Automotive History

By definition an automobile or car is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own

motor and transports passengers. The automobile as we know it was not
invented in a single day by a single inventor. The history of the automobile
reflects an evolution that took place worldwide.
It is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile.
You can point to the many firsts that occurred along the way to producing
the modern car; and with that goal in mind, highlighted below are articles,
biographies, timelines, and photo galleries related to the history of the
automobile and its many inventors.
The automobile as we know it was not invented in a single day by a single
inventor. The history of the automobile reflects an evolution that took place
worldwide. It is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern
automobile. However, we can point to the many firsts that occurred along the
way. It started with the first theoretical plans for a motor vehicle that had
been drawn up by both Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton .
In 1769, the very first self-propelled road
vehicle
was a military tractor invented by French
engineer and mechanic, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot
(1725 - 1804). Cugnot used a steam engine to
power his vehicle, built under his instructions
at
the Paris Arsenal by mechanic Brezin. It was used
by the French Army to haul artillery at a
whopping speed of 2 1/2 mph on only three wheels. The vehicle had to stop
every ten to fifteen minutes to build up steam power. The steam engine and
boiler were separate from the rest of the vehicle and placed in the front (see
engraving above). The following year (1770), Cugnot built a steam-powered
tricycle that carried four passengers.
In 1771, Cugnot drove one of his road vehicles into a stone wall, making
Cugnot the first person to get into a motor vehicle accident. This was the
beginning of bad luck for the inventor. After one of Cugnot's patrons died
and the other was exiled, the money for Cugnot's road vehicle experiments
ended.
Steam engines powered cars by burning fuel that heated water in a boiler,
creating steam that expanded and pushed pistons that turned the crankshaft,
which then turned the wheels. During the early history of self-propelled
vehicles - both road and ​railroad ​vehicles were being developed with steam
engines. (Cugnot also designed two steam locomotives with engines that
never worked well.) Steam engines added so much weight to a vehicle that
they proved a poor design for road vehicles; however, steam engines were
very successfully used in locomotives. Historians, who accept that early
steam-powered road vehicles were automobiles, feel that Nicolas Joeph
Cugnot was the inventor of the first steam powered automobile in 1976.

What is Mechanics?

It is the science which deals with the effect of forces upon matter at rest or
in motion. An automobile is a four-wheeled road vehicle powered by an
engine, used primarily for transport of a limited number of passengers.

What is Automotive Mechanics?

Automotive mechanics inspect, service, and repair the engines, brakes, and
other parts of cars, buses, and trucks. They also perform routine maintenance
to prevent future breakdowns. Most mechanics work in automobile
dealerships, automobile repair shops, and gasoline service stations.
Diagnosing problems quickly and accurately requires analytical
ability. It also requires a thorough knowledge of cars' mechanical and
electronic systems and competence with a variety of electronic tools, such as
infrared engine analyzers and computers. Many mechanics consider
diagnosing hard-to-find problems to be one of their most challenging and
satisfying duties.

After locating the source of the malfunctions, mechanics often need to

replace or repair faulty parts. Some mechanics specialize in particular kinds
of repair, such as electrical or transmission problems. They usually work in
special service shops.

Most mechanics work in automobile dealerships, automobile repair shops,

and gasoline service stations. Many others are employed by federal, state,
and local government agencies; taxicab and automobile leasing companies;
and other businesses that repair their own cars and trucks. Automobile
manufacturers hire mechanics to make adjustments and repairs after cars
come off the assembly line. Other mechanics work for large department
stores that have facilities for servicing automobiles.

Education and Training Requirements

Employers prefer to hire applicants who are high school graduates. High
school courses in metal work, mechanical drawing, science, mathematics,
computer skills, and automobile maintenance are helpful. A number of
advanced high school programs are part of the Automotive Youth Education
Service, a certification program that prepares students for entry-level jobs.
Participants often train under experienced mechanics for up to four years.

