UNIVERSITY OF TARTU

Faculty of Social Sciences

School of Economics & Business Administration

CHAVANNE Kevin

Media framing and public perception of cannabis in France

Research paper

Supervisor: Lecturer Helen Poltimäe

Tartu 2016
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 2

This paper conforms to the requirements for a Research paper

…………………………………..

(Helen Poltimäe)

Admitted for defense …………………………… (date)

I have written this Research paper independently. Any ideas or data taken from other authors
or other sources have been fully referenced.
……………………………………………

(CHAVANNE Kevin)
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 3

Table of Content

Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 4

1. Theoretical framework of mass communication and its usage on cannabis framing............. 7

1.1 Theories of mass communication and its relation to the public opinion .......................... 7

1.2 Positive and negative aspects of flexible legislation of cannabis................................... 12

1.3 Studies on cannabis and mass communication theories ................................................. 16

2. Perception of cannabis in French mass media and among public ........................................ 19

2.1 Methodology to analyze media framing and public perception of cannabis.................. 19

2.2 Cannabis framing in the French media .......................................................................... 22

2.3 Public opinion’s analysis ................................................................................................ 31

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 36

References ................................................................................................................................ 38

Appendix .............................................................................................................................. 42

Appendix A .............................................................................................................................. 42

Appendix B .............................................................................................................................. 45

Appendix C .............................................................................................................................. 46

Appendix D .............................................................................................................................. 47
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 4

Introduction

The role of media is crucial, due to its ability to influence the perception of the

individual's opinion. By setting up a frame, media can affect the creation of an

opinion; their owners are theoretically able to affect votes and ideology to influence

policies or legislative matters. Media framing is the action of giving a specific type of

perception to a topic of an article, which consequently affects the way the audience

perceives the matter.

Media have a significant impact on all levels of the economic decision process,

local, regional, national and supranational. Mass communication theories are crucial

research topics in the understanding of the position of democracy, facing

multinationals, and a new form of capitalism described in J. Perkins book, Confession

of an economic hitman (2004). In France the lack of transparency in political and

economic entities induces sever social crisis, and recent revolts. Since 2016, the public

has organized massive events (such as the “stand up nights”) around France to protest

against the current situation, destabilizing the government, its credibility and its

measures of austerities. The time and budget spent by organizations in the most recent

years demonstrates the outset importance of such issue in the country. The unregulated

lobbying leads to abuses, resulting in decision directed to private interest rather than to

the public interest. The cases of negative lobbying have serious costs for the

community and endorse serious deterioration of the citizens’ trust in their elected

representatives and their institutions. In 2015, Transparency International has given a

poor grade of 2,7/10 in term of lobbying and lack of transparency to France

(Transparency International, 2015). In fact, only a few regulations as well as controls

exist concerning lobbying and other fraudulent practices in France. It is consequently

strongly vulnerable to such phenomenon and needs to be studied. The case of the
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 5

cannabis industry is an interesting example to introduce the idea, in fact, as France is

in a period of a political credibility crisis, doubled with an economic recession and,

examples around the world have shown that cannabis made prowess in the field of

ecology, economy, and politics of the most leading nations. Solutions have been

offered by academics, based on foreign policies, concerning the regulation of the

biggest illegal market: cannabis (Kopp, Lakhdar, and Perez, 2014). The regulation of

the product would theoretically, bring important savings as well as revenues for the

state, inducing less social negative externalities by reducing the income for

underground networks for instance.

The aim of the paper is to find how the French mass media and the public

perceive cannabis and what are the related factors. The hypotheses that media

ownership, political and economic events have an influence on the perception of

cannabis by mass media will be tested. Cannabis can be perceived either as an illicit

and harmful drug, involving important social costs (e.g., addiction & crime), a relevant

medical tool, or a source of economic profit.

The expected results should show that the sampled media have a different

approach on the product and are framing it differently based on their ownership,

political preferences and economic opinions. The results will give an introduction to

the forecasting of a business niche. The recent events of the American continent

should also have an impact on the perception of cannabis in the selected media. This

paper will concentrate on the perception of such sensitive question by media and

public, by analyzing articles concerning cannabis and conducting a survey.

To achieve the research aim, the following research tasks are set by the author:

• Give an overview of mass communication theories in term of

explaining their essence and present the work of scientists in the field;
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 6

• To show negative and positive aspects of flexible regulation of

cannabis;

• To give an overview of previous studies related to media framing of

cannabis;

• To collect data concerning the opinion on cannabis from mass media

and public opinion;

• To analyze, how the perception of cannabis in French mass media has

changed over time and what are the possible factors related to it;

• To compare the results of the media analysis with the public opinion

based on a survey.

The structure of the research is based upon the explanation of mass

communication theories and the description of several studies connected to this paper.

Starting with the explanation of what are the theories of mass communication,

highlighting their main concepts and examples from a set of selected authors, and then

follows a discussion on the positive and negative aspects of flexible legislation of

cannabis with a brief description of international studies on cannabis and media

framing. The second chapter will analyze how mass media frame cannabis in France

during a crucial period of time, by analyzing three main mass media in France,

extracting and coding their articles concerning cannabis depending on their opinions.

The public opinion on the product will be tested, based on their political and social

background through a survey conducted for this research. The research will help

determine what factors are related to the type of perception of the product. It will also

determine if political, public and media change of perception is opening to a niche for

new business opportunities, following the American model.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 7

1. Theoretical framework of mass communication and its usage on cannabis framing

1.1 Theories of mass communication and its relation to the public opinion

Mass communication is a widely discussed topic in the scientific sphere. Along

the previous century, it has been studied in various fields, giving birth to three main

theories, agenda setting, priming and framing, which have helped to understand the

society and its socio-economic behavioral patterns. Studies, which have been conducted

on mass communication, are diverse due to the purposes and objectives. They have

adopted a wide range of analysis and different levels of methodologies. Economics,

politics or sociology have all used these theories to demonstrate certain phenomenon.

