Jain V K - Fire Safety in Buildings - 3e

NEW AGE REFERENCE
FIRE SAFETY
IN
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THIRD EDITION
V K JAIN
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FIRE SAFETY
IN
BUILDINGS
THIRD EDITION
V K JAIN
BE, MTech., FIE, FIETE
Chartered Engineer and
Retired Supdt. Engineer (Elect) CPWD
ISHRAE (Life Member), New Delhi
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Preface to the Third Edition
There had been a vast amount of changes that have been incorporated in building byelaws of
various authorities having jurisdiction all over India from 2010 onwards. Similarly National Building
Code (of India) had been reivised in 2016 and ECBC in 2017. As such I have revised the
contents of this book accordingly. Fire Statistics as per National Crime Research Bureau (NCRB)
and causes of fire in Indian context have been added. Matter on selection of fire extinguisher and
design, selection and installation of water sprinklers as per relevant IS code has been added.
Er. V.K. Jain

B.E., M.Tech, FIE, FIETE
MISHRAE (Life Member)
New Delhi
Chartered Engineer and Retired Supt. Engineer (Elect) CPWD
ix

Contents
Foreword K K Madan v
Foreword R Natarajan vii
Preface to the Third Edtion ix
1 FIRE, THE SOCIAL ASPECT 1–45

1.1 Fire, the Friend or Foe of Human Beings 1
1.2 History of Fire Fighting 2
1.3 History of Fire Services and Regulations in India 2
1.4 The National Building Code of India, 2016 4
1.5 Fire Safety Audit 7
1.6 Fire as a Natural Disaster Right 7
1.7 Frequency of Fire Accidents in India 9
1.8 State-Wise Number of Death due to Fire Accidents in India 11
1.9 Frequency of Fire Accidents World Over (Global) 11
1.10 Fire Hazard Places of Occurance (Occupancy-wise) 13
1.11 Major Causes of Fires 13
1.12 Fire Death by Major Four Types of Causes 22
1.13 Dangers to Life by Fire 23
1.14 Smoke 25
1.15 Toxic Gases and Vapours 26
1.16 Carbon Dioxide 27
1.17 Carbon Monoxide 29
1.18 Hydrogen Cyanide 29
1.19 Sulphur Dioxide 29
1.20 Depletion of Oxygen 30
1.21 Exposure to Heat and High Temperature 31
1.22 Body Burns 33
1.23 Major Fires in India and Lessons(Not) Learnt 33
2 FIRE: THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 46–73

2.1 Combustion and Fire 46
2.2 Types of Combustion 49

xii CONTENTS
2.3 Development of Fire 50

2.4 Ignition and Flame 53
2.5 Ignition in Liquids and Gases 54
2.6 Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, Solids and Volatile Solids 54
2.7 Flash-over 56
2.8 Flammable (Explosive) Limits 56
2.9 Flammable (Explosive) Range 57
2.10 Classification of Liquids 57
2.11 Fire Severity and its Controlling Factors 57
2.12 Flash-point Temperature and the Fire Pyramid 67
2.13 Flammability of Building Materials and Fire Growth 70
2.14 Room-Fire Growth 71
2.15 Fire Resistance and Thermal Load 72
3 SMOKE CONTROL AND PRESSURIZATION 74–107

3.1 Volume of Smoke 75
3.2 Quality of Smoke 78
3.3 Visibility and Obscuration 79
3.4 Smoke Density 79
3.5 Light Obscuration 79
3.6 Optical Density 80
3.7 Specific Optical Density 80
3.8 Smoke Movement 80
3.9 Natural Ventilation 83
3.10 Mechanical Ventilation 83
3.11 Smoke Control During Building Design 84
3.12 Pressurization of Protected Escape Routes 84
3.13 Mechanical Ventilation 86
3.14 Requirements of Pressurization System 87
3.15 Single-stage or Two-stage 87
3.16 Actual Design of Smoke Control Pressurization System 89
3.17 Calculation of Discharge Rate of Air Blowers 91
3.18 Calculation of Effective Leakage Areas 93
3.19 Calculation of Leakage Areas of Various Components 96
3.20 Smoke Extraction 102
3.21 Pressurization and Smoke Control as per NBC 2016 102
4 BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES IN FIRE 108–154

4.1 Types of Fire 108
4.2 Standard Fire Tests 109
4.3 Test to Assess the Risk of Ignition 110
4.4 Non-combustibility Test (As per as BS 476: Part-4: 1970) 111
4.5 Ignitability 111

CONTENTS xiii
4.6 Surface Spread of Flame for Materials (Abstract form IS 1642-1960) 111
4.7 Fire Resistance Tests 112
4.8 Concrete 118
4.9 Steel Structural Member 121
4.10 Aluminium 127
4.11 Wood (Timber) 127
4.12 Fabricated Board (Fire Proof) 129
4.13 Textile Fibres and other Household Materials 131
4.14 Curtains 132
4.15 Plastics 132
4.16 Glass 137
4.17 Fire Resistance Ratings as per ASTM E 119 137
4.18 Rules of Fire Endurance 145
4.19 Fire Rated and Smoke Outlet Ductwork 147
4.20 Fire Resistance Test on Ducts 148
5 FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS 155–216

5.1 Fire Safety 155
5.2 Passive Fire Protection 156
5.3 Internal Hazard 156
5.4 Fire Codes and Building Bye Laws 156
5.5 General Principles of Fire Grading of Buildings (Abstracts from IS: 1641-1960) 162
5.6 Grading of Structural Elements 164
5.7 Grading of Buildings According to Fire Resistance and Structural Precautions 166
5.8 Escape Routes: Concept 168
5.9 Compartmentation of Building 168
5.10 Compartment Walls 168
5.11 Compartmentation of Floors 169
5.12 Smoke and Heat Venting (Abstract from NFPA: 204 m) 169
5.13 Escape from Fire: Escape Routes 172
5.14 Design of Escape Routes 175
5.15 Definitions Regarding Escape Routes 175
5.16 Exposure Hazard 176
5.17 Flame Spread from One Floor to Others, in the Same Building 177
5.18 Planning to Reduce Exposure Hazard and the Contribution of the External Wall 182
5.19 Recommendations of BIS for Exposure Hazard 183
5.20 General Fire Safety Requirements for Buildings (As per IS 1641:1960) 188
5.21 Access for Outside Emergency Services 190
5.22 Site Planning 191
5.23 Rules of the Fire Offices’ Committee Regarding Fire Door 191
5.24 Structural Integrity and Continuity of Fire Resistance 195
5.25 Fire Prevention by Flame Retardation 199
5.26 Compartmentation 200
5.27 The Evacuation Process 206

xiv CONTENTS
5.28 Fire Rating System for Roofs 208

5.29 Building Fire Protection for the Future 208
5.30 Abstract from IS 1643: Personal Hazard 211
6 FIXED FIRE FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS (WATER BASED) 217–277

6.1 First Aid Fire Fighting Arrangements 217
6.2 Fire Hydrant Installations 220
6.3 Dry Hydrant Riser System 220
6.4 Wet Hydrant Riser System 223
6.5 Yard Hydrant Installations (Abstracts from IS:1648-1961) 269
6.6 Indian Standards 13039:1991 “External Hydrant Systems Provision and Maintenance—
Code of Practice” 273
6.7 Automatic Water Sprinklers 276
7 FLUIDIC FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS 278–338

7.1 Fixed Systems 278
7.2 CO2 Fixed Fire Fighting Systems 279
7.3 Storage of CO2 280
7.4 System of Operation 281
7.5 CO2 System Components 285
7.6 System Design 286
7.7 Fixed Halon Fire Fighting System 294
7.8 Halon-1301 (BTM) 294
7.9 System Operation 299
7.10 Halon-1211 (BCF) 301
7.11 Fixed Dry-chemical Extinguishing System 308
7.12 Foam Systems 311
7.13 Uses of Gaseous Extinguishing Systems 321
7.14 New Generation Fixed Fire Protection Systems 327
7.15 Substitutes for Halon-1211 in Streaming Applications 334
7.16 Recent Additions 337
7.17 Clean Agent Standards 337
8 PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 339–398