A growing number of employers require auto mechanics to complete

training programs offered by trade, vocational, or community colleges. The
programs in automotive mechanics must be able to diagnose problems
quickly and accurately and make the necessary repairs last from six months
to two years and combine classroom instruction and hands-on practical
experience. Some trade school partner with automotive dealerships, which
allow students to work in their service departments.

Certification is important—but not mandatory—in this field. Automotive

Service Excellence (ASE) certification, the nationally recognized standard,
can be awarded in eight different areas of automotive service. Applicants
must pass exams and have two years of relevant experience to become ASE
certified mechanics. To be recognized as master automobile technicians,
mechanics must be certified in all eight areas of automotive service.
Mechanics are retested every five years to renew certification. More than
four hundred thousand service professionals have achieved ASE
certification.
Getting the Job
School placement offices, job fairs, and apprenticeship programs can
provide employment contacts and job leads. Job seekers can also apply
 directly to service stations, automotive dealerships, and repair shops.
Newspaper classified ads and Internet job sites often list openings.
Advancement Possibilities and Employment Outlook
Experienced mechanics in large shops may advance to supervisory
positions, such as repair shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who
like to work with customers may become service estimators, who take
clients' orders for repairs and write up job orders for mechanics. Many
mechanics open their own repair shops or service stations.

Employment of automobile mechanics is expected to increase as fast

as the average for all occupations through 2014. Turnover in this field is
high, so many openings occur each year. Automotive technology is
becoming increasingly complex, so mechanics who have had formal training
may find the most opportunities. Demand should also be high for those who
stay informed about new developments in this field, such as alternate fuels
technology.

Working Conditions
Most mechanics work between forty and forty-eight hours per week,
but many work longer hours during busy periods. Mechanics frequently get
paid at higher rates for overtime.

Most mechanics work indoors, in shops with good ventilation,

lighting, and heat. They frequently work with dirty, greasy parts and in
awkward positions. Sometimes they must lift heavy objects. Minor cuts and
bruises are common, but serious accidents are usually avoided by observing
established safety procedures.

Components of the automobile  

Before we begin our studies of the fuel, lubricating, and cooling systems, 
let  us  first  take  a  quick  look  at  the  complete  automobile  and  the 
automobile  engine.  The  automobile might be said to consist of five basic 
mechanisms, or components. These are:  
1​. The engine​, which is the source of power and which includes the fuel, 
lubricating, cooling, and ignition system. 

 
2. ​The frame or chassis, ​which supports the engine, wheels, steering 
and braking systems, and body.   

 
3.  ​The  power  train​,  which  carries  the  power  from  the  engine  (through 
the  clutch,  transmission,  propeller  shaft,  differential,  and  axles)  to  the 
car wheels.   

4. The ​car body. 

 
5​. Car-body accessories, ​including heater, lights, windshield wipers, and 
so forth.  
  
Figure 1-1 illustrates the chassis of an automobile. The chassis is made 
up  of  the  frame,  engine,  power  train,  wheels,  and  steering  and  braking 
systems.  
The  ​engine  ​is  the  source  of  power  that  makes  the  wheels  turn  and  the 
car  move.  It  is  usually  called  an  internal-combustion  engine  because 
gasoline  is  burned  inside  the  engine  (in  the  engine  cylinders  or 
combustion chambers).   

 
This  is  in  contrast  to  external-combustion  engines  (such  as  steam 
engines)  where  the  combustion  takes  place  outside the engine. It is the 
burning  of  the  gasoline  in  the  engine  cylinders  that  produces  the 
Automotive  Fuel,  Lubricating, and Cooling Systems power. The power is 
carried from the  engine through the power train to the car wheels so that 
the wheels turn  and the car moves. The fuel system plays a vital part in 
the power  
producing  process,  since it supplies the gasoline to the engine cylinders. 
Before we describe how the fuel system does its job, let us first review the 
.   
Cross-sectional view of a six-cylinder engine.  
  