The first structured discussions on mass communication and their socio-

economic critics can be attributed to Lippmann with his 1922 book, Public opinion. At

the very beginning of that century, Lippmann introduced the idea that a pre-organized

menu of news directed by an elite, influences the public opinion. Lippmann, through

different historical examples, has described how media is vulnerable to manipulation

(Lippmann, 1922).

The earliest modern empirical research on mass media effects began with the

start of the Second World War when Hitler and Mussolini used mass media as a tool for

their propaganda (Prat & Strömberg, 2013).

As the first large case research on mass communication demonstrates, by

studying the voter`s decision-making process, during the 1940`s election in the U.S,

mass media only had a minor effect on public opinion, by first reaching the “opinion

leaders”, those who are active media users (Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, 1944;

Berelson, Lazarsfeld, and McPhee 1954). Researchers have then developed more

advanced theories in order to depict the effect of mass communication on the socio-

economic net of a society, including:

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 8

• Agenda setting theory, better discussed by McCombs and Shaw in 1972,

shows that media coverage of a situation makes the audience believe the

issue is important.

• Priming, studied by Iyengar and Kinder (1987), explains how people

consider a specific politician based on the media coverage. Priming is not

discussed in this research, as it is not relevant to the specific topicality of

the paper.

• Framing, well discussed by Entmann (1991) along his career describes

how media are giving a specific interpretation to a piece of news to the

audience.

Therefore, as mass communication tools are theoretically targeting the

democratic decision makers, it can interact with the actual socio-economical outcomes.

Media have played and will play a front role in shaping the future of microeconomic,

macroeconomic, economic policies, and political decisions of the society in general

(McCombs & Shaw, 1972; Frisby, 2002; Mansfeld, 2006; Wahab, 1996; Entmann

1991).

The extent to which mass communication impacts politics, economics and public

decisions is still vague and varies from country to country. Many researchers have used

the previously mentioned theories as a foundation to conduct their research. We can for

instance note: «tourism, crime, and risk perception» (Brown, 2015) which describes

how crime rates in an area, affects tourism as an economic sector, others are mainly

descriptive, such as the political economy of mass media (Prat & Strömberg, 2013). The

most relevant body of literature are connected to political sciences, describing the

impact of media on elections for instance (McCombs & Shaw 1972).

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 9

It is particularly important to stress the role of theories of mass communication

in this research because these concepts give a clear understanding of the balance of

power in corporate democracies. In fact, according to the previously cited theories, what

mass media reflects on their article, theoretically reflects the future or at least the

present public opinion. The principles of mass communication theories are particularly

economically relevant in societies based upon capitalist structures, in which

corporations have a substantial range of influence (cf. corporatism). Major corporations,

having tied relations with the government (e.g., military industry), own and use media,

as a tool to create salience, or pressure on governmental policies to reach their interests

(Entmann, 1991).

The next discussion will concentrate on introducing the essence of the main

theories of mass communication, which have been used in the analysis of economic

issues.

Agenda setting theory is among the first major theoretical matter of mass

communication to have been described. Dr. McCombs and Dr. Donald Shaw first

developed it, in 1968 (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). The theory demonstrates a strong

correlation between media’s perception of the importance of elections and the public

perception of the elections (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). Thus determining to what degree

media can influence public opinion. The agenda setting theory demonstrates that, by

emphasizing certain issues or topics, mass media have a relevant impact on the public

opinion. As the consumer of the press tends to assign a proportionate importance based

on these attributes, media distorts consumer’s natural behavior. The agenda setting

theory can be applied to a vast number of scientific fields to interpret specific actions.

Economic, security and social crisis are often portrayed in the mass media’s news

portfolio (Frisby, 2002; Mansfeld, 2006; Wahab 1996) and have significant
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 10

consequences on the audience’s behavior. A security crisis in Egypt will have an

important impact on the profitability of the tourism market in the area for instance

(Wahab 1996; Alleyne & Boxill, 2003; Stroud & Kenski, 2007). Cohen (1963) and

Mansfeld (2006), proved the role of media in shaping the public opinion, by analyzing

the relationship between media accounts of crime and tourist arrival.

McCombs and Shaw, argue that the media influences how news consumers

develop mental models and assign priority to issues: « individuals cannot fully

understand their surroundings and must make sense of their lives through interpretive

frameworks » (as cited in C.B. Brown, 2015). Governmental policies tend to find

support based on news coverage. War on drug receives public support by being

portrayed on mass media coverage for instance.

The following discussion focuses on another major concept of mass communication

theories, particularly relevant in the recent socio-economic context.

Media Framing refers to the process of which only a specific view about a social,

political or economic issue is highlighted in media, thus resulting on a salience. Mass media

tend to use frames, which influence the choices and opinions of the audience (McCombs &

Shaw, 1972).

Scholars have explained how framing has been used as a tool for media to promote a

particular understanding of facts, events or issues by offering specific packages of news to the

targeted audience, to stimulate a desired response. Consequently showing that media do have

an impact on the distribution of power (Entmann, 1991), directed by the interest of the

shareholder(s) or stakeholder(s) for instance.