8.1 Fire Extinguishers 339
8.2 Fire Classification as per UL/NFPA USA 345
8.3 Classification of Fires in UK 348
8.4 Portable Extinguisher Standards 350
8.5 Portable Extinguisher Ratings 351
8.6 Types of Portable Extinguishers 356
8.7 Water Type Extinguishers 356
8.8 Foam Type Extinguishers 362
8.9 Dry-powder or Dry-chemical Extinguishers 366
8.10 CO2 Extinguishers 371

CONTENTS xv
8.11 Vaporizing Liquid Extinguishers 376

8.12 AFFF Extinguishers 383
8.13 Ferion Fire Extinguisher 383
8.14 High Rate Discharge Containers (H.R.D.) 383
8.15 Selection of Portable Fire Extinguishers 389
8.16 Mounting Extinguishers 391
8.17 Inspection and Maintenance 393
8.18 Extinguisher Distribution for Class A Combustibles 393
8.19 Extinguisher Distribution for Class B Combustibles 395
8.20 Other Portable Fire Fighting Appliances 396
9 AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM CIRCUITS 399–445

9.1 Need for Automatic Detection and Alarm 399
9.2 The Importance of Automatic Detection 400
9.3 Principles of Automatic Fire Detection 400
9.4 Principles of Detection 401
9.5 Methods of Classifying Detectors 402
9.6 Total Classification of Automatic Fire Detectors Based on Principle of Operation 403
9.7 Heat Detectors 404
9.8 Rate Compensated Detector 412
9.9 Line Type Heat Detector (Rate of Rise Type) 413
9.10 NFPA Classification of Heat Detector 414
9.11 Smoke Detectors 414
9.12 Electromagnetic Radiation Fast Response Detector 422
9.13 Comparison of “Detectors” 425
9.14 Quantitative Comparison 426
9.15 Performance of Heat Detectors 428
9.16 Performance Test of Heat Sensitive Detectors 432
9.17 Performance and Testing of Smoke Detectors 432
9.18 Requirement of Smoke/Heat Detectors for Special Purposes 434
9.19 Sitting of Smoke Detectors 435
9.20 Fire Alarm Systems 436
9.21 Automatic Fire Alarm Systems 439
10 INTELLIGENT FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS 446–508

10.1 Fire Protection Systems 446
10.2 Automatic Fire Detection and Alarm Systems 447
10.3 Intelligent Control Panels 452
10.4 Conventional Systems 453
10.5 Intelligent Fire Detection and Alarm Systems 454
10.6 Alarm Output Devices 460
10.7 Conventional Converted to Analog 466
10.8 Analog Addressable Vs. Conventional Fire Alarm Systems 466

xvi CONTENTS
10.9 Digital Vs. Analog Detection Techniques 466

10.10 Advantages of Intelligent Fire Alarm Systems 467
10.11 Centralised or Distributed Control 468
10.12 Emergency Voice Communication Systems 468
10.13 Emergency Telephone System 468
10.14 Types of Fast Response Detection Systems 469
10.15 Thermal Detection 469
10.16 Smoke Detectors 470
10.17 Aspirating Systems (VESDA) 478
10.18 Gas Suppression Systems (FM200, Argonite, etc.) 479
10.19 Gas Detectors 479
10.20 Flame Detection 479
10.21 Flame Detectors 480
10.22 Air Sampling Laser Detectors: Early Warning Systems 483
10.23 Standardisation of Fire Alarm Panels 484
10.24 Integration of Fire Control System with Building Automation System (BAS) 486
10.25 Wireless Detectors 493
10.26 Digital Video Based Smoke Detection System (DVSD) 493
10.27 Fire Cables 497
10.28 Understanding Detector Placement 501
10.29 FA System Design 502
10.30 System Installation 502
10.31 System Maintenance 503
10.32 Controlling the Environment 503
10.33 Integrated Systems 504
11 PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION 509–529

11.1 Passive Fire Protection Systems 509
11.2 Applications of Passive Fire Protection 509
11.3 Passive Fire Protection Systems in India 510
11.4 Fire Casualties and Fire Protection Philosophy 510
11.5 Active Vs. Passive Fire Suppression 511
11.6 Fire Protection of Structural Steel 511
11.7 Principles of Structural Steel Fire Protection 512
11.8 Sprayed Mineral Coatings & Intumescent Coatings for the Fire Protection
of Structural Steel 512
11.9 Intumescent Materials 512
11.10 Fire Resistant Sprayed Mineral Coatings 514
11.11 Application of Fire Resistant Coatings to Structural Steel 516
11.12 Properties of Aluminium and Endurance of Human Beings 519
11.13 Structural Reliability & Fire Serviceability Limit States
(Abstract from ISO 2394 : 1986 with Addendum1: 1988) 523
11.14 Structural Design for Fire 524

CONTENTS xvii
11.15 Fire Defence Plan 526

11.16 Other Passive Protections 526
11.17 Fire Doors 526
11.18 Glass and Glazing 527
11.19 Protection of Glass and Steel Structure of an Office Building 528
1 2 DESIGN OF FIRE SPRINKLERS SYSTEMS 530–556

12.1 Automatic Water Sprinkler Systems 530
12.2 Operation of Water Sprinkler Head 530
12.3 Classification and Types of Sprinklers 531
12.4 Types of Sprinklers Based on Water Release 533
12.5 Open or Cancealed Type Sprinker Mounting 534
12.6 Types of Sprinkler Distribution Systems 534
12.7 Water Sprinkler System as per IS 15105:2002 538
12.8 Installation of Automatic Sprinklers 555
1 3 FIRE PROTECTION OF SPECIALISED OCCUPANCIES 557–595

13.1 Fire Protection of Computer Rooms 555
13.2 Universities and Large Institutions 561
13.3 Hospitals 564
13.4 Shopping Centers 568
13.5 Hotel Fire Safety 572
13.6 Airport Voice Evacuation and Public Address (VA/PA) Systems 574
13.7 Fire Protection of Warehouses and Material Handling Equipment 577
13.8 Fire Protection for Historic and Heritage Building/Buildings 579
13.9 Art Museum Fire Detection Systems 583
13.10 Communication Center Fire Protection 584
13.11 The Process Plant Loss Control System 589
1 4 FIRE SAFETY IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS AND

SKY-SCRAPERS 596–606
14.1 Components of a High-Rise Fire Safety System 596
14.2 Fire Fighting and Alarm System 597
14.3 Testing, Inspection and Maintenance (TIM) 600
14.4 Fire Sprinklers 601
14.5 Smoke Detection and Alarms 602
14.6 Duct Smoke Detectors 602
14.7 Standpipes 602
14.8 Emergency Lighting 603
14.9 Emergency Egress System 603
14.10 Exits and Exit Signs 604
14.11 Meeting Rooms 604

xviii CONTENTS
14.12 Stairway Pressurisation 604

14.13 Smoke Control Systems 605
14.14 Portable Fire Extinguishers 605
14.15 Fire Response Plan 605
14.16 Staff Training 606
14.17 Place for a Helicopter to Land 606
14.18 Fire Safety Codes 606
14.19 Some Example of High-Rise Buildings 608
14.20 Sinking Safety Sky-scrapers Cut the Evacuation Time by Lowering the Elevation 610
1 5 FIRE PROTECTION IN HAZARDOUS AREAS 611–618

