I.

Concept of Research

1.1 Nature of Research

1.1.1 Research

Research is a careful consideration of the study regarding a particular concern or

problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie,
“Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive

methods are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated
with qualitative research and deductive methods are more commonly associated
with quantitative research.

Research is conducted with the purpose to understand:

 What do organizations or businesses want to find out?

 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea or concept?

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are
an integral part of the process that sets the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics
and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real-time from actual observations in
natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create
more research opportunities.
6. Research is analytical. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the
calibrations of instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

1.1.1.1 Synthesis

Research is a very important part of our daily lives and for our social development.
Everything that we are using or enjoying are products of research. With that many people are
indulging their selves in researching. However, research requires a systematic procedure.
Two methods can be used in conducting research: 1. Inductive Research which is used for
qualitative types of research; 2. Deductive Research is used for quantitative researches.
Good research also requires the following characteristics: 1. aims for objectivity, the
researcher should put aside personal beliefs and judgments and records what is observed to
learn the truth. Truth claim is only true or valid if it is “objectively valid”; 2. research should
 have a meaningful purpose, not just to get the degree or for personal status; 3. serves to
provide value to the profession through understanding. This knowledge helps to explain the
purpose of the research and to determine how the research should be performed; 4. ensures
that the researcher understands the subject area and has a deeper understanding of the topic
which allows for greater understanding and ability to interpret and critically analyze data; 5.
needs a clear understanding of symbol systems and open to questioning and revisions
symbols are subjective and the researcher must understand the varying knowledge and
interpretations of the people they are researching. Additionally, good research can withstand
questioning and criticisms; 6. conclusions have rational logic and are supported by evidence
conclusions are drawn by the research conducted and there is data to support the claims of
the researcher; 8. responds to challenge – good research stands up to questioning and
criticisms of others. A researcher should be able to defend their research and their
conclusions; 9. the researcher is socially responsible and observes ethical norms,
researchers are expected to meet ethical standards of the society as they pertain to their
subjects, colleagues, employers, and society as a whole.

1.2 Importance of Research

The main purpose of the research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute
to developing knowledge in a field of study. This article will highlight the significance of
research with the following points:

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness
3. An Aid to Business Success
4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths
5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities
6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information
7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind
8.
1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

Research is required not just for students and academics, but for all professionals and
nonprofessionals alike. It is also important for budding and veteran writers, both offline and
online.

For nonprofessionals who value learning, doing research equips them with knowledge about
the world, and skills to survive and improve their lives. Among professionals and scribes, on
the other hand, finding an interesting topic to discuss and/or to write about should go beyond
personal experience. Determining either what the general public may want to know or what
researchers want others to realize or to think about can serve as a reason to do research.
Thus, research is an essential component in generating knowledge and vice-versa.

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness

Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the writer(s) and the
actors. Though there are hosts who rely on their researchers, there are also those who exert
effort to do their research. This step helps them:

 get information that hired researchers missed,

 build a good rapport with the interviewee, and
 conduct a good interview in the process
For instance, Oprah Winfrey would have not achieved remarkable success as a news anchor
and television show host had she eschewed doing her research about certain topics and
public figures. According to entrepreneur and lifestyle coach Paul C. Brunson, in his interview
with emotional intelligence expert and author Justin Bariso (2017), "Oprah spends a
disproportionate amount of her time gathering information from communities of people
outside of her core (different age groups, social classes, ethnicities, education levels, careers,
etc.) and then she shares that information within her community." This kind of effort shows
the necessary role of research in helping others and in raising social consciousness.

3. An Aid to Business Success

Research benefits business. Many successful companies, such as those producing consumer
goods or mass-market items, invest in research and development or R&D. Different business
industries with science and engineering processes like agriculture, food and beverage,
manufacturing, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, computer software, semiconductor,
information and communication technology, construction, robotics, aerospace, aviation, and
energy have high R&D expenditure because it is critical to product innovation and to
improving services.

4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

Ever experienced a feeling that your mate is having an affair behind your back? Some people
would overlook that and say that it's better not to know; others thought would take discreet
action, hiring detectives to do the work. What does research have to do with that situation? A
lot.

Researching to reveal lies or truths involving personal affairs contributes to either making a
relationship work or in breaking away from a dysfunctional one. For the monogamous lot,
doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is not simply a trust issue, but a right to find out
the truth - unless one's intimate partner has already admitted being polyamorous even before
the relationship started. When a person dislikes answering relationship-related questions,
including her or his whereabouts, it is better to see that as a red flag and take baby steps to
save yourself from what could become a more serious emotional mess later.

5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities

Research helps people nurture their potential and achieve goals through various
opportunities. These can be in the form of securing employment, scholarships, training
grants, project funding, business collaboration, and budget traveling, among others.

For those looking for a job or greener pastures, research is necessary. Through this process,
not only will the unemployed increase their chances of finding potential employers either
through job posting sites or employment agencies, but it can inform them if work
opportunities are legitimate. Without research, the gullible, yet hopeful jobseeker or migrant
worker may fall prey to unscrupulous headhunters who might be involved in illegal
recruitment and/or human trafficking.

6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information

The research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help enable
computation and comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to appreciate
and get involved in the research. Reading opens the mind to a vast horizon of knowledge,
while writing helps a reader use her/his perspective and transform this into a more concrete
idea that s/he understands.

Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in conducting
research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and casual talks with anyone
certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can also facilitate the critical thinking
process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a
certain issue and write about such analysis.

7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well. Yet, it is the same curiosity that fuels
the mind to seek answers. The College Admissions Partners (n.d.) notes how scientific
research in particular "helps students develop critical reasoning skills...helpful for any field of
higher education..." Such a search or the thinking process is food for the brain, allowing
creativity and logic to remain active. It also helps prevent mental illnesses like Alzheimer's.

Several studies have shown that mentally stimulating activities like doing research can
contribute to brain health. In "Educating the Brain to Avoid Dementia: Can Mental Exercise
Prevent Alzheimer Disease?", Margaret Gatz (2005) enumerated research findings that
support such a position. However, she also noted that there may be other factors involved in
averting said mental problem. One of these is intelligence. A study involving 11-year-old
pupils in Scotland in 2000, for instance, pointed to intelligence quotient (IQ) scores as
"predictive of future dementia risk". Gatz opined that clinical trials are needed and that
"conclusions must be based on large samples, followed over a long time." She further
posited:

1.2.1 Synthesis

Finding reasons why research is important seems like a no-brainer, but many people
avoid getting involved in the research. The lazy (if not mentally-drained) student is probably
thinking - "Oh, no. Not again," while a disinterested academic could just be doing it to secure
job tenure and/or a promotion. Yet, for those who like to learn, whether they are members of
a learning institution or not, doing research is not just an imperative, but a need.

Indeed, research, and doing research encourage people to explore possibilities, to

understand existing issues, and to disclose truths and fabricated ones. Without research,
technological advancement and other developments could have remained a fantasy.
Reading, writing, observing, analyzing, and social interaction facilitate an inquisitive mind's
quest for knowledge, learning, and wisdom. Research serves as a bridge to achieve that
goal.

The human quest to seek knowledge, satisfy one's sense of wonder, develop more
abilities, connect with others, and understand society is integral to research. Perpetuating
truths, as well as debunking lies and myths require inquisitive minds and priceless integrity.
As the world continues to evolve, doing research becomes more important as a skill with
enduring rewards.

1.3 Types of scientific research

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic. Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life, new
problems, events, phenomena, and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable
solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have
to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations, and
applications.
The research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or basic research
and 2. Applied research. Basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds: normal
research and revolutionary research. In any particular field, normal research is performed
following a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is well accepted
by the scientists working in that field. Besides, the basic and applied researches can be
quantitative or qualitative, or even both (mixed research).

1.Fundamental or basic research:

Basic research is an investigation of basic principles and reasons for the occurrence of a
particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic
research. Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not
concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic.
It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates the extraction of
scientific and logical explanations and conclusions on it. It helps build new frontiers of
knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for much-applied research.
Basic research

 Seeks generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in the technical language of the topic

2. Applied research:

In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well-known and accepted
theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies, and inter-
disciplinary research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic
research. Research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as
applied research. Such research is of practical use to current activity.
Applied research

 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize

 Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Tries to say how things can be changed
 Tries to correct the problematic facts
 Reports in common language

Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research bearing some
characteristics feature as follows:
Quantitative research

 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics, and uses numbers.

 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates what, where, and when of decision making.

Qualitative research

 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies to reason, and uses words.

 It aims to get the meaning, feeling, and describe the situation.
 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
  It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision making.

Mixed research
Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or
paradigm characteristics. The nature of data is a mixture of variables, words, and images.
Other types of research
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews.
The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best
methods to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad
in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.
Descriptive research
The descriptive research is directed toward studying “what” and how many of this “what”.
Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, “What is this?”.
Explanatory research

 Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships.

 It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics of
individuals, groups, situations, or events.
 Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are related to each
other).
 Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.

Longitudinal Research
Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in time.
Longitudinal studies may take the form of:

 Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organizational

absenteeism rates during a year
 Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales
department;
 Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over the
period 1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.

While longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and expensive than cross-
sectional studies, they are more likely to identify causal relationships between variables.
Cross-sectional Research
One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during days,
weeks, or months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or descriptive in purpose.
They are designed to look at how things are now, without any sense of whether there is a
history or trend at work.

Action research

 Fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world

Policy-Oriented Research
  Reports employing this type of research focus on the question ‘How can problem ‘X’
be solved or prevented ?’

Classification research

 It aims at the categorization of units into groups

 To demonstrate differences
 To explain relationships

Comparative research

 To identify similarities and differences between units at all levels

Causal research

 It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship among variable

Theory-testing research

 It aims at testing the validity of a unit

Theory-building research

 To establish and formulate the theory

1.3.1 Synthesis

Depending on the purpose of research, scientific research projects can be grouped into three
types: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas
of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular
phenomenon, problem, or behavior, (2) to generate some initial ideas (or “hunches”) about that
phenomenon, or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study regarding that
phenomenon. For instance, if the citizens of a country are generally dissatisfied with governmental
policies during an economic recession, exploratory research may be directed at measuring the extent
of citizens’ dissatisfaction, understanding how such dissatisfaction is manifested, such as the
frequency of public protests, and the presumed causes of such dissatisfaction, such as ineffective
government policies in dealing with inflation, interest rates, unemployment, or higher taxes. Such
research may include the examination of publicly reported figures, such as estimates of economic
indicators, such as gross domestic product (GDP), unemployment, and consumer price index, as
archived by third-party sources, obtained through interviews of experts, eminent economists, or key
government officials, and/or derived from studying historical examples of dealing with similar
problems. This research may not lead to a very accurate understanding of the target problem but may
be worthwhile in scoping out the nature and extent of the problem and serve as a useful precursor to
more in-depth research
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH BY PURPOSE & METHOD

(by Dr. SHAZIA ZAMIR, https://www.slideshare.net)

By Purpose:

Basic research is conducted solely for the purpose of theory development and
refinement. For example, much basic research has been conducted with animals to
determine principles of reinforcement and their effect on learning. Like the experiment of
skinner on cats gave the principle of conditioning and reinforcement.

Applied research is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and
evaluating its usefulness in educational problems. For example, applied research tests the
principle of reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in improving learning (e.g.
programmed instruction) and behavior (e.g. behavior modification).

Research and development

Research Brings new information to light. Focuses on the interaction between
research and the production and evaluation of a new product. This type of research can be
‘formative’ (by collecting evaluative information about the product while it is being developed
with the aim of using such information to modify and improve the development process).
For example, an investigation of teachers’ reactions to the various drafts and redrafts
of a new mathematics teaching kit, with the information gathered at each stage being used to
improve each stage of the drafting process.
It can be ‘summative’ (by evaluating the worth of the final product, especially in
comparison to some other competing product).
For example, a comparison of the mathematics achievement of students exposed to a
new mathematics teaching kit in comparison with students exposed to the established
mathematics curriculum.

Evaluation Research. The purpose of evaluation research is to facilitate decision

making regarding the relative worth of two or more alternative actions

By Method:

Historical research generates descriptions, and sometimes attempted explanations,

of conditions, situations, and events that have occurred in the past. For example, a study that
documents the evolution of teacher training programs since the turn of the century, with the
aim of explaining the historical origins of the content and processes of current program
Descriptive research provides information about conditions, situations, and events
that occur in the present. It is also called statistical research. The main goal of this type of
research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied. The idea
behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical
calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a
situation.

Experimental research is used in settings where variables defining one or more

‘causes’ can be manipulated in a systematic fashion in order to discern ‘effects’ on other
variables. For example, an investigation of the effectiveness of two new textbooks using
random assignment of teachers and students to three groups – two groups for each of the
new textbooks, and one group as a ‘control’ group to use the existing textbook.

Types of Research
Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge. The
main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that doesn’t
facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to determine a simple
fact.

Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems.

This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods.
Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans.
For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.

Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted

to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem”
refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation.

For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following
could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no
advertising, or economic conditions.

Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand

and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied research to find
solutions to the existing problems.

Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It helps create in-depth

understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-statistical method.

Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10
people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to
another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to
gather as much information as possible from the sample.

The following are the methods used for qualitative research:

1. One-to-one interview
2. Focus groups
3. Ethnographic research
4. Content/Text Analysis
5. Case study research

Quantitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing it to draw

conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a computational and statistical
process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.

Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data. With
more data to analyze, you can obtain more accurate results. This method uses close-ended
questions because the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.

Research Techniques

Surveys often involve questions to which the respondents respond. These questions may be
open ended, semi open ended and closed ended questions.
(https://www.marketing91.com/research-techniques/)

1. Open-ended questions
Examples:
 What is your opinion on this?
 Why do you think it should not be done or it should be done?
 Describe your experience about a particular incident.

2. Close-ended questions
Examples:
 Do you agree with the hypothesis? answer in yes or no.
 On the scale of 1 to 5 how would you rate the restaurant 1 being the best and 5 being
the worst.
 Which of the following would be your color of choice? Red, yellow, green or blue.
 Which city did you grow up in?
 What is your age?

3. Semi open-ended questions

Example:
 How was your experience? Options – Good, Bad, Neutral, Other
(explain in detail)

4. Focus Groups
 Questionnaires are designed for focus group interviews also but there may not be any
questionnaires for focus group discussions. Although in such cases follow up
questions may also be presented to the participants after completing the discussions.
focus group interviews are used by many companies before the launch of their product
in order to understand the views of the customers.

5. Interviews | Research Techniques

 Usually conducted interview requires a detailed plan about the process of conducting
an interview and the flow in which the interview is to be conducted.

6. Brainstorming
Examples:
 Quantity first
 No criticism
 Out of the box ideas
 Improvement by combination

7. Gamestorming | Research Techniques

Example:
If the ultimate goal of the business is to find the primary feature of the product then the
gamestorming game may involve each of the participants accompanying with a limited
set of features or specifications which will allow them to bite or buy on different
features and see which one is on top.

8. Web Analytics
 Web analytics can also be combined with gamification where buy bye we can come to
know about the impact on their behavior and we can adjust and optimize the strategy
as required.
5 ways:
 Set Goals. As we covered last week, people attach a great deal of importance to
metrics such as bounce rate, time on site, and page views. ...
 Check for Problem Pages. People will leave your site – that is a foregone
conclusion. ...
 Consider Your Target Audience. ...
 Leverage Top Traffic Sources. ...
 Curb Your Addiction.

9. A/B testing | Research Techniques

 The goal of AB testing is not to improve the single point but to improve the overall
experience.
 Small and one by one changes can be introduced in a b testing so that over time the
entire collection of changes can result in a drastic change.
Example on A/B Testing in Travel Industry:
Increase the number of successful bookings on your website or mobile app, your
revenue from ancillary purchases, and much more through A/B testing. You may try
testing your home page search modals, search results page, ancillary product
presentation, your checkout progress bar, and so on.

10. Playtesting
 A non-disclosure agreement may be signed for all of the forms of playtesting by the
participants.
Examples:
 How many collision errors are there in my game?
 Where are the collision errors in my game?

References:
 questionpro.com
 https://owlcation.com
 Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
 https://www.slideshare.net
 https://www.marketing91.com/research-techniques/

1.5 Types of Research

Research in public relations management requires the use of specialized terminology. The
term primary research is used to designate when we collect unique data in normally
proprietary information, firsthand, and specifically relevant to a certain client or campaign.
Stacks (2002). Primary research, because it is unique to your organization and research
questions, is often the most expensive type of data to collect. Secondary research refers to
research that is normally a part of the public domain but applies to our client, organization, or
industry, and can be used to round out and support the conclusions drawn from our primary
research. Stacks (2002); Stacks and Michaelson (in press). Secondary research is normally
accessed through the Internet or available at libraries or from industry and trade associations.
Reference books, encyclopedias, and trade press publications provide a wealth of free or
inexpensive secondary research. Managers often use secondary research as an exploratory
base from which to decide what type of primary research needs to be conducted.

Quantitative Research

When we speak of research in public relations, we are normally referring to primary research,
such as public opinion studies based on surveys and polling. (The following lists quantitative
research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Surveys are synonymous with
public opinion polls and are one example of quantitative research. Quantitative research is
based on statistical generalization. It allows us to make numerical observations such as “85%
of Infiniti owners say that they would purchase an Infiniti again.” Statistical observations allow
us to know exactly where we need to improve relationships with certain publics, and we can
then measure how much those relationships have ultimately improved (or degraded) at the
end of a public relations initiative. For example, a strategic report in public relations
management for the automobile maker Infiniti might include a statement such as “11% of new
car buyers were familiar with the G35 all-wheel-drive option 3 months ago, and after our
campaign 28% of new car buyers were familiar with this option, meaning that we created a
17% increase in awareness among the new car buying public.” Other data gathered might
report on purchasing intentions, important features of a new vehicle to that public, brand
reputation variables, and so on. Quantitative research allows us to have a before and after
snapshot to compare the numbers in each group, therefore allowing us to say how much
change was evidenced as a result of public relations’ efforts.