Piston is at top of stroke. Both piston and cylinder are shown cut in half. 
(Chev1'01et  Motor  Division  of  General  Motors  Corporation)  actions  that 
go  on in the engine cylinders. Most automotive engines have six or eight 
cylinders.  Since  the  same  actions  go  on  in  each  cylinder,  we  need  to 
examine only one cylinder of the engine.   
4​.  The  engine  cylinder  ​shows  an  engine  cylinder, cut away so that the 
internal  parts  can  be  seen.  This  is  the  end  cylinder  of  ,a  '  six-cylinder 
engine; the other five cylinders are not shown. Fig~ 1-4 shows a cutaway 
view  of  a  similar  engine.  These  two  pictures  lay  be  somewhat  confusing 
since  they  show  so  many parts, so let's simplify the cylinder by showing 
it as nothing more than a round container, closed at one end and open at 
the  other  ,  like  a  tin  can  with  the  bottom  cut out. A movable piston fits 
into  the  cylinder. The piston is slightly smaller in size (or diameter) than 
the  cylinder,  so  that  it  can  slip  up  into  the  cylinder  as  shown  in  .  Note 
that  the  cylinder  is  drawn  as  though  it  were  transparent  so  that  the 
actions  in  the  cylind~r  can  be  seen.  For  the  moment,  you  can  think of 
the  piston  as  a  solid  plug  which  can  be  slid  up  into  the  cylinder.  This 
action  traps  air  in  the  cylinder  and  compresses  it. If we could put some 
gasoline  vapor  in  with  the  compressed  air,  and  then  apply  a  lighted 
match  or  an  electric  spark  to  the  air-vapor  mixture,  it  is  obvious  what 
would happen. There  would be an "explosion" that would blow the piston 
out  of  the  cylinder  so  that the piston is forced downward. Of course, in 
the  engine  the  piston  is  not  blown  clear  out  of  the  cylinder;  the  piston 
simply  moves  up and down  in the cylinder-up to compress the mixture, 
down as the mixture burns.  
  
5​.  Changing  reciprocating  motion  to  rotary  motion  ​The piston moves 
up  and  down  in  the  cylinder.  This  straight-line  motion  is  called 
reCiprocating  motion;  the  piston  moves  in  a  straight  line.  This  straight 
line  motion  must  be  changed  to  rotary  motion  before  it  can  be  sed  to 
make  the car wheels rotate. A connecting rod and a crank on the engine 
crankshaft  make  this  change  The  crank  is  an  offset  section  of  the 
crankshaft.  It  swings  arolmd  in  a  circle  as  the  shaft  rotates.  The 
connecting  rod  connects  between  the  crankpin  on  the  crank  and  the 
piston  . The crank end of the connecting rod is attached to the crankpin 
by  fastening  the  rod  cap  to  the  connecting  rod  with  the  rod  bolts. 
Bearings  in  the  rod  and  cap  permit  the crankpin to rotate freely within 
the rod. The  piston end of the connecting rod is attached to the piston by 
the piston  pin (or wrist pin). Bearings in the piston, or in the rod permit 
the rod to  tilt back and forth freely. Now, let us see what happens as the 
piston moves up and down in the cylinder.  
As the piston starts down, the connecting rod tilts to one side so that the 
lower  end  of  the  rod  can  follow  the  circular path of the crankpin. Study 
the  sequence  of  action to see how the rod tilts first to one side and then 
to the other as the lower end moves in a circle with the crankpin.   