15.1 Special Hazards Defined 611
15.2 Clean Agent Systems 612
15.3 Foam Systems 613
15.4 Carbon Dioxide Systems 614
15.5 Dry-Chemical Systems 614
15.6 Water Mist Systems 614
15.7 Special Hazards Information 615
15.8 High Sensitivity Aspirating Smoke Detection (ASD) Systems 615
15.9 Multiple Alarm Thresholds 616
15.10 Application of ASD in High Risk Areas 617
15.11 ASD in Hazardous Areas 617
15.12 Hazard Complexity Increases 617
1 6 FIRE RISKS FOR THE BLIND OR VISUALLY IMPAIRED 619–635

16.1 Overview of the Fire Risks 619
16.2 Older Adults 619
16.3 Fire Risks for the Hearing Impaired 620
16.4 Fire Risks for the Blind or Visually Impaired 621
16.5 Tips for Fire Service Professionals 624
16.6 Recommendations for Assisting the Blind and Visually Impaired 624
16.7 Building Design and Codes 625
16.8 Fire Safety Tips for Blind or Visually Impaired People 627
16.9 Electrical Safety 628
16.10 Alcohol and Fire 629
1 7 VARIOUS FIRE SERVICES 630–635

17.1 Fire Services 630
17.2 Organisation 630
17.3 Fire Prevention 631
17.4 Actions at a Fire for the Fire Service 631
17.5 Fire Service Standards 632
17.6 Fire Engines 633

CHAPTER
1 Fire, the Social Aspect
1.1 FIRE, THE FRIEND OR FOE OF HUMAN BEINGS

The history of humanity starts with the narration of several kinds as to how the man recognized the
importance of fire, the earliest source of power. Fire is known as the earliest element and cause of
human civilization. From time immemorial, the four fundamental and basic needs of human civilization
had been food, cloth, shelter and security. Perhaps man encountered with the fire for the purpose of his
first basic need.
Hinduism recognizes fire as one of the five basic elemental matters which constitute the entire
universe: earth, water, fire, air and space. The presence of fire is but necessary for all five pious
occasions being celebrated in the entire life of a Hindu. If we scrutinize all our ancient literature, we
find that at many places there are description of multistoreyed buildings and fire resistance capacity;
but no code or manuals are available. In Mahabharata, there is a description of a palace entirely built up
of shellac by the Kauravas to destroy Pandavas. Although present-day buildings in India are not of
easily combustible material. More or less, we are constructing buildings without enough fire protection,
so in case of fire breaks out they behave like buildings constructed of shellac.
According to ancient Greek literature, when the God Zeus decided to create mortal man, he told
Prometheus to endow him with the good virtues and gifts of the gods except fire. Fire was exclusively
reserved for the use of the gods only. Zeus made it abundantly clear that anybody disobeying him in this
matter will make himself liable to most terrible punishment. Prometheus designed man out of clay and
Zeus breathed life into him. He bestowed Prometheus with the responsibility of developing the life-style
of this mortal entity created by him. For sometime the plans of Zeus went smoothly and Prometheus
set to work to build up virtues in men and their civilization, but the progress was extremely poor. This
forced him to come to the conclusion that the presence of fire is extremely necessary for mankind. But
Prometheus was already warranted by God Zeus. So he decided to steal fire from heavens. He was
successful in importing this greatest gift from heavens to earth.
When Zeus discovered that such a tool had been shifted on to earth, he concentrated all his
efforts in devising vengeance which would counterbalance the gift of fire. He designed a “wild fire”
which would ruin the human civilization whenever humanity crosses the boundary of sins. This has
raged unchecked ever since and has resulted in vast losses of the many gift to humanity from heavens.
It should therefore be the endeavour of all disciplines of humanity engaged in construction of
buildings and structures, that they are not vulnerable to the so called “wild fire”. All architects, structural,
civil and electrical engineers and builders have to engage all their intelligence and technical knowhow to
the maximum amount in devising the fire protection and security measures in building so as to make
them safest places for dwellings and business.

2 FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS
1.2 HISTORY OF FIRE FIGHTING

The first fire department of ancient history was set up by the Romans. In 300 B.C., it was organized
out of Roman slaves. The first primitive fire engine was reportedly invented by Ctesbius of Alexandria
about 100 years later. Roman firefighters then set up a more organized fire service agency in A.D. 1
known as “Corps of Vigiles”.
The great fire of London in 1666 probably motivated all civil authorities of that time to have a
more responsible social approach towards fire mishaps. The idea of fire insurance got approved during
this very period. This fire motivated John Green of UK, to design an automatic fire extinguishing device
which he got patented in 1673. But the details of its performance and design are not available. In 1806
another Englishman John Carey invented a perforated sprinkler connected to a pipe system which
operated automatically when the heat of the fire burnt a cord which held closed valves.
Next advancement in fire protection came from Boston in North America where a central alarm
office was set up with 45 street boxes in 1852.
In 1864 an automatic sprinkler, considered to be the forerunner of the present day sprinkler, and
attributed to Major A. Stuart Harrison of the First Engineer London Volunteers, was introduced but
never marketed. A significant breakthrough came in 1874 when an American, Henry Parmelee, produced
the first automatic sprinkler to be commercially marketed. It had quick acceptance in the USA and the
first English installation of the Parmelee System was made in the cotton mills of John Stones and Co.,
Astley Bridge, Bolton. Many attempts were made to improve on the Parmelee sprinkler and in 1883
Frederick Grinnell finally produced a sprinkler which achieved outstanding success.
Several insurance companies began offering reduced rates during this decade. The introduction
of the Grinnell sprinkler represented immeasurable technical progress. Mather + Platt, UK based firm,
marketed this system thereafter which has ultimately become fire standard in world. In 1896 the first
standard for the installation of sprinkler systems was published. The life safety code (NFPA-101) came
in effect in 1913. Underwriters of USA stared fire Insurance in USA.
1.3 HISTORY OF FIRE SERVICES AND REGULATIONS IN INDIA

The great fire of Bombay occurred in 1803 and the first nucleus of fire service in India took shape,
with police being entrusted with fire fighting jobs. In 1822, the fire service in Calcutta was organized
under the Calcutta Police. In 1855, the Bombay fire brigade was officially formed and formally placed
under the police as a part-time function. In 1864, it was placed jointly with the government and
Municipal Corporation. In 1872, the Calcutta fire brigade came to be financed by the Calcutta Municipal
Corporation. By the Municipal Act 1872 and 1878, insurance companies were made to contribute
towards the maintenance of the fire brigades.
Regular fire services in India was established about 215 years back. The service was first
established in Bombay in 1803, followed by Calcutta in 1822, Delhi in 1867 and Madras in 1908.
In 1888, through the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act, protection against fire became obligatory
for the Bombay Municipal Corporation. The Madras city fire brigade was established in 1908 by the
Municipal Corporation of Madras after a devastating fire in the city. Delhi is believed to have had a fire
brigade in 1867, but the organized form of fire station is claimed to have been started in 1896 and was
under the Municipal Corporation.