Methods of Quantitative Data Collection

Internet-based surveys

Telephone surveys

Mail surveys

Content analysis (usually of media coverage)

Comment cards and feedback forms

Warranty cards (usually demographic information on buyers)

Frequent shopper program tracking (purchasing data)

In quantitative research, the entire public you wish to understand or make statements about is
called the population. The population might be women over 40, Democrats, Republicans,
purchasers of a competitor’s product, or any other group that you would like to study. From
that population, you would select a sample to contact with questions. Probability samples can
be randomly drawn from a list of the population, which gives you the strongest statistical
measures of generalizability. A random sample means that participants are drawn randomly
and have an equal chance of being selected. You know some variants in your population
exists, but a random sample should account for all opinions in that population. The larger the
sample size (number of respondents), the smaller the margin of error and the more confident
the researcher can be that the sample is an accurate reflection of the entire population.

There are also other sampling methods, known as nonprobability samples, that do not allow
for generalization but meet the requirement of the problem or project. A convenience sample,
for instance, is drawn from those who are convenient to study, such as having visitors to a
shopping mall fill out a survey. Another approach is a snowball sample in which the
researcher asks someone to complete a survey to recommend the next potential respondent
to complete the survey. A purposive sample is when you seek out a certain group of people.
These methods allow no generalizability to the larger population, but they are often less
expensive than random sample methods and still may generate the type of data that answers
your research question.

Quantitative research has the major strength of allowing you to understand who your publics
are, where they get their information, how many believe certain viewpoints, and which
communications create the strongest resonance with their beliefs. Demographic variables are
used to very specifically segment publics. Demographics are generally gender, education,
race, profession, geographic location, annual household income, political affiliation, religious
affiliation, and size of family or household. Once these data are collected, it is easy to spot
trends by cross-tabulating the data with opinion and attitude variables. Such cross-tabulations
result in very specific publics who can be targeted with future messages in the channels and
the language that they prefer. For example, in conducting public relations research for a
health insurance company, cross-tabulating data with survey demographics might yield a
public who are White males, are highly educated and professional, live in the southeastern
United States, have an annual household income above $125,000, usually vote
conservatively and have some religious beliefs, have an average household size of 3.8
people, and strongly agree with the following message: “Health insurance should be an
individual choice, not the responsibility of government.” In that example, you would have
identified a voting public to whom you could reach out for support of individualized health
insurance.

Segmenting the public in this manner is an everyday occurrence in public relations

management. Through their segmentation, public relations managers have an idea of who
will support their organization, who will oppose the organization, and what communications—
messages and values—resonate with each public. After using research to identify these
groups, public relations professionals can then build relationships with them to conduct
informal research, better understand their positions, and help to represent the values and
desires of those publics in organizational decision making and policy formation.

Qualitative Research

The second major kind of research method normally used in the public relations industry is
qualitative research. Qualitative research generates in-depth, “quality” information that allows
us to truly understand public opinion, but it is not statistically generalizable. (The following
lists qualitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Qualitative
research is enormously valuable because it allows us to truly learn the experience, values,
and viewpoints of our publics. It also provides ample quotes to use as evidence or illustration
in our strategy documents, and sometimes even results in slogans or fodder for use in public
relations’ messages.

Qualitative research is particularly adept at answering questions from public relations

practitioners that began “How?” or “Why?”Yin (1994). This form of research allows the
researcher to ask the participants to explain their rationale for decision making, belief
systems, values, thought processes, and so on. It allows researchers to explore complicated
topics to understand the meaning behind them and the meanings that participants ascribe to
certain concepts. For example, a researcher might ask a participant, “What does the concept
of liberty mean to you?” and get a detailed explanation. However, we would expect that
explanation to vary among participants, and different concepts might be associated with
liberty when asking an American versus a citizen of Iran or China. Such complex
understandings are extremely helpful in integrating the values and ideals of the public into
organizational strategy, as well as in crafting messages that resonate with those specific
publics of different nationalities.

Methods of Qualitative Data Collection

In-depth interviews

Focus groups

Case studies

Participant observation

Monitoring toll-free (1-800 #) call transcripts

Monitoring complaints by e-mail and letter

Public relations managers often use qualitative research to support quantitative findings.
Qualitative research can be designed to understand the views of specific publics and to have
them elaborate on beliefs or values that stood out in quantitative analyses. For example, if
quantitative research showed a strong agreement with the particular statement, that
statement could be read to focus group participants and ask them to agree or disagree with
this statement and explain their rationale and thought process behind that choice. In this
manner, qualitative researchers can understand complex reasoning and dilemmas in much
greater detail than only through results yielded by a survey. Miles and Huberman (1994).

Another reason to use qualitative research is that it can provide data that researchers did not
know they needed. For instance, a focus group may take an unexpected turn and the
discussion may yield statements that the researcher had not thought to include on a survey
questionnaire. Sometimes unknown information or unfamiliar perspectives arise through
qualitative studies that are ultimately extremely valuable to public relations’ understanding of
the issues impacting the public.

Qualitative research also allows for participants to speak for themselves rather than to use
the terminology provided by researchers. This benefit can often yield a greater understanding
that results in far more effective messages than when public relations practitioners attempt to
construct views of the public based on quantitative research alone. Using the representative
language of members of a certain public often allows public relations to build a more
respectful relationship with that public. For instance, animal rights activists often use the term
“companion animal” instead of the term “pet”—that information could be extremely important
to organizations such as Purina or the American Veterinary Medical Association.

Mixed Methods/Triangulation

Both quantitative and qualitative research have complementary and unique strengths. These
two research methodologies should be used in conjunction whenever possible in public
relations management so that both publics and issues can be fully understood. Using both of
these research methods together is called mixed method research, and scholars generally
agree that mixing methods yields the most reliable research results. Tashakkori and Teddlie
(1998). It is best to combine as many methods as is feasible to understand important issues.
Combining multiple focus groups from various cities with interviews of important leaders and
a quantitative survey of the public is an example of mixed-method research because it
includes both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Using two or more methods of study
is sometimes called triangulation, meaning using multiple research methods to triangulate
upon the underlying truth of how the public views an issue. See Stacks (2002); Hickson
(2003).

Synthesis
In this chapter, the vital role of research in public relations management is examined,
both in making the function strategic and in adding to its credibility as a management function.
Because research comprises such a large part of the public relations process—three of the
four steps in the strategic management process—we discussed the purposes and forms of
commonly used research in public relations. The roles of formal and informal research were
discussed, as well as the major approaches to research: quantitative (numerically based) and
qualitative (in-depth based) as well as the types of data collection commonly used in public
relations in the mixing of methods.

1.6 Research Techniques

Since this book is intended for both designers and non-designers, we offer you a brief
description of a curated list of research techniques. Our objective is not to turn our readers
into expert user researchers since we strongly recommend including a professional user
experience researcher as part of the enterprise gamification team. We introduce a curated list
of user research and market research techniques pertinent to gamification in an enterprise
context. Each of these techniques could be used individually or in combination, based on
your objectives.

We also refer you to add references to go beyond the basics.

1.Observation

This technique focuses on seeing what the users do as opposed to what they say they do.

This refers to research conducted outside a traditional lab setting, in a user's natural work
environment. It involves visiting the site where the product is used and observing the usage in
action. It can reveal interesting insights on environmental circumstances affecting the usage
of the product, and supplementary tools and work-arounds used along with the product.

 Contextual inquiry

The contextual inquiry research technique combines observation with interview-style question
and response. Participants get to explain their actions or "think aloud" as they work through a
task or activity.

2. Surveys / Questionnaires

Surveys or questionnaires are useful to gather information on the profile of the user, his or
her job responsibilities and opinion of the current version of product (if available) or similar
product (if this is a new release). It is easy to collect both quantitative and qualitative
information using surveys. Surveys may be online or face-to-face. Online surveys may be
conducted using tools such as SurveyMonkey (footnote 1). Face-to-face surveys may be
conducted in combination with observational techniques such as site visits or in
a usability lab.

It is important to know how to ask the right questions the right way to get quality input for
design. This means not asking leading or confusing questions.

3. Focus Groups

A focus group is a qualitative research technique where a group of individuals are asked their
opinions, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes or practices regarding a product, service or concept. It
is important to pay attention to group dynamics when conducting a focus group since the
loudest voice may dominate the conversation and drown out other opinions.

4. Interviews

Interviews are a "guided conversation where one person seeks information from the other."
An interview may be conducted in conjunction with other requirements-gathering activity such
as a site visit, or as a solo activity.

There are various types of interview you can choose from based on your project needs and
constraints. Interviews may be conducted remotely (via the phone), or face to face. A
structured interview is one where the list of questions is prepared in advance and the
researcher tries to solicit answers from all participants. A non-directed interview is one where
the interviewer primarlity listens to the subject and provides minimal input or direction.

5. Diary studies

A diary study involves asking the test participants to record and report their experiences
related to a particular subject over a period of time. Depending on the type of study,
participants may use paper diaries, emails, twitter or a combination. Such studies can be
flexible and easy to execute. They are particularly appropriate for understanding mobile
device usage since it allows the user to provide their input on-the-go.

Like most research methods, diary studies need to be well designed and have a focus to be
effective. A poorly designed study may yield a lot of data that may be difficult to sift through to
create meaning.

