summary
 Triangulation is a relatively new concept in research and has its roots in the concept of
triangulation used in trigonometry and geometry.
 There are four kinds of triangulation that are possible in any research design. These are
data triangulation, methodological triangulation, investigator triangulation and theoretical
triangulation.
 Of these the most commonly used is methodological triangulation, where two or more
methods are used to collect data or to analyze the results
 The concept of triangulation, especially methodological triangulation, has come under
attack from several researchers.
 It has been suggested that often the different methods used do not come together and can
thus there needs to be a clear understanding of the methods being used as well as having
a well formulated rationale for using several methods.
 In general, the assumption that triangulation reduces or cancels out bias present in
research as well as the assumption that the point of using triangulation is to reach a
convergence upon the ‘truth’ of a social phenomenon, have been questioned and there is
no clear evidence in support of either assumption.
 The question of validity, however, remains a crucial one in qualitative research.

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