FIRE, THE SOCIAL ASPECT 3
The development of fire services in India, to a large extent, was influenced by India’s political
and historical association with Britain. Regular fire services in India first came up in Bombay (Mumbai)
& Calcutta (Kolkata).
In India perhaps the Bombay Fire Brigade was the first organisation which was taken up as
fulltime fire service by any of the Indian municipal corporations. Bombay Municipal Corporation organized
Bombay Fire Brigade on 1 April 1887. Bombay Fire Salvage Association was set up on 1 May 1907 and
was merged with Loss Prevention Association (LPA) in India on 1 January 1978. LPA was organized
by insurance industry after its nationalisation which wanted to create a broad-based organisation which
could deal with various facets of property and human loss preventing methods.
Presently, Delhi has its own Fire Service Act, under the Government of the National Capital
Territory (NCT) of Delhi since 10th November, 1994.
In view of the shortcomings in the fire services in different states of the country and the need to
upgrade it, the GoI in 1956 formed a Standing Fire Advisory Committee (SFAC) under the MHA. The
mandate of the committee was to examine the technical problems relating to fire services and to advise
the GoI for speedy development and upgradation of fire services all over the country. This committee
was renamed as Standing Fire Advisory Council (SFAC) in 1980. This committee/council has
representation from each state fire service, as well as representation from Ministry of Home Affairs
(MHA), Ministry of Defence (MoD), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoT), Ministry of
Communications and Information Technology (MoC) and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
As per the report released by the Ministry of Home Affairs in 1997, there were 1754 fire stations
with 5149 fire appliances/vehicles and 50,730 fire professionals are functioning PAN India. In addition
to above, there were 278 trailer-made fire stations operating exclusively in industrial sectors. According
to the Annual Report 2009-10 of Ministry of Home Affairs, in 2009, Centrally Sponsored Scheme on
Strengthening of Fire and Emergency Services in the Country has been approved by the Government at
an estimated cost of Rs.200 crore during the Eleventh Plan Period. The State Governments were
supposed to contribute Rs.40.23 crore as their share.
Fire services (1) in India came under the Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution of India, under
the provisions of Article 243W of the Constitution. The performance of the functions listed in the
Twelfth Schedule comes under the domain of Municipalities.
1.3.1 Delhi Fire Service

The Delhi Fire Prevention and Fire Safety Act, 1986 was notified by the Government of India
December,1986 and rules framed thereunder were in force from 2nd March, 1987 until July 2, 2010.
However, the said Delhi Fire Service Prevention & Fire Safety Act 1986 and Rules 1987 stand repealed
by a more exhausted act called Delhi Fire Service Act 2007 (Delhi Act 2 of 2009) and Delhi Fire Service
Rules 2010 notified respectively.
Established in 1942, the administrative control of Delhi Fire Service, which was previously with
Municipal Corporation of Delhi, rests with the Govt. of National Capital Territory of Delhi since 10th
November 1994. The fire service continues to make sincere endeavor by responding to approximately
30,000 fire/rescue calls per annum on an average to serve the people of the National Capital Territory
of Delhi.

The Fire Safety Management Academy located at Rohini is functional in an area of 2.5 hectare.
All the modern fire fighting facilities including simulator will be installed at the training center so as to
impart latest fire safety techniques to the trainees.
Delhi Fire Service has 59 fire stations including headquarters and training center. The Govt. has
already conveyed the approval for the construction of fire stations. Thereare total 59 fire tenders with
water Tank capable of carrying 5000 ltrs. of water and One filling pipe (hydrant connection) of not less
than 63 mm shall be fitted to the tank. It shall be fitted with 63 mm male instantaneous coupling. A high
cum low pressure light alloy/gunmetal pump capable of delivering as under:
1. 1800 Lts/min at 7 kg/cm2 (Normal pressure)
2. 250 Lts/min at 30 Kg/cm2 (High pressure)
Also there are 49 water bouser water tank having a capacity of 12000 ltrs. of water with pump
to give rated out put of 2250 lpm at 7.0 kgf/cm2 and 1600 lpm 9.0 kgf/cm2. Foam Tender having water
tank mounted on chassis are capable of carrying 4500 litres with a pump of 1800 Lts/min at 7 kg/cm2
(Normal pressure) and 250 Lts/min at 30 kg/cm2 (High pressure) and a foam compound tank of 500
liters capacity. 5 nos. Aerial Ladders of 42 meter height.
1.4 THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF INDIA, 2016

The National Building Code is published by Bureau of Indian Standards. The first edition of the NBC
was published in 1970. This edition was revised in 1983, 1987 and 1997. The second edition of the
NBC was published in 2005. The third edition of the NBC was published in 2016, incorporating the
latest developments in the construction activities in the country.
The main objective of NBC is to specify measures that will provide that degree of safety from
fire, which is practical and can be reasonably achieved. The Code insists upon compliance with minimum
standards of fire safety necessary for building occupants and users. For ensuring compliance of fire
protection equipment/installations to the laid down quality requirements, it is desirable to use such
equipment/installation duly certified under the BIS Certification Marks Scheme.
Part 4 of the National Building Code (NBC) of India, 2016, is titled ‘Fire and Life Safety’. It
covers the requirements for fire prevention, life safety in relation to fire and fire protection of buildings.
The code specifies occupancy-wise classification, constructional aspects, egress requirements and
protection features that are necessary to minimise danger to life and property from fire.
It specifies the demarcations of fire zones, restrictions on constructions of buildings in each fire
zone, classifications of buildings based on occupancy, types of building construction according to fire
resistance of the structural and non-structural components and other restrictions and requirements
necessary to minimise danger of life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the buildings can be
evacuated.
The code broadly covers the following areas:
Fire prevention: This covers aspects of fire prevention pertaining to the design and construction of
buildings. It also describes the various types of buildings materials and their fire rating.
Life Safety: This covers life safety provisions in the event of fire and similar emergencies, also
addressing construction and occupancy features that are necessary to minimise danger to life from
fire, smoke, fumes or panic.

Fire Protection: Covers significant appurtenances (accessories) and their related components and
guidelines for selecting the correct type of equipment and installations meant for fire protection of the
building, depending upon the classifications and type of building.
The guidelines for fire drills and evacuations for high-rise buildings are also specified in NBC
Part 4. It mandates the appointment of a qualified fire officer and trained staff for significant land uses.
NBC code is a recommendatory regulation as such not mandatory but it interalia becomes
mandatory by virtue of local building bylaws prepared by authorities having Jurisdiction (AHJ) which
issues Building Permit that is essential for taking up any construction work in India.
Apart from the specific State Acts and Rules stated above, a number of legislations are available
on matters relating to fire prevention, fire protection. Amongst these, the Factories Act and State
Factories Rules are important ones. The Section 38 of the Factories Act, 1948, emphasises, the obligations
of the occupier, which include
(1) to adopt all practicable measures to prevent the outbreak and spread of fire,
(2) to provide safe means of escape,
(3) to maintain the fire fighting equipment properly and
(4) to familiarise all the workers with the means of escape during fire and train them in steps to be taken in
a fire accident.
The Section 37 of the Factories Act, 1948, also prescribes detailed measures to prevent explosions
hazards. The State Factories Rules, framed under the Factories Act, have prescribed in detail, all the
steps to be taken to prevent fire hazard.
BIS has formulated more than 150 standards on fire safety in buildings and firefighting equipment
& systems and important ones are: Code of practice for fire safety of building (IS 1641 to IS 1646),
electrical generating and distributing stations (IS 3034), cotton textile mills (IS 3079), rubber and
plastic (IS 11457 Part 1), libraries and archives (IS 11460), iron and steel industries (IS 13694), hotels
(IS 13716), educational institutions (IS 14435); fire detection and alarm systems (IS 2189); first aid
fire extinguishers (IS 2190); internal hydrants and hose reels (IS 3844); temporary structures and
pandals (IS 8758); fire protection-safety signs (IS 12349); external hydrant systems (IS 13039 ); fixed
automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing systems (IS 15105); gaseous fire extinguishing systems (IS
15493); HFC 227ea (IS 15517); water mist system (IS 15519); portable fire extinguishers (IS 15683);
long range foam monitors (IS 15811); fire detection and alarm system (IS 15908), etc.
Maharashtra Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures Rules, 2009, were framed under the
Maharashtra Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures Act, 2006. These rules made it mandatory for
building owners and residents to conduct half-yearly fire safety audits and submit the report to the fire
department.
The Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay was perhaps the first civic body to adopt
comprehensive fire-fighting rules, most probably due to the reason that the greatest amount of
multistoreyed construction was in Bombay itself. By the year 1972, Bombay had more than 6000
multistoreyed buildings. Section 154 of Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act, 1966 revised
rules for fire protection and fire requirements for high-rise buildings. It was enforced in Bombay by the
Municipal Corporation of Bombay.
To curb flagrant violation of fire safety measures in high-rise buildings, the Delhi Fire Chief had
been previousely empowered by the Delhi Fire Prevention and Fire Safety Act, 1986, that came into
force on 1 March 1987.