6.  Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a tool for creative problem solving, wherein a group of people come together
to contribute ideas spontaneously. It is particularly useful when you want to break out of stale,
established patterns of thinking, so that you can develop new ways of looking at things. When
a interdisciplinary product team brainstorms to come to a common vision of the solution, it
helps get buy-in for the chosen solution.

7. Gamestorming

Gamestorming, as the name suggests, refers to the use of games for brainstorming. The term
Innovation Games also refers to this technique. Presenting the problem in a game format
suspends some of the normal protocols of life and frees the participants to think creatively to
solve problems. For example, if the goal is to prioritize a list of features in a product,
gamestorming may involve giving each participants a limited set of resources and allowing
them to buy / bet on features to see which ones come out on top.

8. Web Analytics

Web analytics refers to gathering and analyzing usage data to gain insights into consumer
actions and attitudes. Tools such as Google Web Analytics and Omniture have made it
possible for companies to adopt a real data driven approach to understanding usage patterns
to optimize the experience for the user. In the case of gamification, it is very useful to know
the impact on player behavior to adjust and optimize the strategy as needed.

9. Playtesting

A playtest is a type of usability testing, in which a game designer tests a new game for bugs
and design flaws before release. The target player types are recruited via various methods,
and are given the game to play. The designers observe the participants and study usage
statistics to collect qualitative and quantitative data on the product. They then iterate to make
the product better. This practice is beneficial to gamification as well.

10. A/B Testing

A/B testing is an experimental approach to user experience design. It presents two versions
of a website (Option A and Option B) to the user, and analyzes users' behavior. Typically, it
tries to track the effect of the differences of the two options against a desired goal. For
example, if a website is trying to increase click through rate, they may present a version to
one set of online users, and a different version to another. They could analyze if these
differences have any impact on the metric they care about.

11.  Other research methods

When designing enterprise products, it is helpful to know the domain via online research.
Researching competitors is an important part of the initial 360- degree research for any
product. Analyst and market research reports usually provide good insight into industry trends
and business practices.

Professional communities like LinkedIn offer groups for specialized categories of users.
Browsing such communities can provide a way to build empathy for your target users by
getting a glimpse of their view of the world.
 II. Research Design

Research design definition

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by
a researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that
are suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.

The design of a research topic explains the type of research

(experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-
type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study). 

There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and
analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research
design and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to
use and how they are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and

increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least
margin of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired
outcome. The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research
studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a
survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key
characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions
about the data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research design
should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final
evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who
agree with the derived results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects

similar results every time. Your design should indicate how to form
research questions to ensure the standard of results. You’ll only be able to reach
the expected results if your design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to
the objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this design will
then be valid.

Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not

just a restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be
conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and
so all the above characteristics should be balanced in a good design.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research

design to select which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the
design of your study can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines relationships

between collected data and observations based on mathematical calculations.
Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved
using statistical methods. Researchers rely on qualitative research design methods
that conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have
to say about it.

Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical

conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better
perspective to make critical business decisions. Quantitative research design
methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from
hard numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making
decisions related to the future of the business.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely

interested in describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a
theory-based design method which is created by gathering, analyzing, and
presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why
and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need
for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory
research. 

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a

relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where
one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent
variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such
as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty.
It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving a problem
at hand. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has
on the dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human
behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change their
actions and study how the people around them react to gain a better understanding
of social psychology.
3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental
research design technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between
two closely connected variables. This type of research requires two different
groups. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two
different variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship
between them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose

value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it
indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 means a negative
relationship between the two variables. 

4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to

evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method
helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations. 

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue

· Diagnosis of the issue

· Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas

and thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The research explains
unexplored aspects of a subject and details about what, how, and why of research
questions.
2.1 The Seven Steps of the Research Process
The Seven Steps of the Research Process

The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding information for a research
paper and documenting the sources you find. Depending on your topic and your familiarity with the
library, you may need to rearrange or recycle these steps. Adapt this outline to your needs. We are
ready to help you at every step in your research.

STEP 1: IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP YOUR TOPIC

SUMMARY: State your topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about use
of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the question, "What effect does use of
alcoholic beverages have on the health of college students?" Identify the main concepts or keywords in
your question.

More details on how to identify and develop your topic.

STEP 2: FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION

SUMMARY: Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias. Read articles in these
encyclopedias to set the context for your research. Note any relevant items in the bibliographies at the
end of the encyclopedia articles. Additional background information may be found in your lecture
notes, textbooks, and reserve readings.

More suggestions on how to find background information.

Return to the top

STEP 3: USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS AND MEDIA

SUMMARY: Use guided keyword searching to find materials by topic or subject. Print or write down
the citation (author, title,etc.) and the location information (call number and library). Note the
circulation status. When you pull the book from the shelf, scan the bibliography for additional sources.
Watch for book-length bibliographies and annual reviews on your subject; they list citations to
hundreds of books and articles in one subject area. Check the standard subject subheading "--
BIBLIOGRAPHIES," or titles beginning with Annual Review of... in the Cornell Library Classic
Catalog.

More detailed instructions for using catalogs to find books.

Finding media (audio and video) titles.

Watch on YouTube: How to read citations

STEP 4: USE INDEXES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES

SUMMARY: Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and
abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and format best suited
to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk if you need help figuring out which index and format
will be best. You can find periodical articles by the article author, title, or keyword by using the
periodical indexes in the Library home page. If the full text is not linked in the index you are using,
write down the citation from the index and search for the title of the periodical in the Cornell Library
Classic Catalog. The catalog lists the print, microform, and electronic versions of periodicals at
Cornell.

How to find and use periodical indexes at Cornell.

Watch on YouTube: How to read citations

Return to the top

STEP 5: FIND ADDITIONAL INTERNET RESOURCES

 Nearly everyone is aware of and uses Google and its branches, Google Scholar, Google

Books, Google News, YouTube, etc., to search and find information on the open Internet (as opposed
to the subscription-only resources you will encounter in steps 2 through 4 above). Here are links to
other search engines.

You can also check to see if there is a research guide (a subject guide or a course guide) created by
librarians specifically for your topic or your class that links to recommended resources.

STEP 6: EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND

SUMMARY: See How to Critically Analyze Information Sources and Distinguishing Scholarly from

Non-Scholarly Periodicals: A Checklist of Criteria for suggestions on evaluating the authority and
quality of the books and articles you located.
Watch on YouTube: Identifying scholarly journals    Identifying substantive news sources

If you have found too many or too few sources, you may need to narrow or broaden your topic. Check
with a reference librarian or your instructor.

When you're ready to write, here is an annotated list of books to help you organize, format, and write
your paper.

STEP 7: CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD FORMAT

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes, it gives proper credit to
the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your
research and locate the sources that you have listed as references.

Knowingly representing the work of others as your own is plagarism. (See Cornell's Code of Academic
Integrity). Use one of the styles listed below or another style approved by your instructor. Handouts
summarizing the APA and MLA styles are available at Uris and Olin Reference.

Available online:

RefWorks is a web-based program that allows you to easily collect, manage, and organize
bibliographic references by interfacing with databases. RefWorks also interfaces directly with Word,
making it easy to import references and incorporate them into your writing, properly formatted
according to the style of your choice.

See our guide to citation tools and styles.

Format the citations in your bibliography using examples from the following Library help
pages: Modern Language Association (MLA) examples and American Psychological Association
(APA) examples.

 Style guides in print (book) format:

 MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: MLA, 2009.
(Olin Reference LB 2369 .G53 2009 [shelved at the reference desk]; also Uris Reference,
others)

This handbook is based on the MLA Style Manual (Olin and Uris Ref PN 147 .G444x 1998) and
is intended as an aid for college students writing research papers. Included here is information
on selecting a topic, researching the topic, note taking, the writing of footnotes and
bibliographies, as well as sample pages of a research paper. Useful for the beginning researcher.
 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington: APA,
2010. (Olin Reference BF 76.7 .P83 2010 [shelved at the reference desk]; also Uris
Reference, Mann Reference, others)