Tversky & Kahnemann (1981) are considered to be the founders of the concept of

framing theory, although, later coined by Fairhurst & Sarr (1996)

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 11

More recently D. Chong and J.N. Druckman (2007) have studied the democratic

competition on the power of elites to frame public opinion. They developed a theory that

predicts how audiences, messages & competitive environments interact to influence the

magnitude of framing effects. The experience tested the opinion of adults & college students

on two policy issues: «the management of urban growth» and «the right for an extremist

group to conduct a rally». The results obtained by the researchers indicated that the framing

effects depend strongly on the quality of the frames (quality of the transcription of the

message) rather than on their frequency of dissemination. In parallel, the results show that

competition affected but does not eliminate the influence of framing. The result has shown

that framing to a certain extent can alter people’s opinion, but contrary to the previous

theoretical claims, does not depend on the frequency of the frames.

By using an adequate frame, the two researchers were able to move public opinion in

both, competitive, & non-competitive contexts. The competitive context addresses how much

information is received as well as how well the information is processed by its audience. The

competitive context implies that leaders and organization compete in organizing the

alternative for public policies. The non-competitive context addresses especially those who

are unmotivated, statistically more prone to use any accessible considerations, delivered

through the message. In which no debate nor opposition exists between opponents (Chong. D

and Druckman J.N. 2007).

The experiment conducted proves that the conscious manipulation of the information,

using the process of framing, directs the opinion of the target group, to react in the desired

way. The demonstrated effect applies to the bigger scale; taking the macroeconomic example:

if a given population believes that the market situation is bad, they will have a global

tendency to save up money, therefore having a substantial impact on the economy.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 12

The next subchapter will introduce the main arguments and counter-arguments for

adopting different, more flexible, regulations on cannabis in France.

1.2 Positive and negative aspects of flexible legislation of cannabis

Cannabis is the most common illicit substance consumed worldwide (UNDOC, 2010),

the therapeutic use of cannabis has been legalized in a growing number of countries and states

partially due to its various properties. In the United States, more states are heading toward

flexible legislations on cannabis, due to its pharmaceutical and economic benefits. In Europe,

the policies also go toward more opened laws to introduce the product to the market and

reduce the expenditures on the war on drugs. France is one of the biggest consumers of

cannabis in Europe (UNDOC, 2010), financing the local and global mafia networks.

Consequently, cannabis is an important question in France; it is well debated, and

interestingly covered by media.

French decision makers are currently discussing of implementing flexible legislation

on cannabis, legalization, decriminalization or any form of less strict policies on the

consumption of the product.

The legislative system does not recognize the product as being safe; although the

French National Agency of Medicines Safety has legalized Sativex, for multipurpose medical

usage (ANSM, 2013).

As the implementation of flexible legislation on cannabis is debatable, it is important

to give the reader an equitable ground of positive & negative aspects of such socio-economic

policies on cannabis. Even if the number of research on the field remains small in France, a

significant number of flexible policies have been applied and researched on the topic, abroad.

Most recent clinical studies have supported the benefits of cannabis, developing public

and political campaigns around the world to enact policies, laws, or legislation to enable the

legal use of medical cannabis. In fact, the use of cannabis as a medical tool was commonly
 MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 13

used to treat a great number of medical cases until the beginning on the 19th century. Most

recent research have proven the use of the product in most of these cases, such as HIV/AIDS;

sclerosis & spasticity; pain management; cancer & glaucoma and others (Holland. J, 2010).

The medical use of cannabis takes a prominent place in the pharmaceutical business.

In the United States, where the market is the most developed, the sale’s profit reaches about

$5.4 billion (ArcView Report, 2015), which constitutes one of the fastest growing markets in

the country.

The re-introduction of the product in the market benefits several sectors of the

economy. The agricultural and industrial sectors, for instance, benefit from a higher rate of

employment.

Table 1: Public expenditure per user linked to cannabis consumption in France.

Current Situation Decriminalization Total Total legalization

legalization with under market law
state monopoly
Repression 724,36 € 108,65 € 0 0
Law 227,45 € 227,45 € 0 0
Health 14,73 € 14,73 € 14,73 € 66,36 €
Prevention 66,36 € 66,36 € 14,73 € 66,36 €

Source: B. Lakhdar (2007)

Table 1 shows the expenditure related to the different plausible scenarios in different

important fields of the current war on drugs. The most profitable scenario for the state would

be the “Total legalization with state monopoly”, and the costliest possibility, is the current

scenario.

In France, several scientists have studied socio-economic forecasts of the re-

introduction of the product; with a current public cost of €568 million (B. Lakhdar, 2013) to

fight cannabis and an increasing profit to the black market, of about 277 tons sold each year in

the country (P.Kopp, B. Lakhdar, R.Perez, 2014). The current profit aliments various groups
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 14

of the mafia, partly in collaboration with several terrorist cells inducing negative social

externalities.

P. Kopp, B. Lakhdar, and R. Perez have conducted complete studies on the potential

economic benefits of cannabis in France and have concluded that three possible solutions with

different outcome are plausible. In the best case, the total profit for the state would reach

about €1.7 billion, under a taxation program combined with a reduction of governmental

expenditure on the war on drugs (P. Kopp, B. Lakhdar and R. Perez, 2014).

Aside from medical & recreational use, the product finds a significant number of

usages in different industries and is particularly competitive (Classification ICB): consumer

services, consumer goods, healthcare, oil & gas, utilities and industrial. In fact, the plant has

multiple environmentally friendly properties and can be transformed into plastics (Ford's

Hemp car), building supplies (insulation, concrete - hempcrete) or fuel.

Along its high number of positive aspects, flexible legislation on cannabis induces

several socio-economic risks. Even if different examples have not shown major negative

impact of cannabis laws on the economy and the social spheres, it might induce risks on the

French case.