The capital of India with its ever-increasing population in far-flung colonies & crowded localities
and unplanned growth has always been a city with heavy fire risk. The risk has now been further
increased with the expansion of industries and construction of high-rise buildings in the National Capital
Territory of Delhi. Many of the high-rise buildings in the Delhi have not yet been provided within built
fire fighting arrangements, which are considered to be very essential from fire safety point of view. To
ensure safety of such buildings and their occupants, the Building Bye-laws were adopted and duly
notified by the Delhi Administration of 23rd June 1983. The Building Bye-laws are further being up-
dated.
The Delhi Fire Prevention and Fire Safety Act, 1986 was notified by the Government of India
December,1986 and rules framed thereunder were in force from 2nd March, 1987 until July 2, 2010.
However, the said Delhi Fire Service Prevention & Fire Safety Act 1986 and Rules 1987 stand
repealed by a more exhausted act called Delhi Fire Service Act 2007 (Delhi Act 2 of 2009) and Delhi
Fire Service Rules 2010 notified respectively.
Building permit is necessary for following buildings covered under rule 27 of Delhi Fire Service
Rules 2010 and Bye–Law 2.8 of UBBL 2016.
1. Residential buildings (other than hotels and guest houses) having height more than 15 meters
or having ground plus four upper stories including mezzanine floor.
2. Hotels and guest houses having height more than 12 meters having ground plus three upper
stories including mezzanine floor.
3. Educational buildings having height more than 9 meters or having ground plus two upper
4. Institutional buildings having height more than 9 meters or having ground plus two upper
5. All Assembly buildings.
6. Business buildings having height more than 15 meters or having ground plus four upper
7. Mercantile buildings having height more than 9 meters or having ground plus two upper
8. Industrial buildings having covered area on all floors more than 250 square meters.
9. Storage buildings having covered area on all floors more than 250 square meters.
10. All Hazardous buildings having covered area on all floors more than 100 square meters.
11. Underground Structures.
Normally the buildings plans are required to be submitted through /referred from the concerned
building sanctioning authority i.e. concerned Municipal Corporation of Delhi, DDA, NDMC, Delhi
Cantonment Board, DUSIB etc. However if the layout plan is approved by the concerned civic agency
than the building plans can be directly submitted under simplified procedure as per clause 3.1.3 of
Unified Building By laws (UBBL) 2016 of Delhi Development Authority (DDA).
Urban Development Department of Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi has
amended Unified Building Bye Laws (UBBL) for Delhi 2016 by a notification dated 27th May, 2019.

As per the amendment, a new Clause 7.31 has been inserted. Procedure for obtaining Fire NOC
for guest houses which have more than four floors (excluding basement and stilt floor) has been
inserted.
The documents required are as per clause 2.8 of UBBL 2016 i.e. Smoke ventilation arrangement
plans along with calculations, Automatic Sprinkler system arrangement plans along with hydraulic
calculations and fire & life safety measures as covered under rule 33 of Delhi Fire Service Rules 2010.
These shall be as per NBC part 4(fire and life safety) /clause 9.3.9 of UBBL 2016.
Unified Building Bye Laws for Delhi 2016 (UBBL) are applicable to the National Capital Territory
of Delhi. These Unified Building Bye-Laws shall be applicable to the area under jurisdiction of the Delhi
Development Authority and concerned local bodies. These building byelaws shall be applicable to all
building activities and read in conjunction with specific notifications in respect of urban villages/rural
villages, unauthorized regularized colonies and for special areas with regard to regularized resettlement
colonies (as mentioned in Chapter 6-Regulations Notified by Delhi Development Authorities).
1.5 FIRE SAFETY AUDIT

Though Fire Safety Audit is found to be an effective tool for assessing fire safety standards of an
organization or an occupancy, there is no clear cut provisions in any of the fire safety legislations in
India, regarding the scope, objectives, methodology and periodicity of a fire safety audit. However, the
NBC 2016, recommends for periodical fire safety inspection by the key personnel of the occupants of
the building to ensure fire safety standards.
As far as industrial buildings, are concerned, the statutory authorities like State Factory
Inspectorate, insist for fire safety audit by external agencies, depending on the type of activity and the
nature of the materials handled in the building.
1.6 FIRE AS A NATURAL DISASTER RISK

Fire is adjudged as a one of three major risk across industry sectors as can be viewed from the table
1.1 as per data collected by risk ranking India Risk Survey done by Federation of Indian Chamber of
Commerce and Industries (FICCI).
The risk of ‘Fire’ has been ranked fifth position in Govt/ PSU sector and sixth in Private sector
as per risk rankinzg done by FICCI[1] in year 2017 annual report on most significant threats to business
perception and operations in the country. Overall its 8.4 percent of all risks covered slightly less than
world’s average of 8.6.
The cause-wise analysis of fire accidents concluded that 42.1% of deaths were due to fire
accidents in residential buildings. The majority of fire accidents were reported in Maharashtra, which
accounted for 22% of all the fire incidents reported.

Table 1.1 : Major Risks Faced by Various Services and Industries in India
Sector No. 1 Risk No. 2 Risk No. 3 Risk
Education Information & Corruption, Bribery & Fire
Cyber Insecurity Corporate Frauds
e-Commerce Natural Hazards Intellectual Property Business Espionage
Theft
Govt. & PSU Information & Terrorism & Insurgency Political & Governance
Cyber Insecurity Instability
Financial Services Information & Terrorism & Insurgency Corruption, Bribery &
Hospitality Terrorism & Insurgency Fire Information & Cyber
Insecurity
Infrastructures Information & Fire Terrorism & Insurgency
Cyber Insecurity
IT/ITES Information & Terrorism & Insurgency Corruption, Bribery &
Logistics & Information & Corruption, Bribery & Natural Hazards
Transportation Cyber Insecurity Corporate Frauds
Manufacturing Information & Corruption, Bribery & Political & Governance
Cyber Insecurity Corporate Frauds Instability
Media & Natural Hazards Information & Fire
Entertainment Cyber Insecurity
Medical Services Information & Corruption, Bribery & Fire
NGOs Natural Hazards Corruption, Bribery & Strikes, Closures & Unrest
Corporate Frauds
Retail Political & Fire Information &
Governance Instability Cyber Insecurity
Security Services Information & Terrorism & Insurgency Corruption, Bribery &
Telecom Information & Natural Hazards Terrorism & Insurgency
Cyber Insecurity
Others Terrorism & Insurgency Information & Strikes, Closures & Unrest
Cyber Insecurity
The number of fires due to arson can be controlled by three actions on the part of various
agencies as shown below:
1. Accepting that the enormous increase in arson has to be seen as part of the general breakdown
in law and order that afflicts society in the present age and general demise of national character,
the attitudes and behaviour of society needs to be changed as the ultimate cure. To effect
such changes in people’s attitudes and behaviour requires new thinking and new programmes
from governments and religious bodies. This is a long-term approach and although one
would not exactly despair of having them, one cannot in these cost-conscious days see any
immediate prospects for dramatic change.