The authoritative style manual for anyone writing in the field of psychology. Useful for the
social sciences generally. Chapters discuss the content and organization of a manuscript,
writing style, the American Psychological Association citation style, and typing, mailing and
proofreading.
 In the person-environment interaction, human beliefs, ideas and
cognitive competencies are modified by external factors such as a supportive
parent, stressful environment or a hot climate. In the person-behavior interaction, the
cognitive processes of a person affect his behavior; likewise, performance of such
behavior can modify the way he thinks. Lastly, the environment-behavior interaction,
external factors can alter the way you display the behavior. Also, your behavior
can affect and modify your environment. This model clearly implies that for
effective and positive learning to occur an individual should have positive personal
characteristics, exhibit appropriate behavior and stay in a supportive environment.
In addition, Social Cognitive Theory states that new experiences are to be
evaluated by the learner by means of analyzing his past experiences with the same
determinants. Learning, therefore, is a result of a thorough evaluation of the present
experience versus the past.
Basic Concepts
Social Cognitive Theory includes several basic concepts that can manifest not only
in adults but also in infants, children and adolescents.
1. Observational Learning
Learning from other people by means of observing them is an effective way of
gaining knowledge and altering behavior.
2. Reproduction
The process wherein there is an aim to effectively increase the repeating of
a behavior by means of putting the individual in a comfortable environment with
readily accessible materials to motivate him to retain the new knowledge and
behavior learned and practice them.
3. Self-efficacy
The course wherein the learner improves his newly learned knowledge or behavior
by putting it into practice.
4. Emotional coping
Good coping mechanisms against stressful environment and negative personal
characteristics can lead to effective learning, especially in adults.
5. Self-regulatory capability
Ability to control behavior even within an unfavorable environment.
B. Cognitive Behavioral Theory
Cognitive Behavioral Theory describes the role of cognition (knowing)
to determining and predicting the behavioral pattern of an individual. This theory
was developed by Aaron Beck.
 The Cognitive Behavioral Theory says that individuals tend to form self-concepts
that affect the behavior they display. These concepts can be positive or negative and
can be affected by a person’s environment.
The Cognitive Triad
Cognitive Behavioral Theory further explains human behavior and learning using
the cognitive triad. This triad includes negative thoughts about:
1. The self (i.e., I am rubbish)
2. The world/environment (i.e., the world is irrational)
3. The future (i.e., my future is doomed)

d. Progressive Learning Theories

P r ogr es s ive e ducat i on is a reaction to the traditional style of

teaching. It's a pedagogical movement that values experience over learning facts
at the expense of understanding what is being taught. When you examine the
teaching styles and curriculum of the 19th century, you understand why certain
educators decided that there had to be a better way.
Learning How to Think
The progressive education philosophy says that educators should teach children
how to think rather than relying on rote memorization. Advocates argue that the process
of learning by doing is at the heart of this style of teaching. The concept, known as
experiential learning, uses hands-on projects that allow students to learn by actively
engaging in activities that put their knowledge to use.
Progressive education is the best way for students to experience real-
world situations, say advocates. For example, the workplace is a collaborative
environment that requires teamwork, c r it i c al t h inki ng, creativity, and the ability
to work independently. Experiential learning, by helping students develop these skills,
better prepares them for college and life as productive members of the workplace.
Deep Roots
Though progressive education is often looked upon as a modern invention,
it actually has deep roots. John Dewey (Oct. 20, 1859–June 1, 1952) was an
American philosopher and educator who started the progressive education
movement with his influential writings.
Dewey argued that education should not simply involve making students
learn mindless facts that they would soon forget. He thought that education should be a
journey of experiences, building upon each other to help students create and
understand new experiences.
Dewey also felt that schools at the time tried to create a world separate
from students' lives. School activities and the life experiences of the students
should be connected, Dewey believed, or else real learning would be impossible.
Cutting students off from their psychological ties—society and family—would make their
learning journeys less meaningful and thereby make learning less memorable.
The "Harkness Table"
In traditional education, the teacher leads the class from the front, whereas a
more progressive teaching model sees the teacher as a facilitator who interacts with
students and encourages them to think and question the world around them.
Teachers in a progressive education system often sit among students at a
round table embracing the Harkness Method, a way of learning developed by
philanthropist Edward Harkness, who made a donation to Phillips Exeter Academy and
had a vision on how his donation might be used:
"What I have in mind is teaching...where boys could sit around a table with a
teacher who would talk with them and instruct them by a sort of tutorial or conference
method."
Harkness's thinking led to the creation of the so-called Harkness table, literally
a round table, designed to facilitate interaction between the teacher and students
during class.
Progressive Education Today
 Many educational institutions have adopted progressive education, such as
The Independent Curriculum Group, a community of schools that says education
should include students' "needs, capacities, and voices" as the heart of any program
and that learning can be both an end unto itself and a doorway to discovery and
purpose.

e. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner of Harvard University originally identified seven

distinct intelligences. According to Gardner, this theory, which emerged from
cognitive research, "documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of
minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways."
In greater detail, the theory proposes that "we are all able to know the world
through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical
thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of
other individuals and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the
strength of these intelligences and the ways in which such intelligences are invoked
and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems and progress in
various domains." Hani Morgan (2014) supports Gardner's theory. Morgan's research
indicated that differentiated instruction benefits all students, but must be presented by
well-prepared, experience and knowledgeable teachers.
This diversity, according to Gardner, should impact the way people are educated.
He stated that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that
everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal
measure suffices to test student learning." Gardner goes on to say that, "Indeed, as
currently constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes
of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-
quantitative modes as well."
Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to
be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The
broad spectrum of students—and perhaps the society as a whole—would be better
served if disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and learning could be
assessed through a variety of means." In 2010, Bas and Beyhan presented findings
based on their study of using Multiple Intelligences theory in learning English. They
determined that MI-based learning is more effective in terms of student achievement
levels and their attitudes toward learning. Their research supports Gardner's assertion
that MI-based learning will serve students well.
The list of Gardner’s multiple intelligences includes:
 Linguistic intelligence
 Logical-mathematical
intelligence  Spatial intelligence
 Musical intelligence
 Bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence  Naturalistic
intelligence
 Interpersonal
intelligence 
Intrapersonal intelligence
Each of these intelligences are relatively independent of one another. This means
that a child can be highly proficient in one intelligence and struggle with another. An
athlete, for example, could have strong bodily-kinesthetic and spatial intelligence but
poor musical intelligence. That’s why it’s so important to use instructional strategies
that involve a variety of these multiple intelligences so every child has the opportunity to
learn in a way that works best for them.
Linguistic Intelligence
 Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to comprehend words while
reading, writing, or speaking. This can include reading and writing in a person’s native
tongue, but it also involves the ability to learn new languages.
A few activities and skills related to linguistic intelligence include:
 Reading books aloud or independently
 Learning new vocabulary words
 Writing stories, sentences, or essays
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the ability to use reason and analysis
to solve problems. Children with strong logical-mathematical skills are also often
skilled at identifying patterns to develop answers to a question.
A few logical-mathematical intelligence skills and activities include:
 Learning addition, subtraction, and other math concepts
 Using the scientific method to test hypotheses
 Using logical abilities to create compelling debates
Spatial Intelligence
Spatial intelligence involves the ability to visualize and manipulate
environments. Children with strong spatial intelligence are aware of the space around
them and skilled at manipulating it in creative or innovative ways.
Spatial intelligence skills or activities you could use in class include:
 Putting together puzzles
 Painting, sculpting, or other artistic activities
 Performing tasks that involve hand-eye coordination
Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence is defined as the ability to appreciate, create, and
perform music. It involves not only does sensory musical activities, but also the
theoretical side of music, such as composition.
A few musical intelligence skills or activities can include:
 Practicing pitch or a sense of rhythm
 Learning to sing or play an
instrument  Recognizing musical
notes or patterns
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves skillfully moving and controlling your
body. Children with a strong sense of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence often succeed in
hands-on activities rather than theoretical assignments.
If you want to try bodily-kinesthetic intelligence activities in class, a few ideas can
include:
 Participating on a sports team
 Doing relay-races or outdoor games
 Learning the choreography to a dance
Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence refers to the ability to interact with others in a healthy
and meaningful way. Students skilled in interpersonal intelligence can be
introverted or extroverted, but they are often good at making and maintaining
friendships.
Activities and skills related to interpersonal intelligence include:
 Making positive relationships with peers
 Using effective communication skills
 Comforting a friend when they’re feeling down
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Coinciding in some ways with interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence
is defined as the ability to understand and analyze your own emotions, actions, and
beliefs. It is closely linked to the social-emotional skill of self-awareness, or
developing an understanding of yourself and how others perceive you.
 Skills and activities that involve interpersonal intelligence include:
 Creating a reflection journal
 Nurturing a strong sense of introspection
 Practicing mindfulness activities like meditation
Naturalistic Intelligence
The eighth type of intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, refers to a
person’s sensitivity to and appreciation for the natural world. Students with naturalistic
intelligence often have an affinity for recognizing and interacting with plants and
animals.
A few activities or skills related to naturalistic intelligence include:
 Hiking, camping, or other outdoor activities
 Taking care of animals
 Recognizing different types of plants
In addition to these eight types of intelligences, Dr. Gardner considered
adding existential intelligence. This would involve a person’s ability to understand
themselves and the world around them with a philosophical mindset. At this time,
however, it is not one of the official intelligences in his theory.