Primarily, flexible regulation in France will increase the consumption of the product as

recreational use, causing unknown effect on the social strata; a spillover effect is to be

considered (Kopp, Lakhdar, Perez, 2014). Publicly, political and economic opponents of

cannabis legislation argue that the decriminalization of the product for either medical or

recreational use might significantly affect the delinquency.

In term of negative impact on the economic dimension, some parts of the private

sectors might be disturbed. For instance, the pharmaceutical industries producing alternative

industrial medicines will see an increase in their competition spectrum, potentially affecting

their profitability, due to a loss of market share on a significant number of medications. The
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 15

example of basic painkiller can be brought to illustrate the theory. Products like Ibuprofen or

Paracetamol are the most commonly used chemical drugs to release chronic pains. Their

consumption is known to have significant side effects (Steven Reinberg, 2009), unlike

equivalent cannabinoids (active components of cannabis). A cheap drug like cannabis is a

dangerous competitor for already established expensive drugs, which while fighting the first

pain, brings other profitable symptoms (Durgul Ozdemir, Ilkay Aksu et al. 2016).

Several other industries and unions would suffer from more flexible legislations,

private corporations; prison and police unions gain increasing profits on strict laws on

cannabis. In fact, 13.6% of prison population has committed crimes related to the war on

drugs policies (Ministère de la Justice, 2008). Moreover, with an eradication of the illegal

market of cannabis in France, the profits for terrorist organizations would significantly

decrease, inducing a reduction in sales for major armoring industries, such as Dassault, which

have substantial interests in keeping unstable situation in the Middle East for instance.

Cannabis consumption, as much as alcohol or coffee consumption might develop legitimate

abuses and stimulate eruption of latent mental pathologies.

Cannabis has been framed differently in media around the world, in France; opinions

are still balanced, even if the numbers of discussions on the national level increases, a number

of influent personalities remain skeptical. Implementing cannabis in the economy has several

positive outcomes, like reducing some expenditure, but it can also have significant negative

impact on some weaker individuals. The next subchapter will describe research on cannabis

and media framing.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 16

1.3 Studies on cannabis and mass communication theories

Cannabis has been studied in various fields, including in mass communication

research. The topic of cannabis was discussed in a mass communication research on media

coverage in the UK during the cannabis reclassification by Acevedo (2007). The study

showed that along the reclassification of the product, the description of the users went from

«law abiding citizens» who use cannabis for medical or recreational purposes in 2004, to

« addicts » or criminals in 2005. This research shows that the reclassification of the product

between 2004 and 2005 covered up the constructive uses of cannabis, while revealing the

negative outcome of its use.

Other research have approached the question, cannabis in the news, such as Sheperd

(1981), who analyzes the scientific background of news and cannabis articles; others have

discussed the approach on cannabis in the news depending on the race or gender of its users.

It is either condemned or accepted depending on such factors (Haines-Saah et al., 2013; Lewis

& Proffitt, 2012).

Sharon R. Sznitman and Nehana Lewis (2015) studied how cannabis was framed in

several Israeli newspapers. The research objective was to find out if the recent medical

policies on the product have had an effect on the public opinion, by studying its frame in the

news. The study examines the framing of « cannabis for therapeutic purposes » (CTP). In the

research a correlation between the media coverage and the number of CTP licenses given over

time is drawn.

214 articles, published between January 2007 and June 2013, on CTP were analyzed,

and extracted from the three main source of news in Israel (Yedio, Maariv and Haaretz).

The articles were extracted from the online archives and the printed articles. To

conduct a quantitative analysis, the researchers coded the articles depending on the opinion

reflected in the piece of news (Sharon R. Sznitman and Nehana Lewis, 2015).
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 17

Figure 1 shows the evolution of the tendency to frame cannabis in the news as either

an illicit drug or as a medicine, in comparison to the number of given CTP licenses.

The research has found out that 69% of CTP articles framed cannabis as a medicine,

and 31% framed it as an illicit drug. The result of the experiment showed that negative frames

toward cannabis fluctuate over time, but do not have relation with the trend of CTP licensing.

Figure 1: Perception of cannabis in Israeli media between 2007 and 2013

Source: Sharon R. Sznitman and Nehana Lewis, 2015

The conclusion of the experiment states that the majority of the news items are

supporting cannabis as a medical tool, in logic correlation with the governmental decisions on

the topic (Sharon R. Sznitman and Nehana Lewis, 2015).

This study shows that more and more governments are taking decisions to democratize

the use of the product with the help and support of the media industry.

As an overall conclusion to the chapter, we can note that previous studies have

attributed theories to specific media behaviors. Several scientists have explained the role of

media opinion in the process of affecting the public’s perception. By definition, the

theoretical structure of direct democracy, gives the power to the people. Thus, the reflected

opinion of the media in the people’s perception has an effect on the democratic process.

Agenda setting theories have shown that corporations, by owning medias, have an influence
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 18

in generating the public opinion. Cannabis has deserved increasing attention by researchers in

different academic fields. Recently, French economists have proposed a number of theories

on how to implement cannabis as a profitable good in the society. The second part of the

research will present the analysis of the author based upon his own data. The focus is to

understand the perception of cannabis by the media, depending on their political and

economic interests to understand the perception of the concern by the public opinion

depending on several criteria.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 19

2. Perception of cannabis in French mass media and among public

2.1 Methodology to analyze media framing and public perception of cannabis

In order to assess the media coverage on cannabis, which have reached a broad range

of target audience in the French public, the author sampled a total of 536 articles that

focused on cannabis and which were published in three important media companies (Le

Figaro, Le Monde and Mediapart). The media companies were selected based upon their

political affiliation, ownership and rather high popularity. The author has selected a specific

period of time, which is relevant to the topic of the paper. Due to the lack of time, and the

high number of articles concerning cannabis in “Le Monde” and “Le Figaro”, not all could

be extracted. Consequently the author has randomly picked a number of articles per years. In

order to search for articles on cannabis, key words were used in the research process.