2. The second area for action is by local government, regional bodies and for community
action. The serious efforts to combat arson by government, fire service and insurers did not
get under way in the US until local communities, appalled at the effects of arson on their own
neighbourhood, demanded action and themselves showed the way. The prime examples of
such action in the US are the local Arson Task Forces which co-ordinate the efforts of local
government officials, and various other local interests in campaigns in the particular area.
European countries have their own local agencies which can be applied to this purpose. In
India during emergency days of wars against China and Pakistan, local peace committees
were set up to command against arson and fires. The same can be mobilized once again.
3. The third area, which is more within the scope of the controlling and management and which
has the benefit of offering a more speedy chance of improvement, is what one can call the
management action plan against arson. In planning against arson, the management has first to
establish as best they can, just what the threat is.
Arson can result from various motives as given below:
• Motivation for arson
• Vandalism
• Revenge/spite
• Profit
• Mental instability/pyromania
• Concealing another crime
• Violence/terrorism
One can categorize arson in different ways and the line between one kind of motivation and
another is by no means hard. One could say that the majority of arson cases are the result of mental
instability or group mentality of indiscipline.
1.7 FREQUENCY OF FIRE ACCIDENTS IN INDIA

According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), a total of 18,450 cases of fire accidents were
reported in India in 2015, with 1,193 persons injured and 17,700 killed. The cause-wise analysis of
fire accidents concluded that 42.1% of deaths were due to fire accidents in residential buildings.
NCRB, is an Indian government agency responsible for collecting and analysing crime data as defined
by the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and Special and Local Laws (SLL). NCRB was set-up in 1986 to
function as a repository of information on crime and criminals so as to assist the investigators in linking
crime to the perpetrators.
The Delhi Fire Service attended 27000 calls during the year financial year 2015-16. The
comparative figures for the last 10 years are given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 : Profile of Fire Accident Types and Injuries or Deaths in India During the Period 2003-4 to 2018-19
S. No. Year No. of Approx. Property Injured Deaths Medium Serious Major
calls loss in saved in
la khs lakhs
1 2003-04 14595 5874 8750 1334 235 17 05 -
2 2004-5 14208 4681 6629 1687 272 27 05 -
3 2005-06 16340 4720 6457 2191 470 16 01 -
4 2006-07 14291 5587 14903 1743 303 16 03 -
5 2007-08 15718 5922 29369 2057 351 09 02 -
6 2008-09 16452 5902 29471 2225 380 06 02 -
7 2009-10 21314 - - 2598 423 10 02 -
8 2010-11 22187 - - 243 447 10 03 -
9 2011-12 18143 - - 2132 357 13 01 -
10 2012-13 22581 - - 1979 285 09 02 -
11 2013-14 22726 - - 2299 372 16 01 -
12 2014-15 23242 - - 2068 291 07 02 -
13 2015-16 27089 - - 2099 339 11 Nil -
14 2016-17 30285 - - 1987 277 20 06 -
15 2017-18 29423 - - 1767 318 24 04 -
16 2018-19 31264 - - 1597 297 27 04 -
Fig. 1.1 shows the downward trends of fire accidents and deaths in India in time period of years
2010 to 2018-19.
26343
26025
24987
23593
24414 24576
23281
22177 20377
19513
Number of Deaths Number of Fire Accidents
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Fig. 1.1 : Trends of Fire Accidents and Deaths in India in time period of years 2010 to 2014.
Considering the number of fire accidents in the country and potential of the damage that could
Lossbe caused by such accidents, the Bureau has also collected data on fire accidents according to
places of occurrence for appropriate preventive strategies.

A total of 18,450 cases of fire accidents were reported in the country during 2015, showing a
decrease of 9.5% during 2015 over 2014 (20,377 cases). 18,450 incidents of fire accidents caused
injuries to 1,193 persons and 17,700 deaths during 2015. The cause-wise analysis of fire accidents
revealed that 42.1%of total deaths (7,445 out of 17,700) due to fire accidents were reported in residential/
dwelling buildings during 2015.
1.8 STATE-WISE NUMBER OF DEATH DUE TO FIRE ACCIDENTS IN INDIA

Four states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu accounted for 54% of all the
deaths or 61540 deaths from 2010 to 2014. Most number of deaths took place in Maharashtra (24293)
accounting for 21.3% of all the deaths. Madhya Pradesh accounted for 15093 deaths while Gujarat
accounted for 11738 deaths. Tamil Nadu was the only other state with more than 10000 deaths.
Number of Deaths due to Fire Accidents by State

(2010 to 2014)
Maharashtra 24293
Madhya Pradesh 15093
Gujarat 11738
Tamil Nadu 10416
Karnataka 7781
Andhra Pradesh 7561
Uttar Pradesh 6277
Fig. 1.2 Number of deaths in India due to fire state-wise (2010 to 2014)
Large number of cases of fire accidents were reported in Maharashtra (4,087 out of 18,450),
accounting for 22.1% of total such cases during 2015. The State/UT-wise analysis of place of fire
accidents revealed that 19 States & UTs have reported 50.0% or more deaths due to ‘Fire in residential
or dwelling building’ during 2015. These States/UTs were A & N Island, Lakshadweep, Tripura (100%
each) Uttarakhand (87.7%), Meghalaya (86.7%), Jharkhand (85.1%), Chandigarh (83.3%), Telangana
(83%), Punjab (76.7%), Gujarat (73.4%) and Kerala (70.4%). Uttar Pradesh alone, accounted for
64.3% of total deaths under ‘Fire in government building’ in the country during 2015.
Out of the total deaths reported under ‘Fire in commercial building’ 49.8% were reported in
Karnataka. A total of 58 cases of accidental fire in trains were also reported during 2015 which caused
59 deaths in the country during 2015.
1.9 FREQUENCY OF FIRE ACCIDENTS WORLD OVER (GLOBAL)

1.6 and 5.1 were the figures of total deaths and injuries per lakh population occurred in USA in 2016
according to International Association of Fire and Rescue Services of Center of Fire Statistics published
in 2018 and similar figures for Russia were 6 and 6.8 (perhaps the worst in entire world). Compared to
this the total death rate per lakh in India was 1.6.
In 2017, there were around 121,000 global deaths from fire which represents a slight decline
from the mid-1990s when deaths reached over 150,000.
In 2017, 1,319,500 fires resulted in 3,400 civilian deaths and 14,670 injuries. In addition, there
were 60 on-duty firefighters deaths – the lowest number reported since NFPA starting tracking fire
fighter deaths in 1977 in USA alone.

Fig. 1.3 shows the total number of deaths caused by fires in various major countries
worldwise.This shows that India is various casual while dealing with fire.
Fig. 1.3 : List of first 20 countries with more than 300 deaths per anuum.
The Table 1.3 shows the trends of deaths caused by fire during 2013-2017, population-wise
and per 100 firewise in various major countries of world as prepared Centre of Fire statistics (CFS) of
International Association of Fire and Rescue Service (CIFS).
Table 1.3 Trends of Year Wise Deaths Caused by Fire During 2013-2017, Population-wise and
per 100 Firewise in Various Major Countries of world.
Number of fire deaths Average number per
Country Population, 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Year 1000,000 100 fires
thous. inh. inh.
1 India 1 267 500 22 177 19 513 17 700 - - 19 797 1,56 -
2 USA 327 167 3 420 3 275 3 280 3390 3400 3 353 1,02 0,26
3 Bangladesh 154 331 161 70 68 - - 100 0,56 0,56
4 Russia 146 544 10 601 10 138 9 405 8749 7816 9 342 6,37 6,47
5 Japan 128 130 1 625 1 678 1 563 1452 1 580 1,23 3,77
6 Vietnam 93 000 45 90 62 98 96 78 0,08 2,68
7 Germany 82 218 439 372 367 - - 393 0,48 0,22
8 Thailand 70 498 110 - - - - 110 0,16 -
9 France 66 628 321 280 335 289 277 300 0,45 0,10
10 Great Britain 63 786 350 322 325 367 325 338 0,53 0,17
11 Italy 61 000 196 141 222 295 288 228 0,37 0,10
12 Myanmar 51486 83 60 - - - 72 0,14 1,33
13 Spain 46 570 132 162 143 175 212 165 0,35 0,13
14 Ukraine 42 486 2 494 2 246 1 948 1872 1819 2 076 4,89 2,82
15 Poland 38454 515 493 512 488 475 497 1,29 0,35
16 Canada 35 544 141 150 - - - 146 0,41 0,40
17 Malaysia 31 800 72 139 158 142 - 128 0,40 0,29
18 Nepal 30 430 59 67 - - - 63 0,21 6,37
19 Taiwan 23 069 92 124 117 169 - 126 0,54 7,81
20 Romania 20 121 - - 646 258 241 382 1,90 1,31
21 Kazachstan 17 500 455 401 386 371 342 391 2,23 2,74
22 Netherlands 17 082 - 75 81 42 40 60 0,35 0,06
23 Greece 10 788 33 - - - - 33 0,31 0,12
24 Belgium 10 700 48 - - - - 48 0,45 0,23
25 Czech Republic 10 610 111 114 115 124 92 111 1,05 0,64