Synthesis
Learning Theories
Learning theory deals on how students absorb, process, and retain
knowledge during lear nin g. Learning is a process that brings together individual’s
personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring and enriching
their knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views. Theories provide
a basis in order to understand how people learn and explain, describe, analyse and
predict learning. Theory helps people make more informed decisions around the
design, development and delivery of learning. Learning theories develop
hypotheses that describe how this process takes place like how information is used
and how knowledge is created. The theories of learning include behavioral, social,
cognitive and progressive.
Behaviorism is a theory of learning wherein behaviors are acquired through
our int e r ac t ion w it h th e envir onment. It does not account for other types of
learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement and
punishment. Behaviorists believe that our actions is being shape by the environment
that surrounds us. Some behaviorists believed that any person can potentially be
trained to perform any task, regardless of genetic background, personality traits, and
internal thoughts, its only requires the right conditioning. Behavioral learning theory is
divided into two sections which is classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning occurs when you learn to associate two different stimuli and
there is no behavior involve in this. Operant conditioning involves changing voluntary
behaviors. A behavior response is followed by either reinforcement or punishment.
Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the behavior to increase and the
behavior will decrease if it is followed by punishment.
Social learning theory proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by
observing and imitating others. It is consider as one of the most influential learning
theories. People learned by watching what others do. A simple example of this is a
child watches his mother while folding their laundry. Later on, a child picks up some
clothing and imitates folding the clothes. A child learn to fold clothing by
watching. Bandura developed modeling process that helps us understand that not
all observed behaviors could be learned effectively, nor learning can necessarily
result to behavioral changes. Modeling process has four steps namely attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation. Social learning theory indicates that for you to
learn you must give your full attention. Retention is very important without it you would
not be able to store information about the behavior. In reproduction it requires you to
demonstrate the behavior. Repeatedly practicing the
behavior is important in this step for your improvement. Lastly is motivation,
feeling motivated to repeat the behavior is what you need in order to keep on
performing it. You will be rewarded if you have done the behavior properly and
punished if it is done inappropriately.
Cognitive Learning Theory is about understanding how human mind works
while people learning. This is focus on how information is being processed by the
brain and how learning occurs through that internal processing of information.
Progressive education is a response to traditional methods of teaching. It is defined as
an educational movement which gives more value to experience than formal learning.
It is based more on experiential learning that concentrate on the development of a
child's talents. Howard Gardner proposed theory of multiple intelligences that
differentiates human intelligence. When educators are given the freedom to move away
from the traditional, visually-based methods
of teaching, they will have the opportunity to reach the students, more effectively. By
teaching to the dominant learning intelligences, teachers will find students to be more
productive, more receptive and more willing to engage in the learning process.

6. Motivation and Classroom Management

a. The Theories of Motivation

Motivation is a state-of-mind, filled with energy and enthusiasm, which drives

a person to work in a certain way to achieve desired goals. Motivation is a force
which pushes a person to work with high level of commitment and focus even if
things are against him. Motivation translates into a certain kind of human behavior.
Some of the most important theories of motivation are as follows: 1. Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy Theory 2. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory 3. McClelland’s Need
Theory 4. McGregor’s Participation Theory 5. Urwick’s Theory Z 6. Argyris’s Theory 7.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory 8. Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory.
1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory:
It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. Maslow’s theory is based on the human needs.
Drawing chiefly on his clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a
hierarchical manner from the lower to the higher order.
In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no
longer serves to motivate man. Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated
in order to motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as
shown in figure 17.2.
a. Physiological Needs:
These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air,
water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance
of
human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behavior. These needs are to
be met first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological needs
are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.
b. Safety Needs:
After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety
and security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic
security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more
money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs,
these become inactive once they are satisfied.
c. Social Needs:
Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social
interaction, companionship, belongingness, etc. It is this socializing and
belongingness why individuals prefer to work in groups and especially older people go
to work.
d. Esteem Needs:
These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs
which indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and
independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength
and capability of being useful in the organization. However, inability to fulfill these
needs results in feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.
e. Self-Actualization Needs:
This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher
needs of human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy
model is the need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.
The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to
become actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the
person’s motivation to transform perception of self into reality.
According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination.
The second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need
does not emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on.
The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However,
Maslow’s need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors.
The main criticisms of the theory include the following:
a. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say,
there may be overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need
is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.
b. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.
c. Researches show that man’s behavior at any time is mostly guided by
multiplicity of behavior. Hence, Maslow’s preposition that one need is satisfied at
one time is also of doubtful validity.
d. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower.
For example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain
satisfied for the rest of his life if only he/she can get enough food.
Notwithstanding, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory has received wide
recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the
theory’s intuitive logic and easy to understand.
2. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory:
The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and proposed
a new motivation theory popularly known as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene (Two-
Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200
accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania.
He asked these people to describe two important incidents at their jobs:
a. When did you feel particularly good about your job, and
b. When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident
method of obtaining data.
 The responses when analyzed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent.
The replies respondents gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly
different from the replies given when they felt bad. Reported good feelings were
generally associated with job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job dissatisfaction.
Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies
hygiene or maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors
have become known as Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation.
Herzberg’s motivational and hygiene factors have been shown in the Table 17.1

According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.

The underlying reason is that removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job
does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual
continuum. The opposite of ‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and the opposite of
‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisfaction’.
According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are tomorrow’s hygiene because
the latter stop influencing the behavior of persons when they get them. Accordingly,
one’s hygiene may be the motivator of another.
However, Herzberg’s model is labeled with the following criticism also:
a. People generally tend to take credit themselves when things go well.
They blame failure on the external environment.
b. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.
c. Even job satisfaction is not measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that
a person may dislike part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.
d. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.
e. Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator as
well as hygiene.
Regardless of criticism, Herzberg’s ‘two-factor motivation theory’ has been widely
read and a few managers seem untaminar with his recommendations. The main use of
his recommendations lies in planning and controlling of employees work.
3. McClelland’s Need Theory:
 Another well-known need-based theory of motivation, as opposed to hierarchy
of needs of satisfaction-dissatisfaction, is the theory developed by McClelland and
his associates’. McClelland developed his theory based on Henry Murray’s developed
long
list of motives and manifest needs used in his early studies of personality.
McClelland’s need-theory is closely associated with learning theory, because he
believed that needs are learned or acquired by the kinds of events people
experienced in their environment and culture.
He found that people who acquire a particular need behave differently from those
who do not have. His theory focuses on Murray’s three needs; achievement, power and
affiliation. In the literature, these three needs are abbreviated “n Ach”, “n Pow”, and “n
Aff” respectively’.
They are defined as follows:
Need for Achievement:
This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive
to succeed. In other words, need for achievement is a behavior directed toward
competition with a standard of excellence. McClelland found that people with a
high need for achievement perform better than those with a moderate or low need for
achievement, and noted regional / national differences in achievement motivation.
Through his research, McClelland identified the following three characteristics of
high-need achievers:
a. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for
performing a task for finding a solution to a problem.
b. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take calculated risks.
c. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback.
Need for Power:
The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, the desire
to influence others, the urge to change people, and the desire to make a difference in
life. People with a high need for power are people who like to be in control of people
and events. This results in ultimate satisfaction to man.
People who have a high need for power are characterized by:
a. A desire to influence and direct somebody else.
b. A desire to exercise control over others.
c. A concern for maintaining leader-follower relations.
Need for Affiliation:
The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and maintain friendly
and warm relations with other people’. The need for affiliation, in many ways, is
similar to Maslow’s social needs.
The people with high need for affiliation have these characteristics:
a. They have a strong desire for acceptance and approval from others.
b. They tend to conform to the wishes of those people whose friendship and
companionship they value.
c. They value the feelings of others.
 Figure 17.2 is a summary chart of the three need theories of motivation
just discussed. The chart shows the parallel relationship between the needs in each
of the theories. Maslow refers to higher-lower order needs, whereas Herzberg
refers to motivation and hygiene factors.
4. McGregor’s Participation Theory:
Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based
on participation of workers. The first basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the
other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.
Theory X is based on the following assumptions:
a. People are by nature indolent. That is, they like to work as little as possible.
b. People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be directed by others.
c. People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs and goals.
d. People are generally gullible and not very sharp and bright.
On the contrary, Theory Y assumes that:
a. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational goals.
b. They want to assume responsibility.
c. They want their organization to succeed.
d. People are capable of directing their own behavior.
e. They have need for achievement.
What McGregor tried to dramatize through his theory X and Y is to outline
the extremes to draw the fencing within which the organizational man is usually
seen to behave. The fact remains that no organizational man would actually belong
either to theory X or theory Y. In reality, he/she shares the traits of both. What actually
happens is that man swings from one set or properties to the other with changes in
his mood and motives in changing environment.
5. Urwick’s Theory Z:
Much after the propositions of theories X and Y by McGregor, the three theorists
Urwick, Rangnekar, and Ouchi-propounded the third theory labeled as Z theory.
The two propositions in Urwicks’s theory are that:
a. Each individual should know the organizational goals precisely and the amount of
contribution through his efforts towards these goals.
b. Each individual should also know that the relation of organizational goals is going to
satisfy his/her needs positively.
In Urwick’s view, the above two make people ready to behave positively to
accomplish both organizational and individual goals.
However, Ouchi’s Theory Z has attracted the lot of attention of
management practitioners as well as researchers. It must be noted that Z does not
stand for anything, is merely the last alphabet in the English Language.
Theory Z is based on the following four postulates:
a. Strong Bond between Organization and Employees
b. Employee Participation and Involvement
c. No Formal Organization Structure
d. Human Resource Development
Ouchi’s Theory Z represents the adoption of Japanese management
practices (group decision making, social cohesion, job security, holistic concern for
employees, etc.) by the American companies. In India, Maruti-Suzuki, Hero-Honda,
etc., apply the postulates of theory Z.
6. Argyris’s Theory:
Argyris has developed his motivation theory based on proposition how
management practices affect the individual behavior and growth. In his view, the seven
changes taking place in an individual personality make him/her a mature one. In other
words, personality of individual develops.
 Argyris views that immaturity exists in individuals mainly because of
organizational setting and management practices such as task specialization, chain of
command, unity of direction, and span of management. In order to make individuals
grow mature, he proposes gradual shift from the existing pyramidal organization
structure to humanistic system; from existing management system to the more
flexible and participative management.
He states that such situation will satisfy not only their physiological and safety needs,
but also will motivate them to make ready to make more use of their physiological and
safety needs. But also will motivate them to make ready to use more of their potential in
accomplishing organizational goals.
7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:
One of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is offered by
Victor Vroom in his Expectancy Theory. It is a cognitive process theory of motivation.
The theory is founded on the basic notions that people will be motivated to exert a high
level of effort when they believe there are relationships between the effort they
put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes/rewards they receive.
The relationships between notions of effort, performance, and reward are depicted
in Figure 17.3