Following terms (translated from French to English) were used to collect the data:

«cannabis»; «medical cannabis» and «marijuana». The author went through all the extracted

articles, in order to determine the perception of the concern by its publishers.

The author developed a basic coding instrument in order to classify categorically the

perception of cannabis in the articles. Articles referring to cannabis as being positive (=1),

negative (=2) or others (=0). The measures took into account the use of terms associated

with cannabis as a «solution» or as a drug (causing social issues in general).

For example, articles that discuss the medical and economic properties of the product

were considered positive. Articles, which rather describe the prowess of police forces in

catching drug smugglers or dealers, were considered negative. And articles discussing that

hemp was used as a rope in ancient naval structures were considered not relevant. Due to the

relatively small number of articles categorized 0 and the irrelevance of historical information

on the current questions, the category 0, was excluded from the final analysis. Articles were
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 20

also categorized per "media sections" (Economy / Politics / International / Crime /

Technology & Innovation / Lifestyle / Science & Nature / Healthcare).

The time period of interest was the two last decades (before 2010 and after 2015),

due to the important policy changes on this period.

In addition to showing the distribution of each of the overall frames, this study shows

the perception of the public opinion with the use of a survey (cf. Appendix A) based upon

similar coding instruments. The survey was directed to the French audit and was spread

among Facebook during a period of 3 days. The survey was conducted in French and reached

127 participants from different age groups and backgrounds. The survey was conducted with

the aim to understand the position of the public facing the issue. A set of questions was

proposed to the respondents in order to visualize their opinion. The survey can be divided into

four main set of questions:

• The first set concerned the general background: the age, education level, field of

expertise (based upon official classification) and social status were asked in order to

understand the position per social standpoint;

• The second part of the survey concerned the political view of the respondents,

« which political branch reflects your opinion the best », to understand if the political

opinion has a relation the perception of cannabis;

• The third part of the survey focused on understanding to what extent the three media

studied (Le Figaro, Le Monde and Mediapart) are considered to be trustworthy by the

audience;

• The fourth part of the survey concerned the perception of cannabis by the audience.

A set of questions was given, to understand the position of the population facing the

discussed question.
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 21

As shown in table 2, the sampled population included 64% of 18 to 25 years old

individuals, 9.5% of 30 to 39 years old individuals and 13.5% of individuals over 50 years

old. Adding to the basic information on the respondents, 60% of them were students and

27,2% were employees.

Table 2. Age and Social Status of the respondents

Description % Of respondents
Age
18 - 25 64
25 - 29 8
30 - 39 10
40 - 50 5
50 + 14
Social Status
Students 60
Unemployed 4
Retired 4,8
Others 4
Employed 27,2

Source: Author’s work

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 22

2.2 Cannabis framing in the French media

As mentioned earlier, Transparency International, through a study based upon 65

different indicators, has given France 2.7 / 10 in 2004 as a grade for transparency and

lobbying. In France only a few regulations exist concerning lobbying. It is consequently

strongly vulnerable to such practices. French media are not excluded from the list of

vulnerable industries. By analyzing the shareholders of each of the newspaper, we can

conclude that media industry is prone to lobbying. The 2016’s events (Nuits debouts) are

showing latent signs of the lack of transparency of the media sphere. The reasons why the

conclusion can be drawn is that, media is by nature often prone to lobbying due to their

purpose. Moreover, the industries in charge of media in France are some of most influential

of the country: haute couture - military industry - telecommunications.

As discussed earlier, the author has extracted 536 articles from three different

sources of media in France. On a first glance, we can note in figure 3 below, that each media

adopts different behavior when it comes to framing cannabis. Le Figaro, due to its interests

in right wing party, police union, and military industry has a global tendency to frame

cannabis negatively. Le Monde, which targets rather left wing affiliates, balances negative

and positive frames quite equally. Mediapart, the independent media, has covered cannabis

positively in most of its articles, showing a more neutral strategy, which reflects the opinion

of the survey more rationally. It is important to note that neutrally framed articles were not

included due to the lack of relevance toward the topic discussed.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 23

Negative frames Positive frames

100

75

50

25

0
Le Figaro Le Monde Mediapart

Figure 3: Proportion of positive and negative frames, on the overall period of time for each

media.

Source: Author’s work

When divided into two crucial periods, the newspapers adopt totally different patterns

of framing. In fact, as illustrated in figure 4, the tendency to frame cannabis negatively in the

media is of bigger proportion. After 2010, all media balance their type of frames, by an

increase of the proportion of positively framed articles. This can be explained by the

increasing number of debates and discussions on the governmental level as well as the

increasing number of foreign states changing their policies on the product.

Figure 4: Proportions of negative and positives frames of cannabis in the French media before

and after 2010.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 24

Source: Author’s work

Le Figaro, created in the 19th century, is among the most popular French media

channel. The newspaper is part of the French culture, and has a relevant impact on its

audience. The newspaper’s political position could be located, at the center right affiliated to

the right wing political party the « UMP » which had for leader, Nicolas Sarkozy the ex-

president and minister of interior.

A total of 220 articles were extracted and coded from « Le Figaro ». As it can be seen

in figure 5, the negative frames on cannabis are by far overwhelming positive frames. In fact,

despite a small fluctuation between 0 and 20% of positively framed articles between 2002 and

2011, negative frames constitute the global majority. From 2010, we can note a pick of

positively framed articles appearing until 2014, and then decreases until 2015 due to the

international changes of policies on cannabis. The frequency of article on cannabis also has

increased due to the rising number of police interventions pictured in Appendix B.