 
6. ​The  valves  ​There must be some means of getting the burned gasoline 
vapor  out  of  the  engine  cylinder,  and  also  of  getting  fresh  charges  of 
gasoline  vapor  and  air  into  the  cylinders. The engine [valves do this job. 
There are two openings, or ports, in the enclosed end of the cylinder. One 
of these is shown in . There is a valve in each port. The valves are  
accurately  machined  plugs  on  long  stems.  When  they  are  closed  or 
seated  (that is, moved down into the ports), the ports are sealed off and 
gas  cannot  pass  through  the  ports.  When the valve is opened , gas can 
pass  through  the  portThe  valves  are  opened  by  cams  on  the  engine 
camshaft.  A  cam  on  the  camshaft,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the 
valve-operating  mechanism,  is  shown  in . The cam has a high point, or 
lobe; every time  the cam rotates, the lobe comes around under the valve 
lifter an.d ,moves  it upward. The lifter then carries this upward moveme~ 
to the valve stem,  causing the valve to move up, or open. · Then, aft~ the 
cam  has  turned  enough to move the lobe out from under the ilifter, the 
heavy  valve  spring  pulls  the  valve  back  on  its  seat.  The  spring  is 
attached to the lower end of  the valve stem by a spring retainer and lock. 
There  is  a  cam  for  each  valve  (two  cams  per  cylinder)  on  the  engine 
camshaft.  The  camshaft  is  driven  off  the  crankshaft  by  gears  or  by 
sprockets and a chain.   

 
7​.  Engine  operation  ​We have noted that the piston moves up and down 
in the cylinder and that the valves open and close to admit fresh charges 
of  air  and  gasoline vapor and also to discharge burned gases. Let us see 
how  these  actions  occur.  The  actions  can  be divided into four stages, or 
into four piston strokes. "Stroke" refers to the piston movement. A stroke 
occurs when the piston moves from one limiting position to the other. The 
upper  limit  of  piston  movement  is  called  top  dead  center,  or  TDC.  The 
lower  limit  of  piston  movement  is  called  bottom  dead  center,  or  BDC.  A 
stroke is piston movement from TDC to BDC, or from BDC to TDC. When 
the  entire  cycle  of  events  requires  four  piston  strokes  (two  crankshaft 
revolutions),  the  engine  is  called  a  four-stroke-cycle  engine,  or  a 
four-cycle  engine. The four strokes are intake, comt. pression, power and 
exhaust.  (Two-cycle  engines are also in use; in these, the entire cycle of 
events  takes  place  in  two  strokes,  or  in  one  crankshaft  revolution.) 
NOTE:  For  the  sake  of  simplicity  in the following discussion, the valves 
are considered to open  at TDC and BDC, that is, at the upper and lower 
limits  of  piston  movement.  Actually,  they  do  not.  The  valves  open  well 
before the piston  reaches BDC. Also, the illustrations of the four strokes 
are  much  simplified  and  show  the intake and exhaust valves separated 
and  placed  on  either  side  of  the cylinder. This is done so that both can 
be shown in the same illustration.   
8​.  Intake  ​On  the  intake  stroke, the intake valve has opened. The piston 
is  moving  down  (being  pulled  down  by  the  rotation  of  the  crankshaft). 
This piston movement creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder. In a later  
chapter  in  the  book  we  will  go  into  this  matter  in  more  detail.  For  the 
present, let us merely say that air rushes into the cylinder past the intake 
valve  to  "fill  up"  this  vacuum.  As  the  air  moves  toward  the  cylinder,  it 
must  pass  through  the  fuel-system carburetor. There it is charged with 
gasoline  vapor.  Thus,  it  is  a  mixture  of  air  and  gasoline  vapor  that 
rushes into the cylinder as the piston moves down on the intake stroke.   
9​.  Compression  ​After  the  piston  moves  down  to  BDC  on  the  intake 
stroke,  the  intake  valve  closes.  The  lobe  on  the  cam  controlling  the 
intake  valve  has  moved  out  from  under  the  valve  lifter. Since the other 
valve is also  closed, the upper end of the cylinder is sealed. Now, as the 
piston  moves  up  (pushed up by the rotating crankshaft), the mixture of 
air  and  gasoline  vapor  that  has  been  drawn  into  the  cylinder  is 
compressed.  By  the  time  the  piston  has  moved up to TDC, the mixture 
will  have  been  compressed  to  a  seventh  or  an  eighth  of  its  original 
volume.  That  is  like  taking  a  gallon  of air and compressing it to a pint. 
This results in a fairly high pressure in the cylinder.   
10.  Power  ​About  the  time  the  piston  reaches  TDC  on  the  com  ression 
stroke,  an  electric  spark  occurs  at  the  cylinder  spark  plug.  The  spark 
plug  is  essentially  two  heavy  wire  electrodes;  the  spark  jumps between 
these  electrodes.  The  spark  is  produced  by  the  ignition  system 
(discussed  on  a  later  page).  It  ignites,  or  sets  fire  to,  the  compressed 
air-gasoline-vapor  mixture.  Rapid  combustion  takes  place;  high 
temperatures  and  pressures  result.  At  this  instant,  the  resulting 
pressure  on  the  top  of  the  piston,  pushing  it  down,  may  amount  to  as 
much  as  two  tons  (  on  a  piston  3  inches  in  diameter  ).  This  powerful 
push forces the piston down, and a  power impulse is u·ansmitted to the 
crankshaft through the connecting rod and crank.  
11​.  Exhaust  ​The  piston  is  forced  down  by  the  pressure  of  the  burning 
gasoline  vapor  during  the  power  stroke.  When  the  piston  reaches  BDC, 
the exhaust valve opens. Now, as the piston starts back up again (pushed 
up  by  the  rotating  crankshaft),  it  forces  the  burned  gases  from  the 
cylinder. By the time the piston has reached TDC, the cylinder is cleared 
of the burned gases. The exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens. 
Then,  the  piston  starts  back  down  again  on  the  next  intake stroke. The 
four cycles,  
  