Thus, the key constructs in the expectancy theory of motivation are:

a. Valence:
Valence, according to Vroom, means the value or strength one places
on a particular outcome or reward.
b. Expectancy:
It relates efforts to performance.
c. Instrumentality:
By instrumentality, Vroom means, the belief that performance is related to rewards.
Thus, Vroom’s motivation can also be expressed in the form of an equation as
follows: Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality
Being the model multiplicative in nature, all the three variables must have
high positive values to imply motivated performance choice. If any one of the
variables approaches to zero level, the possibility of the so motivated performance
also touches zero level.
However, Vroom’s expectancy theory has its critics. The important ones are:
a. Critics like Porter and Lawler labeled it as a theory of cognitive hedonism
which proposes that individual cognitively chooses the course of action that leads
to the greatest degree of pleasure or the smallest degree of pain.
b. The assumption that people are rational and calculating makes the theory idealistic.
c. The expectancy theory does not describe individual and situational differences.
But the valence or value people place on various rewards varies. For example,
one employee prefers salary to benefits, whereas another person prefers to just the
reverse. The valence for the same reward varies from situation to situation.
In spite of all these critics, the greatest point in me expectancy theory is that
it explains why significant segment of workforce exerts low levels of efforts in carrying
out job responsibilities.
8. Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory:
In fact, Porter and Lawler’s theory is an improvement over Vroom’s
expectancy theory. They posit that motivation does not equal satisfaction or
performance. The model suggested by them encounters some of the simplistic
traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship between satisfaction and
performance. They proposed a multi-variety model to explain the complex
relationship that exists between satisfaction and performance.
What is the main point in Porter and Lawler’s model is that effort or motivation
does not lead directly to performance. It is intact, mediated by abilities and traits and
by role perceptions. Ultimately, performance leads to satisfaction. The same is
depicted in the following Fig 17.4.

There are three main elements in this model.

Effort:
Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How
much effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two factors-
a. Value of reward and
b. Perception of effort-reward probability.
Performance:
One’s effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not
be. However the amount of performance is determined by the amount of labor and the
ability and role perception of the employee. Thus, if an employee possesses less ability
and/or makes wrong role perception, his/her performance may be low in spite of his
putting in great efforts.
Satisfaction:
Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the
amount of rewards one achieves. If the amount of actual rewards meet or
exceed
perceived equitable rewards, the employee will feel satisfied. On the contrary, if actual
rewards fall short of perceived ones, he/she will be dissatisfied.
Rewards may be of two kinds—intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of
intrinsic rewards are such as sense of accomplishment and self-actualization. As
regards extrinsic rewards, these may include working conditions and status. A fair
degree of research support that, the intrinsic rewards are much more likely to
produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.
There is no denying of the fact that the motivation model proposed by Porter
and Lawler is quite complex than other models of motivation. In fact motivation itself is
not a simple cause-effect relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon Porter and
Lawler have attempted to measure variables such as the values of possible
rewards, the perception of effort-rewards probabilities and role perceptions in deriving
satisfaction.
They recommended that the managers should carefully reassess their
reward system and structure. The effort-performance-reward-satisfaction should
be made integral to the entire system of managing men in organization.

b. The Factors Influencing Student Motivation

Motivation is the state that can maintain students’ attention and behavior as well
as provides with more energy to needed to lead tasks to completion. Thus, it can help
sustain activities over a period of time. In education, motivation can have a variety of
effects on students’ behavior, preferences, and results. For instance, motivation can:
 help us direct our attention toward tasks that need to be done,
 allow us to do these tasks in shorter periods of time as well as maintain
attention during a longer time,
 minimize distractions and resist them better,
 affect how much information we retain and store,
 influence the perception of how easy or difficult tasks can appear.
Most importantly, motivation urges to us perform an action. Without it, completing
the action can be hard or even impossible.
Motivation in education can have a dramatic impact on students’ performance
and results. Therefore, parents and teachers who are willing to help their children do
better in school should be aware of the factors that affect student motivation.
Factors that Influence Students’ Motivation in Education
1. Class and Curriculum Structure
Children thrive when there is structure and struggle when there is chaos.
When students sense or see that classes follow a structure, and the curriculum
and class materials have been prepared beforehand, it provides them with a
greater sense of security.
The feeling of security is one of our basic needs. When that’s provided in a
learning environment, it allows students to fully focus on the learning material.
To help students feel more secure, educators need to plan classes and
curriculums. All materials that will be used in class should be prepared in advance.
Educators can also state the objectives of a course or class at the beginning of a
semester or a class.
2. Teacher Behavior and Personality
If a student has a negative emotion such as fear or disliking towards their teacher,
that can negatively affect their attitude toward the subject as a whole. If a teacher shows
a preference towards certain students or uses derogatory and humiliating language, that
can lower their motivation in education.
On the other hand, kindness, optimism, positive feedback, and encouragement
can positively affect students’ motivation to learn.
3. Teaching Methods
Students are more likely to retain their motivation in education if educators use
different teaching methods. That creates diversity and prevents students from
getting
bored. Giving room for certain choices such as which partner they’d like to work with can
be beneficial too.
Students in a single class are likely to have different styles of learning. Thus, a
teacher is more likely to meet these needs by applying different teaching methods.
4. Parental Habits and Involvement
Quite a few parental habits can indirectly affect the motivation of children, intrinsic
motivation in particular. These include:
 showing interest in the child’s learning
material,  inquiring about their day,
 actively listening,
 helping with specific tasks or skills taught at
school,  attending parent meetings,
 encouraging children to complete homework or study for a
test. 5. Family Issues and Instability
Same as the lack of security in the classroom, the lack of security at home can
negatively impact motivation in education.
Children who live with both parents, on average get better grades than children
who don’t. Family conflicts and disruption can result in poorer academic performance.
Some examples include:
 divorce,
 loss of one or both parents,
 not living with the biological father or mother,
 not having contact with the biological father or
mother,  frequently moving from one home to another,
 being or having been involved with Child Protective Services.
As a result, in certain instances, additional support may be needed from schools to
help students with their issues.
6. Peer Relationships
As children grow older, the influence peers have upon them increases as
well. Therefore, problems and conflicts with peers can make students feel less secure
about their social status among peers, increase their stress levels, and lower
motivation in education.
Keeping an eye on any conflicts, bullying, and other peer issues can prevent
serious problems.
7. Learning Environment
School environment or school climate is another factor that affects motivation
in education. School environment refers to different norms and regulations that
determine the overall climate in the school.
Positive school environment makes students feel safe and secure, meets their
basic needs such as daily meals, and provides an optimal environment for them to build
healthy social relationships.
Too many classes and learning environment that’s too serious can also
lower motivation in education. Adding a fun element to classes can help to ease the
atmosphere and improve motivation and results. Allowing enough time for play and rest
can also have a positive effect.
8. Assessment
While standardized assessment increases the standards of attainment, it
can negatively influence students’ motivation in education, especially at a younger
age. The opposite can be seen in countries like Finland where primary school children
do not get any tests. Despite the lack of assessment, Finnish children display higher
academic achievements.
It is also common for students to lose motivation if tests are continuously too
challenging. This does not provide a sense of achievement and lowers motivation
in
education over time. Thus, it’s important for educators to experiment with and
apply different testing methods which would be able to address the different learning
needs of students.