Figure 5: Proportion of positive versus negative frame of articles on cannabis (Le Figaro)

from 2002 to 2015.

Source: Author’s work

As a conclusion to the observations made, according to the results obtained, we can

note that the right wing media seems to have a rather negative opinion on cannabis. This can

be concluded by the vast majority of negative frames on the topic (80%). The overall negative
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 25

perception of cannabis by Le Figaro can be explained by the political and economic interest

of the corporation toward keeping a strong legislation on the product. Nevertheless, figure 6,

indicates that over the two main periods, the framing of article concerning foreign policy has

increased from 8% to 23%, showing its influence (Appendix C: cannabis worldwide policy

timeline) more specifically because of the legalization of recreational use of cannabis in the

USA in 2010. The number of articles concerning economic (and political) section has also

increased quite drastically, due to the on-going governmental discussion on flexible

legislations (Appendix C: cannabis worldwide policy timeline). The increase in the frequency

of frames discussed led to a decrease of pieces of news belonging to the « crime » section.

Which indicate a change of perception from the two periods. Together with the increase of

positive frames, and the re-classification of the product per section, we can conclude that Le

Figaro, which typically has a negative view on cannabis, is changing perception.

The overall negative perception could be related to the relation of the corporation to

police and prison unions. In fact, cannabis legislative concerns are of significant economic

and political interest for « Dassault Groupe ».

2002 - 2009 2010 - 2015

Economy
4% Lifestyle
8%
International
8% Lifestyle
Economy
10%
10%

International
Health
23%
12%

Crime
Crime Health 47%
66% 12%

Figure 6: Cannabis articles by section in Le Figaro

Source: Author’s research

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 26

Le Monde is a more recent newspaper, created in 1944. It is among the most read

newspaper in France. The target audience has a stereotypical tendency to be part of the left

political wing «center-left». The newspaper belongs to « Groupe Le Monde », with chairman,

Louis Dreyfus and Pierre Bergé.

The group has three main shareholders:

• Pierre Bergé, businessman, closely related to the left wing parties. He has

actively supported several presidential elections, J. Chirac, F. Mitterrand, S.

Royal, D. de Villepin (with financial & media support).

• Xavier Niel, businessman, president and founder of Iliad group

(telecommunication - « Free mobile». As been taken to court for several

reasons. Also he is the main shareholder of OCB smoking company.

• Matthieu Pigasse, businessman, and investment banker. Chairman of Lazard

Bank in France, and vice president of Lazard in Europe. He started his career

as an advisor to the Ministry of the Economy, Finances and Industry. He then

worked shoulder to shoulder with Laurent Fabius, Minister of Finance.

A total of 236 articles were collected and coded from the left wing media published on

a period of 8 years (2007 - 2015).

Figure 7: Proportion of positive vs. negative frame of articles on cannabis (Le Monde) from

2007 to 2015
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 27

Source: Author’s research

In contrast to the right wing media source, we can observe that the proportion of

positively framed articles is higher in general. In fact, even if in 2007 no positive frames were

included in the published articles. A rapid rise is observed from 2008 until 2014. The pick of

the curve is observed in the year 2014, reaching up to 80%. From 2010 to 2015, we can

observe a rather stagnating trend of positively framed articles. The period coincides with the

foreign positive policies on cannabis and with the political (left wing) discussion of that time

in France.

However in total a majority of articles in Le Monde are framing cannabis negatively

(figure 3). On the other hand, the balance between negatively and positively framed articles is

better proportioned. A total of 101 articles are framing cannabis positively, against 139

negative frames. We can explain the rapid growth of positively framed articles from 2008 by

the influence of foreign policies on cannabis, especially in the United States. Figure 8,

indicates that Le Monde has a stronger focus on the international changes of policies, from

12% in the first period to 35% on the second period, positively affecting its economic

perception. In fact, according to figure 7 and figure 8 the increase of positively framed article

during the same period of time shows that the media has a more positive approach on the

question in term of socio-economic understanding.

Moreover, left-wing political elite started opening debate on the implementation of

rather flexible policies on cannabis starting from the year 2008. Also, legalizing the use of

cannabinoids based medicines starting from 2010. Le Monde has a political interest in

supporting left wing policies, in opposition to the right-wing political parties, which are

typically against this type of policies. The shareholders also have potential economic interests

in supporting a form of decriminalization or legalization, due to financial link to OCB

(Republic Tobacco).
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 28

2007 - 2009 2010 - 2015

Science
1%
Economy, 7

Technology, Science,
10 7
Lifestyle
18% Economy
17%

Crime, 32
Crime
20% Lifestyle, 24

Internation
al
35%
Health
Internationa Health , 7
9%
l, 12

Figure 8: Cannabis articles by section in Le Monde

Source: Author’s research

Figure 8 shows a better proportionality of articles section based. Like the right wing

media, we can observe a strong presence of articles classified in « international » section.

Articles are mainly discussing the change of policies in several states of America showing the

influence of foreign policies. « Crime » section also represents a majority of negatively

framed articles, with a share of 32% in the first period. But unlike the right wing media, we

can note a strong presence of the articles in « Lifestyle » and « Science » sections, showing a

more diversified selection of frames.

As a conclusion to the left wing approach of the topic, we can note an overall better

proportionality of negative and positive frames given to the audience. The influence of

foreign policies remains strong. In contrast to the right wing approach, articles have a more

heterogeneous distribution per categories.

Mediapart is an alternative source of media founded more recently than the other

comparative segments. Mediapart is known for having an ideology rather critical of the
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 29

concepts of corporatism and crony capitalism. In fact, Mediapart bases its economic model on

the idea that monthly subscription should guarantee the independence of the journalists’ work.

