Tutorial Exercises: Central Forces

1. Turning Points for the Kepler potential

(a) Write down the two first integrals for central motion in the Kepler potential V (r) = −µm/r
using J for the angular momentum and E for the total energy.
(b) Eliminate φ̇ and derive an expression for ṙ in terms of J and E.
(c) The turning points are the largest and smallest values of r. Show that the turning points
for the Kepler potential are given by a quadratic equation.
(d) Under what conditions are the turning points real?
(e) Under what conditions are both turning points positive?

1. Solution:

(a) The two relevant first integrals are

mr2 φ̇ = J
and
1
m(ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 ) − µm/r = E
2
(b) Eliminating φ̇ gives and
1 J2
m(ṙ2 + 2 2 ) − µm/r = E
2 m r
(c) The turning points are when ṙ = 0 thus

1 J2
− µm/r = E
2 mr2
and in order to understand the turning points it is a good idea to plot the graph of the left
hand side of this equation as a function of r. The corresponding quadratic equation is

2Emr2 + 2µm2 r − J 2 = 0

(d) The turning points are real if the discriminant is not negative

(2µm2 )2 − 4(2Em)(−J 2 ) = 4µ2 m4 + 8EmJ 2 ≥ 0

(e) The turning points are both positive if the sum and product of the roots are both positive.
This turns out to be equivalent to E < 0 and combining this with the result above gives

µ2 m3
− ≤E<0
2J 2
2. Circular Orbits for the Kepler potential

(a) Under what conditions is the orbit for a Kepler potential circular? [Hint: Use the results
of the previous question.]
(b) Express the radius for a circular orbit in terms of E.
(c) Express the radius for a circular orbit in terms of J.
(d) A satellite is to be launched in a circular orbit of radius a, what should be its orbital speed?
[Hint: What is the speed of a particle moving in an orbit with constant r?]

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2. Solution:

(a) The orbit is circular if the smallest and largest values of r (i.e. the turning points are equal)
in other words the two solutions to the quadratic equation are the same, or the discriminant
is zero
4µ2 m4 + 8EmJ 2 = 0
or
µ2 m3
E=−
2J 2
(b) If the discriminant of the quadratic is zero, then the two roots are both
µm
a=−
2E

(c) Combining the two previous results gives

J2
a=
µm2

(d) Consider the first integral J = mr2 φ̇ and note that for a circular orbit with r = a the
angular velocity φ̇ is constant and v = aφ̇. Together 2
p this gives v = aJ/(ma ) = J/(ma)
and using the result from c) this simplifies to v = µ/a.

3. Elliptical Orbits for the Kepler potential

(a) Show that for a given value of J the smallest energy occurs for a circular orbit and find
this value. [Hint: Remember that for bound orbits E < 0.]
(b) Likewise show that for a given energy E the maximum value of J occurs for a circular orbit.
(c) Using the results from the text write the eccentricity in terms of E and J. [Hint: Consider
the formula for an ellipse given in the text and rmax + rmin .]

3. Solution:

(a) An elliptic orbit has two real turning points and thus from Q1 we have

4µ2 m4 + 8EmJ 2 ≥ 0

If J is fixed, then the smallest allowed value for E occurs when this expression is zero,
which is precisely the condition for a circular orbit. Rearranging gives

µ2 m 3
E ≥ Emin = −
2J 2

(b) If we re-arrange the same formula and make J the subject we get
r
µ2 m 4
J ≤ Jmax = −
2Em
Remember to reverse the sign of an inequality when dividing or multiplying by negative
quantities.

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 (c) The two turning points are the two roots of the quadratic

2Emr2 + 2µm2 r − J 2 = 0

thus
µm
rmax + rmin = −
E
From the formula for an ellipse rmax = `/(1 − e) and rmin = `/(1 + e) so
2`
rmax + rmin =
1 − e2
Thus
2` µm
2
=−
1−e E
or
2`E 2J 2 E
e2 = 1 + =1+ 2 3
µm µ m
Notice that e < 1 for a bound orbit, which corresponds to E < 0.

4. The inverse square potential

Consider the potential
1  a w 2
V (r) = − m
2 r
with a and w constant.

(a) Determine the conditions for a circular orbit.

(b) Give a practical interpretation of the parameters a and w in the potential.

4. Solution:

(a) For a circular orbit r̈ = 0 always and from (3.41)

J2 m(aw)2
0= −
mr3 r3
or J = maw. The first integral with ṙ = 0 on the other hand gives

J2
− ma2 w2 = 2ER2
m
for a circular orbit of radius R. So together this gives

0 = 2ER2

which means E = 0 for a circular orbit.

(b) The speed V in an orbit or radius R is given by
1 1  a w 2
mV 2 − m =E=0
2 2 R
Simplifying gives
RV = aw
Thus, the product of radius and speed is a universal constant for all circular orbits in this
potential, in particular if radius is a, then speed is w.

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5. Circular orbits for arbitrary potentials
Consider an arbitrary central potential V (r).
(a) Show how to combine a first integral and an Euler-Lagrange equation to obtain an equation
in the form
A
r̈ + 3 + f (r) = 0.
r
(b) Express A and f (r) in terms of J and V (r).
(c) Thus express the angular momentum J for a circular orbit in terms of its radius a.