12. ​Piston rings ​You can appreciate the fact that a great deal of 
pressure exists above the piston during the compression and power 
strokes. To  
prevent the escape of much of this pressure past the piston (between the 
piston  and  cylinder  wall)  the  piston  must  be  equipped  with  rings.  The 
reason  is  this:  the  piston  cannot  be  machined  accurately  enough  to 
provide  a  sealing  fit  with  the  cylinder  wall.  If it did make a gas tight fit, 
then it would be too tight to slip up and down easily.  

 
13.  Multiple-cylinder  engines  ​You  will  remember  that  the  cylinder 
produces  only  one  power  impulse  every  four  piston  strokes.  During 
exhaust,  intake,  and  compression,  the  crankshaft  is  driving  the  piston, 
forcing it to push out the burned gases, to draw in a fresh charge, and to 
compress  the charge. Thus, a one-cylinder engine would give power only 
one-fourth  of  the  time  and  would  not  be smooth or powerful enough for 
automotive  operation.  To  prOVide  for  a  more  continuous  flow  of  power, 
modern automotive engines use four, six or eight cylinders. With a four  
cylinder  engine,  the  power  impulses  would  follow  one  another  so  that 
there  would  be  a  power  impulse  going  on  all  the  time.  With  the 
six-cylinder  engine,  the  power  impulses  would  overlap  to  some  extent 
while  the  eightcylinder  engine would have two power impulses going on 
at all times. This would give a relatively even flow of power.   
  
14.  Engine  flywheel ​Even though the power impulses of a multicylinder 
engine  follow  each  other  or  overlap,  additional  smoothing  out  of  the 
power  impulses is desirable. The engine flywheel does this job and thus 
improves  the smoothness of the engine. shows an engine crankshaft with 
the  flywheel attached to one end. The flywheel is a relatively heavy metal 
wheel.  It  resists  any  sudden  change  of  crankshaft  (or  engine)  speed. 
Thus,  when  a  power  impulse  starts  (with  its  initial  high  pressure),  the 
crankshaft  is given a momentary hard push (through the connecting rod 
and  
crankpin).  But  the  flywheel  resists  the  tendency  for  the  crankshaft  to 
surge  ahead.  Thus,  the  momentary  power  peaks  are  leveled  off  so  that 
the  engine runs smoothly. The flywheel also serves as part of the engine 
clutch  (on engines so equipped). In addition, the flywheel has teeth on its 
outer  edge;  the  electric  cranking-motor  pinion  teeth  mesh  with  these 
teeth when the engine is being cranked for starting.   