1.9.1 Trends in Fires, Deaths, Injuries and Dollar Loss as per US Fire Administration
Table 1.4 shows the trends in fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss as per US Fire Adminisration.
Table 1.4 Trends in fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss
* Adjusted to 2017 dollars; includes $10 billion in losses from
1.9.2 Fire Statistics Major City Wise

The only silver lining of the data is that both the number of accidents and deaths is steadily coming
down in the last few years. From 26025 fire accidents in 2010, the number of accidents has come
down to 20377 in 2014, a drop of more than 20%. The number of deaths on the other hand came down
from 24414 in 2010 to 19513 in 2014, a 20% drop.
1.10 FIRE HAZARD PLACES OF OCCURENCE (OCCUPANCY-WISE)

Table 1.6 provides the details of Number of Fire Accidents, Persons Injured and Died during 2015 in
India based on Place of Occurrence.
1.11 MAJOR CAUSES OF FIRES

Some common fire hazards are:
(1) Kitchen fires from unattended cooking, grease fires/chip pan fires
(2) Electrical systems that are overloaded, poorly maintained or defective
(3) Combustible storage areas with insufficient protection
(4) Combustibles near equipment that generates heat, flame, or sparks
(5) Candles and other open flames
(6) Smoking (Cigarettes, cigars, pipes, lighters, etc.)
(7) Equipment that generates heat and utilizes combustible materials
(8) Flammable liquids and aerosols
(9) Flammable solvents (and rags soaked with solvent) placed in enclosed trash cans

14
Table 1.5 Summarises the Various Common Fire Indicators in World’s Metropolitan Cities for Academic Year 2017.
Number of Average Number

per 1000 inh; of fire deaths per: of fire injuries per:
City Population Area Calls Fires Fire Fire Calls Fires 100000 100 100000 100 fires
thous. sq. km. Deaths Injuries inh. fires inh.
inhabitants
1 Tokyo 13 743 2 188 983 731 4 205 79 758 71,6 0,3 0,6 1,9 5,5 18,0
2 Moscow 12 600 2 561 60 097 5 101 116 548 4,8 0,4 0,9 2,3 4,3 10,7
3 London 8 825 1 707 - 19 863 103 1 036 - 2.3 1,2 0,5 11,7 5,2
4 New York City 8 550 835 587 270 43 423 86 - 68,7 5,1 1,0 0,2 - -
5 Tehran 8 000 730 570 834 27 209 21 472 71,4 3,4 0,3 0,1 5,9 1,7
6 Hong Kong 7 440 1 106 804 570 33 934 21 335 108,1 4,6 0,3 0,1 4,5 1,0
7 Paris 6 773 760 502 438 14 480 - - 74,2 2,1 - - - -
8 St. Petersburg 5 380 1 404 60 296 3 050 100 205 11,2 0,6 1,9 3,3 3,8 6,7
9 Berlin 3 712 892 458 138 6 909 31 - 123,4 1,9 0,8 0,4 - -
10 Madrid 3 166 604 21 242 6 085 11 - 6,7 1,9 0,3 0,2 - -
11 Kiev 2 930 848 15 376 5 262 56 131 5,2 1,8 1,9 1,9 4,5 2,5
12 Rome 2 806 1 287 66 549 24 596 - - 23,7 8,8 - - - -
13 Taipei 2 650 272 129 892 169 2 0 49,0 0,1 0,1 1,2 0,0 0,0
14 Minsk 1 982 348 5 362 304 16 57 2,7 0,2 0,8 5,3 2,9 18,8
15 Bucharest 1 944 228 66 541 1 590 13 129 34,2 0,8 0,7 0,8 6,6 8,1
16 Vienna 1 868 415 40 110 10 622 - - 21,5 5,7 - - - -

17 Warsaw 1 764 517 17 537 4 092 8 105 9,9 2,3 0,5 0,2 6,0 2,6
18 Budapest 1 753 525 14 655 2 994 13 191 8,4 1,7 0,7 0,4 10,9 6,4
19 Barselona 1 600 100 14 493 3 964 27 - 9,1 2,5 1,7 0,7 - -
20 Ulan-Bator 1 452 4 704 - 2 266 17 16 - 1,6 1,2 0,8 1,1 0,7
FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS
Table 1.6 Place of Occurrence – wise Number of Fire Accidents, Persons Injured and Died during 2015 in India.
No. of Cases Persons Insured-2015 Persons Died-2015 Percentage
Shares in
Sl. Cause 2014 2015 % Var. Male Female Trans Total Male Female Trans Total
Deaths
No. gender gender
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 Fire in 12 10 -16.7 0 0 0 0 6 3 0 9 0.1
school
Buildings
2 Fire in 179 716 300.0 24 3 0 27 388 428 0 816 4.6
Commercial
Buildings
3 Fire in 3736 7493 100.6 137 89 0 226 2719 4726 0 7445 42.1
Residential/
Dwelling
Buildings
4 Fire in 11 35 218.2 2 0 0 2 6 22 0 28 0.2
Government
Buildings
5 Fire in 4 25 525.0 0 0 0 0 19 6 0 25 0.1
the Mines
6 Fire in Factory 143 410 186.7 14 6 0 20 271 156 0 430 2.4
Manufacturing
Combusticle
Materials
including
Cracker/Math
Box Factories
7 Fire in the 143 212 348.3 9 6 0 15 124 94 0 218 1.2
Factories
(other than
SL-6)
8 Accidental Fire
in Train (s) 13 58 346.2 0 0 0 0 27 32 0 59 0.3
9 Accidental Fire 288 719 149.7 46 2 0 48 384 331 0 715 4.0
in Vehicles
(Automobiles
Total)
9.1 Passenger 91 178 95.6 0 0 2 28 96 89 0 187 1.1
Vehicle (e.g.
Bus/Taxi/Auto/
etc.)
9.2 Private 143 287 100.7 40 2 0 42 167 99 0 266 1.5
Vehicle
9.3 Goods 54 254 370.4 4 0 0 4 119 143 0 262 1.5
Carriers
10 Others 15848 8772 -44.6 498 357 0 855 2831 5124 0 7956 44.9
11 Total 20377 18450 -9.5 730 463 0 1193 6775 10925 0 17700 100.0
% Var.- Percentage Change in 2015 over 2014

(10)Fireplace chimneys not properly or regularly cleaned

(11) Cooking appliances - stoves, ovens
(12)Heating appliances - fireplaces, wood-burning stoves, furnaces, boilers, portable heaters,
solid fuels
(13)Household appliances - clothes dryers, curling irons, hair dryers, refrigerators, freezers,
boilers
(14)Chimneys that concentrate creosote
(15)Electrical wiring in poor condition
(16)Leaking/ defective batteries
(17)Personal ignition sources - matches, lighters
(18)Electronic and electrical equipment
(19)Exterior cooking equipment - barbecu
We will discuss fires causes in three different categories:
(1) Residential fires
(2) Work place Fires
(3) Industrial fires
Major fires are discussed at the end of this chapter.
1.11.1 The Most Common Causes of House Fires