5. Solution:
(a) The Lagrangian is
1
L = m(ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 ) − V (r) .
2
There is an immediate first integral from ∂L/∂φ = 0,
∂L
= mr2 φ̇ = J.
∂ φ̇
The Lagrange equation for r is
dV
mr̈ − mrφ̇2 + =0
dr
and on dividing by the mass and substituting in J
J2 1 dV
r̈ − 2 3
+ = 0.
m r m dr
(b) Thus, A = −J 2 /m2 and f (r) = V 0 (r)/m.
(c) For a circular orbit r̈ = 0, thus A = −r3 f (r) = −a3 f (a), or in terms of angular momentum

J 2 = −m2 A = m2 a3 f (a) = ma3 V 0 (a).

6. Harmonic potential in cartesian coordinates

Consider the central potential
1
V (x, y) = k(x2 + y 2 ).
2
(a) Working in cartesian coordinates, write down both Euler-Lagrange equations.
(b) Solve them. [Hint: Do not use any first integrals, the equations are easier to solve directly.]

6. Solution:
(a) Let k = mω 2 . The Lagrangian is
1 1
L = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 ) − mω 2 (x2 + y 2 ) .
2 2
The Lagrange equations are
 
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 or (mẋ) + mω 2 x = 0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x dt
 
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 or (mẏ) + mω 2 y = 0 .
dt ∂ ẏ ∂y dt

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 These form two decoupled equations
ẍ + ω 2 x = 0
ÿ + ω 2 y = 0 ,

(b) The solutions to these equations describe simple harmonic motion about the origin with
angular frequency ω,
x = A1 cos ωt + B1 sin ωt
y = A2 cos ωt + B2 sin ωt .

7. Harmonic potential in plane polar coordinates

Write the potential as V (r) = 12 kr2 .
(a) Write down the Euler-Lagrange equation for r and two first integrals.
(b) Show that the equation for the turning points is a quartic (fourth-order polynomial). The
quartic should be special enough to solve easily.
(c) Show that the differential equation for r can be separated to give a solution of the form
r Z
k r dr
(t − t0 ) = p .
m (A − r2 )(r2 − B)
Give an interpretation of A and B.
(d) Evaluate the integral. [Hint: Use the substitution r2 = B + (A − B) sin2 α.]
(e) From the solution for r(t) go back to
qthe first integral
 for φ and use it to determine φ(t).
k
[Hint: Use the substitution w = tan m (t − t0 ) .]

7. Solution:
Let k = mω 2 .
(a) In polar coordinates
1 1
T = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 ) = m(ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 )
2 2
1 1
V = mω 2 (x2 + y 2 ) = mω 2 r2 ,
2 2
So
1 1
L = m(ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 ) − mω 2 r2 .
2 2
Since ∂L/∂φ = 0, there is a first integral,
∂L
= mr2 φ̇ = C1 ,
∂ φ̇
a constant. This is the angular momentum mh, so r2 φ̇ = h.
Also ∂L/∂t = 0, so there is a second first integral,
∂L ∂L
ṙ + φ̇ − L = C2 ,
∂ ṙ ∂ φ̇
another constant. This represents the energy mE, so
1 2 1
(ṙ + r2 φ̇2 ) + ω 2 r2 = E . (H.6)
2 2

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(b) The motion in r is limited by the points at which ṙ = 0. These are given by
1 2 2 1 2 2
r φ̇ + ω r = E ,
2 2

or, using φ̇ = h/r2 ,

1 h2 1 2 2
+ ω r =E,
2 r2 2
or
2E 2 h2
r4 − r + 2.
ω2 ω
The roots of this quadratic in r2 are given by

2E h2
r12 + r22 = , r12 r22 = .
ω2 ω2

(c) Now rewrite (H.6) as

r2 ṙ2 = 2Er2 − r2 φ̇2 − ω 2 r4

h2
 
2 4 2E
= −ω r − 2 + 2
ω ω
= −ω 2 (r2 − r12 )(r2 − r22 ) = ω 2 (r2 − r12 )(r22 − r2 ) ,

where we assume the ordering r1 ≤ r ≤ r2 . Then

ω
q
ṙ = ± (r2 − r12 )(r22 − r2 ) ,
r
which can be separated and integrated,
Z Z r
r k
p dr = ±ω dt = ± (t − t0 ) .
(r2 − r12 )(r22 − r2 ) m

The parameters B = r12 and A = r22 are obviously the squares of the turning points, or
perihelion and aphelion respectively.
(d) If we substitute r2 = r12 + (r22 − r12 ) sin2 χ so that 2r dr = 2(r22 − r12 ) sin χ cos χdχ, the
left-hand side is Z Z
r
p dr = dχ = χ .
(r2 − r12 )(r22 − r2 )
Hence
χ = ±ωt + C ,
i.e. q
r(t) = r12 + (r22 − r12 ) sin2 (ωt + C) .

(e) From
h h
φ̇ = = 2
r 2 r1 + (r2 − r1 ) sin2 (ωt + C)
2 2

and separating, we find

Z Z
h
dφ = dt .
r12 + (r22 − r12 ) sin2 (ωt + C)

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 Writing C = −ωt0 and τ = tan ω(t − t0 ) the right-hand side becomes
Z Z
h h 1
2 dt = dτ
2 2 2
r1 + (r2 − r1 ) sin (ωt + C) ω r1 + r22 τ 2
2

h r2 τ r2 τ
= tan−1 = tan−1 ,
ωr1 r2 r1 r1
since r1 r2 = h/ω. Hence
 
−1 r2
φ − φ0 = tan tan ω(t − t0 ) .
r1

A very nasty choice of co-ordinates indeed!

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