The group believes that journalism should be kept independent from economic coalitions and

monopolies. Consequently, the group does not depend on any other entities. Due to the young

age of the company, fewer articles were sampled, over a shorter period.

A total number of 80 articles were extracted and coded during a 7 years period (2008

to 2015).

Figure 9: Proportion of positive against negative frames of articles on cannabis (Mediapart)

from 2008 to 2015.

Source: Author’s work

Unlike right wing and left wing media, the total proportion of positively framed

articles is superior to the negatively framed articles. The shape of the trend seems to stagnate

along the years.

The position of the media on the question can be explained by the logical rational

approach on the topic. In fact, by nature, independent media tend to have a more theoretical

approach on economic and social topics, because they do not have economic interest

stimulating a distortion of the perception. Thus Mediapart will have the tendency to describe a

more rational view on cannabis.

On the total period of time, 72% of the articles are framing cannabis positively, against

28% framing it negatively. It can also be described by the section analysis. In fact, figure 10
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 30

below shows that Mediapart has a focus on the economic perception of the product on both

periods (33% and 36%). International sections (25% on both periods), mainly reflects

economic and political prowess abroad.

On the other hand 27% (after 2010 - figure 10) of articles discuss legal issues in

crime section, due to major police intervention conducted these recent years (cf. Appendix B:

Police intervention trends per drugs).

2010 - 2015
2008 - 2009

Lifestyle, 7

Lifestyle, 17

Economy, Economy,
33 Internation
36
al, 25

Internation
al, 25

Health, 4
Crime, 25 Crime, 27

Figure 10: Cannabis articles by section in Mediapart

Source: Author’s work

As a conclusion, Mediapart has a more balanced approach on the topic, basing its

articles on economic and political advantages of flexible policies on the product and attributed

a significant number of frames on international affairs and prowess of foreign policies on the

product. Mediapart also covered a considerable number of news stories related to crime and

social affairs (25% and 27%).

Right after the wave of positive frames in 2009 to 2012, France has legalized

the use of cannabis as a medicine in 2013 (cf. Appendix C).

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 31

The three newspapers behave in very specific ways; each of them has a typical pattern.

Each media has different perceptions based on their interest and sphere of influence. Right

wing media relates to police unions; it will tend to frame cannabis negatively, showing the

prowess of police forces in the context of war on drugs. Left wing media has an interest in the

tobacco and smoking tools. Mediapart reflects the best the public opinion studied in the

survey discussed later. In fact, the newspaper shows a well-balanced strategy, framing

cannabis as a drug to a certain extent, and mainly discussing of the prowess of cannabis in the

society.

The later part of the research will focus on analyzing and interpreting the results of the

survey, in order to understand what is the position of the public on the question, and to figure

out what factors have an influence on the perception of the public opinion.

2.3 Public opinion’s analysis

The study of the public opinion on the question of cannabis is based upon a survey

answered by 127 participants. The sample is rather small and not representative of the totality

of the French population due to the limited resources available for the research.

Political Affiliation

Center,
25

Left
Wing,
53
Right
Wing,
22

Figure 11: Political affiliation

Source: Author’s work

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 32

The figure 11 shows that 53% of the sampled population had a rather left wing

approach on politics. Moreover, 66.1% of the respondents have a stronger trust toward the left

wing media (Le Monde) against 8.6% aligned with the right wing media (Le Figaro) and

27.3% with Mediapart (independent media) as illustrated in appendix D.

Figure 12: Results of the question (2): « do you perceive cannabis as a drug » » (Strongly

disagree (=1): strongly agree (=5).

Source: Author’s work

The figure 12 shows that Cannabis is perceived as rather being a drug by 51.5% of the

population (28.3% + 22.8%), 28.3% have a neutral opinion, and 20.5% tend not to consider

the product as a drug.

As illustrated in figure 13, Cannabis is perceived as a source of future innovation by

60.6% of the population (30.7% + 29.9%), 24.4% have a neutral opinion, and 14.9% have a

negative opinion on the question.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 33

Figure 13: Results of the question (3): « To what extent do you think cannabis can have a

positive impact on the economy, technology, science etc. » » (Strongly disagree (=1) ;

strongly agree (=5))

Source: Author’s work

The sampled population has a left wing perception of politics (cf. figure 11) and tends

to see economic, scientific and technological opportunities in cannabis and its related

products (cf. figure 13).

The second part of the analysis will be focused on understanding the socio-

demographic framework, and will discuss in more precise details the outcome of the survey.

In order to determine what factors may influence the perception of the population on

cannabis, several test have been ran.

Table 3: Correlation analysis, Perception (as a drug or not) * Age

Value Approx. Sig.

Ordinal by ordinal Kendall's tau-b 0,215 0,004
Spearman correlation 0,240 0,007

N. Of valid cases 124

Source: Author's work

The table 3 shows that there is positive, but weak correlation between age and

perception of cannabis as a drug. This can be explained by the fact that younger individuals

are more likely to be informed on the current researches, unlike the elders, who have been

raised in the prohibition period.

The social status was tested using a Kruskal-Wallis test, and no statistically

significantly difference could be observed indicating no relation, nor significant differences

between the social status and the type of perception.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 34

In order to understand whether the type of newspaper read would affect the perception

of the product, non-parametric tests, Kruskal-Wallis were performed. It is important to

understand that the test ran is an omnibus test statistic, consequently cannot tell which specific

group are statistically significantly different from each other.