1. Cooking equipment. Pots and pans can overheat and cause a fire very easily if the person
cooking gets distracted and leaves cooking unattended. ...
2. Heating.
3. Careless Smoking at home
4. Electrical equipment : Faulty wiring and electric apparatus
5. Candles and diyas.
6. Curious children. Children Playing with Matches.
7. Barbeques.
8. Accidents and Carelessness
Many people believe that if they are careful they are much less likely to have a fire. While it is
true that being careful will make you safer it will not stop fire from happening. Most fires are not
caused from carelessness. They are caused from every day living that is almost impossible for us to
change.
(1) Cooking Unattended Stoves
Another cause of residential fires is cooking, but not due to defective stoves or ovens. Often, it is
because of unattended pots or the burner being left on accidentally . When a pot or pan overheats or
splatters greases, it can take seconds to cause a fire. Stay in the kitchen when cooking, especially if
using oil or high temperatures; most kitchen fires occur because people get distracted and leave their
cooking unattended. Keep combustibles (e.g. oven mitts, dish towels, paper towels) away from heat
sources. Consider having a fire blanket or suitable fire extinguisher available nearby to use in the event
of a fire.

(2) Heating
Heating is another major cause of residential fire deaths. People leave heating appliances based on gas
oe electricity unattended, especially overnights and in very cold nights in cold regions. Have appliances
inspected regularly and chimney cleaned and inspected annually. Keep portable heaters at least one
metre away from anything that can burn (including curtains, furniture, and you), and don’t use your
heaters to dry shoes or clothes. Carbon monoxide alarms should be used to alert you to deadly carbon
monoxide gas.
(3) Careless Smoking at home
Wherever possible make sure the home is off limits for smoking, and especially bedrooms. Take care
to supervise smokers who may become drowsy (i.e. on medication, drinking) or forget to extinguish
their cigarette. Use large, deep ashtrays; never place an ashtray on or near anything that will burn; and
check furniture for fallen cigarettes/embers. Do not discard cigarette butts on floors and always use a
non-combustible receptacle as an ashtray. When discarding ashtrays in to waste bins ensure cigarettes
butts are fully extinguished (butt can smoulder for hours before causing combustible waste to burst
into flames)
(4) Electrical Equipment Fires.
(a) Electrical Wiring, Electrical Outlets and Faulty Wiring: Whether it’s in an electrical outlet or a
short in the wall, many fires are caused by electrical wiring. Older homes are particularly susceptible,
as they were not wired for the many, many appliances that we have filled our homes with. Many homes
that were built in the 50 s -70s have aluminum wiring that gets very hot and increases the chance of
fire.
(b) Appliances : Lamps, toasters and even baby monitors can short out. Be particularly careful with
older appliances and extension cords. Even new appliances can be the source of a home fire. To be
safe, appliances should be unplugged when not in use. Unfortunately, not all appliances can be unplugged,
leaving your home at risk 24 hours a day.
(c) Inadequate Wiring
(1) Older homes and apartments can have inadequate wiring – a fire and an electrical hazard.
(2) Some warning signs
(3) You have to disconnect one appliance to plug in another
(4) You have to use extension cords or “octopus” outlets extensively
(5) Fuses blow or circuit breakers trip frequently
(6) Lights dim when you use another appliance
(7) If residents have any concerns about their electrical installation, they should not attempt to
fix the problem themselves but should seek the advice of a certified electrician contractor,
approved by the National Inspection Council for Electrical Installation Contracting (NICEIC),
or similar
(5) Curious Children Playing with Fire
Children cause fires out of curiosity (what happens when something burns) or mischief (they’re angry,
upset or destructive, and fire is a major taboo to break). Kids may be involved in fire play if you find
matches or lighters in their room/possession, smell sulphur in their room, and/or find toys or other
personal effects that appear melted/singed.

NFPA recognizes the following five as top fire causes

(1) Cooking
(2) Heating
(3) Electrical
(4) Smoking
(5) Candles
Cooking fires are the number one cause of home fires and home injuries
During 2012-2016, an estimated annual average of 18,100 (5%) reported home structure fires
started by smoking materials[3] killed an average of 590 (23%) people annually, injured 1,130 (10%) per
year, and caused $476 million in direct property damage (7%) per year.
One in 20 home (5%) home structure fires were started by smoking materials. These fires
caused almost one in four (23%) home fire deaths, and one in 10 (10%) home fire injuries.
Smoking was the leading cause of home fire deaths for the five year period of 2012-2016.
Overall, one of every 31 home smoking material fires resulted in death.
The leading area of origin for home smoking fires in 2012-2016 was an exterior balcony or open
porch (18%).
Forty-three percent of the deaths were caused by fires that started in the living room. One-third
(34%) were caused by fires that began in the bedroom.
1.11.2 Most Common Causes of Fire at the Workplace(4)

Statistics for 2016 and 2017 show that there were over 15,000 reported fires at the workplace, which
is a staggeringly high number. According to one source, between 70,000 and 80,000 impactful workplace
fires” occur in the U.S. each year. More than 5,000 of these result in injury, and 200 are fatal. But only
15 percent of them are a result of circumstances outside of human control.
This represents a very serious and dramatic danger that can destroy a business and potentially
take human lives. Prevention is absolutely critical when dealing with the issue of fire safety, and there
are many different factors that can be implemented to lessen the risk.
Fires always have a root cause. Destruction and potential loss of life are regrettably the direct
result. There’s plenty of factors that can increase the chances of a fire breaking out.
The following 7 depicts most common causes of fire at the workplace
(1) Faulty Electrical Equipment. One of the most common causes of workplace fires is without
doubt electrical faults.
(2) Clutter.
(3) Combustible Materials.
(4) Human Error.
(5) Negligence.
(6) Cigarette fires
(7) Arson.

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NEW AGE REFERENCE

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Compliments from to all Faculty Members

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Visvesvaraya Technological University (Consortium), Belgaum, Karnataka

National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana

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Er. V.K. Jain

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1 FIRE, THE SOCIAL ASPECT 1–45

2 FIRE: THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 46–73

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2.3 Development of Fire 50

3 SMOKE CONTROL AND PRESSURIZATION 74–107

4 BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES IN FIRE 108–154

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5 FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS 155–216

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5.28 Fire Rating System for Roofs 208

6 FIXED FIRE FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS (WATER BASED) 217–277

7 FLUIDIC FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS 278–338

8 PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 339–398

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8.11 Vaporizing Liquid Extinguishers 376

9 AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM CIRCUITS 399–445

10 INTELLIGENT FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS 446–508

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10.9 Digital Vs. Analog Detection Techniques 466

11 PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION 509–529

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11.15 Fire Defence Plan 526

1 2 DESIGN OF FIRE SPRINKLERS SYSTEMS 530–556

1 3 FIRE PROTECTION OF SPECIALISED OCCUPANCIES 557–595

1 4 FIRE SAFETY IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS AND

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14.12 Stairway Pressurisation 604

1 5 FIRE PROTECTION IN HAZARDOUS AREAS 611–618

1 6 FIRE RISKS FOR THE BLIND OR VISUALLY IMPAIRED 619–635

1 7 VARIOUS FIRE SERVICES 630–635

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1 Fire, the Social Aspect

1.1 FIRE, THE FRIEND OR FOE OF HUMAN BEINGS

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1.2 HISTORY OF FIRE FIGHTING

1.3 HISTORY OF FIRE SERVICES AND REGULATIONS IN INDIA

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1.3.1 Delhi Fire Service

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1.4 THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF INDIA, 2016

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1.5 FIRE SAFETY AUDIT

1.6 FIRE AS A NATURAL DISASTER RISK

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