 
15.  Engine  classifications  ​Engines  can  be  classmed  in  several  ways. 
They  clan  be  classified  by  the  type  of  fuel  they  use  [gasoline,  LPG 
(liquefred  petroleum gas), or diesel fuel oil]. Most of this book pertai~s to 
the  gasoline  fuel  engine  since  most  automotive  engines use gaspline as 
fuel.  Later  chapters  describe  LPG  and  diesel fuel systems and the fuels 
these  systems  use.  Engines  can  also  be  classified  as  liquid-cooled  or 
air-cooled,  and  this  distinction  is  discussed  in  the  chapters  on  engine 
cooling  systems.  Other  ways  of  classifying  engines  are  by  number  and 
arrangement  of  cylinders,  and  by  arrangement  of  valves.  These  are 
discussed in the following sections.  

 
16. Cylinder arrangements ​Most automotive engines have four, six, or 
eight cylinders. All cylinders are similar in construction and in operation. 
Four-cylinder and Six-cylinder engines are in-line engines; that is, the 
cylinders are arranged in a Single row . Eight-cylinder engines may be in 
line (all cylinders in a single row) or V -8. In the V -8, the cylinders are 
arranged in two rows, or banks, which are usually perpendicular (or 90 
degrees) to each other,   
17.  Valve  arrangements  ​The valves may be in the block as shown in or 
they  may  be  in  the  cylinder  head,  above  the  cylin~er,  as  shown  in  .An 
engine  that  has  the  valves  in  the  block  is  called  an  L-head  engine 
because  
the cylinder and combustion chamber are in the shape of an inverted "L." 
An  engine  that  has the valves in the head is called an I -head engine (or 
overheadvalve engine) because the cylinder and combustion chamber are 
in  the  shape  of  an  "1."  There  is  a  type  of engine that has valves in both 
the block and the head; it is called an F -head engine.   
18.  Engine  accessory  system  ​The  engine  requires  four  accessory 
systems  to  supply  it  with  fuel  and  electric  sparks,  to  cool  it,  and  to 
lubricate  it.  The  fuel,  lubricating,  and cooling systems are considered in 
detail  in  later  pages  in  the  book.  The  system  that  provides  the  electric 
sparks  (the  ignition  system)  is  discussed  in  detail  in  Automotive 
Electrical  Equipment  (another  book  in  the  McGrawHill  Automotive 
Mechanics Series). A brief discussion of the ignition system follows.   
19.  The  ignition  system  ​The  ignition  system  is  part  of  the  automotive 
electric system . The electric system has several jobs to do. It cranks the 
engine  for  starting,  supplies  the  electric sparks to ignite the compressed 
charges in the cylinders, operates the radio and car heater, supplies light 
for  night  driving,  and  operates  gauges  on  the  car  dash  that  indicate 
battery  charging  rate,  oil  pressure,  engine  temperature, and level of fuel 
in the fuel tank.  
  
20. Operation of ignition-advance mechanisms ​When the engine is idling, 
the sparks are timed to appear in the engine cylinders just before the 
pistons reach T~C on their compression strokes. But at higher speeds, the 
air-fuel mixture has less time to ignite and bum. If ignition still took place 
just before TDC on the compression stroke, the piston would be up over the 
top and moving down before the mixture was well ignited. This means that 
the piston would be moving away from the pressure rise; much of the energy 
in the burning fuel would be wasted