Table 4. Kruskal-Wallis, Perception and Media Preferences

Perception / Media preferences Lvl.1 Lvl. 2

Chi Square 10,548 9,976

df 2 1

Asymp. Sig. 0,005 0,002

Source: Author's work

The table 4, illustrates the results of the test, showing a statistically significant

difference between the choice of the newspaper and the perception of the product as a drug or

not, with sig=0,005. Indicating that the perception is different depending on the newspaper

read.

As the test ran does not indicate which of the groups are statistically significant it is

necessary to run an additional test, and check which of the three variables are statistically

significantly different. The level 2 of the table 4 shows a statistical difference between

Mediapart and Le Monde with, sig=0,002. Indicating that Mediapart readers have a positive

tendency, unlike Le Monde's readers.

The results of the analysis have shown that unlike current considerations, lower social

status do not have an influence on the perception of cannabis as not being a drug. This result

can be explain by the fact that lower social classes' people are more likely to have direct

contact with the addictive issues of cannabis and consequently consider the product as a drug,

elderly generation may tend to see the product with a more negative approach as they have

lived during a time of strong prohibition.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 35

As far as the newspaper choice is concern, the results indicate a statistically significant

difference between the choice and the perception, which can be explain by the uneven number

of participants focused on reading Le Monde (66.1%), against Le Figaro (6.6%) and

Mediapart (27.3%). We can note, that the popularity of Le Figaro has considerably decreased

among younger population in the last decade, due to the calling into question of its credibility

and transparency.
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 36

Conclusion

Through the various studies of mass communication theories, we can conclude that the media

have an important role in shaping the public opinion.

Private entities can use media as a tool to shape the public opinion and use it in their interest,

to modify the trajectory of the public opinion consequently affecting the decision process.

Such logic shows a clear limit to democracy and needs further investigations.

The theoretical framework was based on explaining the mass communication theories and

their relation to political and economic decisions, specifically showing the importance and

role of framing. The explanation of mass communication theories also covered the agenda

setting theory and its relevance in the current socio-economic turmoil.

The theoretical analysis also covered the question of cannabis in France, showing the negative

and positive aspects of the establishment of flexible policies in the country.

A brief overview of previous studies on cannabis and mass communication theories was also

given, giving an overview of the current situation.

The empirical framework was based on the analysis of French newspapers and the public

opinion on the question of cannabis. The newspaper analysis revealed the type of frames used

by the corporations studied, which demonstrates that different political and economic interests

result in a different kind of framing method, most probably influenced by the interests of the

owners. The analysis also had the purpose of forecasting the potential birth of a niche market

in the country, by analyzing the frequency and the type of frame on a spatiotemporal ground.

The intrusion of positively framed articles at a given period seems to coincide with the

legalization of Sativex. The increasing frequency of positive frames and the shift in section

choice by the newspapers are reflecting the future consideration of implementing more

flexible legislations.

The political views of the press are different, yet going toward a consensus; which is reflected
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 37

in the type of frame selected. The perception of the topic by the media and the public opinion,

in addition to the international behaviors and the internal political decisions, are showing

advanced signs of future implementation of flexible policies on cannabis. Once more, the

situation shows an alignment with the United States, the center of decisions.

On the other hand, the analysis revealed that French media, by framing and the use of agenda

setting theory (the multiplication of positive frames, and the higher rate of articles on the

topic) are in line with the public opinion, which has consequences on the political decisions,

for the worst or for the best.

Consequently, the aim of the paper was achieved by finding out how mass media and public

perceived cannabis. We understood that the factors influencing the perception are of different

matter, economical, ethical or political. The media ownership and the political affiliation

seem to have an impact on the type of perception, since all media had different behaviors

before 2010 on the concern, in accordance with their type of interests. Moreover, the study

has showed that the perception of cannabis is affected by international socio-economic events.

The perception over time indicates a change in perception, opening different doors in the

field.

Further research in this field could expose the limits of democracies facing multinational

groups and negative lobbying. In fact, it would be interesting to study to what extent major

corporations have an influence on governmental decisions. For instance, how corporations

extract economic interests in conflicts.

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 38

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Appendix

Appendix A. Survey in English

1. Give three key words related to Cannabis:

Short Answer ..................................................

2. To what extent do you consider Cannabis as a drug?

Not at all - 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 - It is a drug

3. To what extent do you think cannabis can have an economic, scientific, medical,

industrial, positive impact?

Not at all - 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 - Strongly believe

4. Which political branch represents your opinion the best?

1. Left wing

2. Right wing

3. Center

5. According to you, which of these categories incorporates cannabis the best

1. Economy

2. Crime / Social issues

3. Health & Medicine

4. Technology & Innovation

5. International

6. Lifestyle

7. Science & Nature

6. Which of these media would you trust the most?

1. Le Monde

2. Le Figaro

3. Mediapart
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 43

7. What is your age group?

1. 18 - 25

2. 25 - 29

3. 30 - 39

4. 40 - 50

5. 50 & more

8. What is your status?

1. Student

2. Unemployed

3. Employed

4. Retired

9. Please choose your latest education

1. Medium School

2. High School

3. Bachelor

4. Masters

5. Ph.D.

10. What is your socio-professional class?

1. Farming industry

2. Artisans, merchants, business leaders

3. Upper managers and professionals

4. Intermediate professions

5. Employees

6. Workers

7. Retired
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 44

8. Others

11. To which wage level do you belong to?

1. 0 - 500 / months

2. 500 - 1000 / months

3. 1000 - 2000 / months

4. 2000 - 3000 / months

5. 4000 - + / months
MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 45

Appendix B. Police intervention trends per drugs

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 46

Appendix C: cannabis worldwide policy time line

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 47

Appendix D: Media preference (Le Monde / Le Figaro / Media part

MEDIA FRAMING AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CANNABIS IN FRANCE 48