c. Effective Learning Environments

Learning environment refers to the diverse physical locations, contexts,

and cu lt ur es in which students learn. Since students may learn in a wide variety
of settings, such as outside-of-school locations and outdoor environments, the term is
often used as a more accurate or preferred alternative to classroom, which has more
limited and traditional connotations—a room with rows of desks and a chalkboard, for
example.
The term also encompasses the culture of a school or class—its presiding ethos
and characteristics, including how individuals interact with and treat one another—as
well as the ways in which teachers may organize an educational setting to facilitate
learning— e.g., by conducting classes in relevant natural ecosystems, grouping desks
in specific ways, decorating the walls with learning materials, or utilizing audio, visual,
and digital technologies. And because the qualities and characteristics of a learning
environment are determined by a wide variety of factors, school policies, governance
structures, and other features may also be considered elements of a “learning
environment.”
Components and Importance of an Effective Learning Environment
Developing an engaging and positive learning environment for learners, especially
in a particular course, is one of the most creative aspects of teaching. Typically, the
focus is either on the physical learning environments (institutional) like lecture
theaters, classrooms, or labs; or on different technologies that are used to develop
online learning environments.
However, the learning environment is an expression that is a lot broader than
these components. The term comprises of:
 Learners’ characteristics;
 Learning and teaching goals;
 Activities that support learning;
 Assessment strategies that drive and measure
learning;  A culture that directly infuses a learning
environment.
Typically, social, physical, psychological or cultural factors involved in a
learning environment deeply affect the learners’ learning capabilities. If the learning
atmosphere is not conducive to gaining new knowledge or skills, it will be hard for
learners to remain engrossed or interested.
For example, stress significantly affect the cognitive functioning. When you
combine stress with learning processes, the negative thoughts outweighs the positive
ones. Such learners find the learning environment more like a threat to their self-
esteem than a platform to improve or learn new skills. To overcome this, the
instructors hold the responsibility to incorporate an arsenal of strategies that would
inoculate learners against the negative attitude by providing enough positive
experiences.
This integration of strategies in the learning/teaching approach will counteract
the negative and help students in getting out of the negative spiral. When a learner
feels appreciated, accepted and see him/her as an important and contributing part of a
learning environment only then he/she can improve, learn with an open mind,
accept and appreciate viewpoints and solve problems earnestly.
Nevertheless, a learning environment is a great attribute to the success of
the learner. It offers a positive ambiance to feel motivated and engaged. An ideal
learning setting encourages the interaction with learners/instructors and eventually
establishes a sense of support.
The Factors That Make A Positive Learning Environment
Following are the prime factors that contribute to establishing an effective and
positive learning environment.
Establish a supportive learning culture
Each member of the learning community should have the feeling of
connectedness. They must feel that they are contributing to the overall environment
while being a bigger and important part of a supportive learning culture.
For this, a proper support system or mentorship program should be developed
that would provide them the required assistance whenever needed. The idea can
also be supported by creating online discussion forums or online platforms where
learners can gather and discuss various topics.
Learners can use these platforms to provide support to fellow members, to
address concerns, and to express their ideas and opinions about some topic.
Nevertheless, the modern learning platforms offer online training and ongoing
education through resources that can be accessed and used by the learners on their
own time.
Address Learners’ Needs
Just like adults, learners also have some psychological needs for order and
security, love and belonging, competence and personal power, novelty and freedom and
even fun. It is important to meet these needs at all times and to help learners
progress and be taught with a positive attitude.
Any learning environment, where instructors accommodate these intrinsic
needs, learners tend to be happier and more engaging. There are less behavioral
incidences than otherwise and this fulfilling learning atmosphere help learners in
developing the right learning attitude while establishing positive relationships with
peers.
Keep it Positive
Learners respond far better to praise than punitive measures. Appreciation is the
key to motivation, unlike humiliation, that is highly discouraging. Learners appreciate the
freedom to express their opinions; similarly, the opinions of their peers also play a
crucial role in defining their learning attitude.
That is exactly why actions like harassment or teasing are the number one cause
for learners to drop out from the course rather than labeled as ‘dull’ or ‘stupid’ in front of
others. While it is important to express opinions, it is also vital to remain positive rather
than assault.
However, the best way to cut down this negative behavior, in a professional
learning environment, is to start correcting the behavior without highlighting the names
of the ones making mistakes.
Provide Feedback
Feedback is the great way to connect with learners and to set their learning efforts
in the right direction. Feedback is vital for learners as it helps them in tracking their
progress and in changing their learning strategy accordingly. It helps them recognize
their weak areas while improving the developed skills.
A feedback informs the learners where they are missing the mark and what
is needed to be done. A feedback is not only a key to motivate the learner but this
timely and consistent feedback ensures an interactive learning environment. It keeps
learners involved and allows them to keep going while mounting a feeling of
purpose and belonging.
Celebrate Success
In addition to feedback and appreciation, another way to establish a positive
and effective learning environment is to celebrate the learners’ success. This
could be anything from a shout out to a big reward. When learners’ achievements are
recognized and shared by the instructors with other learners, it creates a sense of
achievement and fosters healthy learning behavior.
Instructors can easily take out some time on a weekly basis to recognize
each student for any of the specific accomplishment. This could also be done in the
form of group activities or collective assignments or projects. In addition to the
celebration, it is also important to discuss the processes or strategies used by the
learner to achieve the
objective. This will also act as a guide for others to use the same learning strategy and
to improve their performance in the same manner.
Safety
A good learning environment offers a safe platform for learners. Before you
can expect learners to succeed academically, they should also feel safe both mentally
and physically. While most of the schools take physical safety measures, not many
learning platforms consider the mental safety of the learners.
Safety in a learning environment goes beyond physical well-being. In order
to maintain a safe learning environment, learners must feel supported, welcomed,
and respected.
But many learning platforms and their codes of conduct don’t always consider
or support the positive climate. For instance, strict disciplinary practices like
suspensions negatively impact the morale of the learners and hamper their
performance or likelihood of improvement.
Hence, building a positive learning environment is more about maintaining a
healthy culture where the expectations are well communicated and learners are fully
aware of the code of conduct.
Employ Interactive Games and Activities
An effective learning platform is the one that establishes strong interactions
and promotes collaborative learning culture. This means that it is imperative for
instructors to maintain positive relationships with the learners while also ensuring
healthy association among the learners.
This can be done by using the best way of encouraging group activities.
Introduction of non-competitive games and activities break down the cliques
within a learning environment. This also assists the new and shy students to have a
sense of belonging.
Such activities promote communication and collaborative working environment and
establish cooperative learning structures.
There are hundreds of proven group activities and games that can be introduced
as classroom activities. These fun activities make learners interested in attending the
class and help them learn and progress in a friendlier environment.

d. Strategies for Managing Routine Misbehavior

Discipline often comes to mind at the mention of classroom management, but

the crucial component of teaching is much more. Classroom management creates a
set of expectations used in an organized classroom environment. It includes routines,
rules and consequences. Effective classroom management paves the way for the
teacher to engage the students in learning.
Good classroom management goes hand-in-hand with student discipline.
Educators from the novice to the experienced need to consistently practice good
classroom management to reduce student behavioral problems.
Establish a Progressive Discipline Plan
One of the most common ways to effectively deal with classroom behavior
management issues is to implement a progressive discipline plan.
In progressive discipline, each step is followed by another, providing students with
several opportunities to modify their behavior.
For typical classroom situations, the following is an effective list of 10 progressive
discipline steps that can be implemented.
Step 1: Redirect Student Behavior
Redirect student behavior by verbally or non-verbally pointing out to the student
what he or she should be doing. Standing near a student who is off-task or asking a
student a clarifying question can serve as effective types of redirection.
Step 2: Face-to-Face Conference with the Student
 The best way to carry out this step is to schedule a quick meeting after class with
the student, before he or she goes to the next class. Just pull a student aside and
communicate your behavior expectations and provide the student with an opportunity to
respond.
Step 3: Change the student's seating assignment.
This often works quite well, particularly if neighboring students seem to be
encouraging the misbehavior.
The front row, closest to the teacher, is a good spot for relocation, although seats
in the back row may be used for attention-seeking students on occasion.
Step 4: Informally discuss options with your fellow teaching teammates and/or
support staff.
Use this opportunity to express your concerns and look for any input or behavior
strategies that may be working in their other classes.
Step 5: Time out.
Relocate the student to another teacher's classroom for a time out. If the previous
four steps have been implemented and the behavior continues, you can send that
student to a pre-arranged time-out room.
Step 6: Contact the parent, preferably by phone.
Always begin your call on a positive note by noting ways that the student is
being successful. After that, communicate your concerns along with the process that
you have already taken to correct the situation. Make sure to take notes,
provide contact information, and to express your eagerness to partner with the
parent throughout the process.
Step 7: If the behavior persists, assign a detention.
Detentions can be served before or after school, or if the administration
allows, during lunch. Detention can be effective, particularly if the student must
complete a task that he or she would not normally undertake. Of course, it DOES
require you to put in extra time as well.
Step 8: Write a guidance referral.
Depending on your situation, you may be able to send the offending student
directly to the guidance office at the time of the infraction. If not, you may be able to
schedule a conference with the counselor.
If possible, provide your written documentation of the behavior interventions that
you have taken for the guidance counselor's reference.
Step 9: Meet with your direct supervisor or assistant principal.
Provide them with the documentation you have collected during behavior
intervention. Seek their counsel and direction.
Step 10: Write a detailed discipline referral to your administrator.
Trust that the administrator will make the right decision for the student based on
the documentation that you have provided.
Some of the following techniques can be used to effectively enhance classroom
behavior management.

e. The Model of Discipline with Dignity

Discipline with Dignity is a management theory that was developed by

Richard Curwin and Allen Mendler. “Discipline with dignity equips teachers and
administrators with classroom skills and techniques that enable them to spend less
time dealing with behavioral problems and more time on positive interactions with
students and on instruction”(Gurcan Tugba). The goal of managing a classroom is to
create a space where behavior problems do not occur. The Discipline with Dignity
process is set up to create a positive classroom community which focuses on respect.
The classroom has a meeting at the beginning of the year to set up a social contract,
which the students and teacher will adhere to throughout the year. The social
contract
starts out with five basic principles that will be the basis of the rules. Next, there are
two flag rules that are non-negotiable decided by the teacher. These flag rules are
meant to keep students safe. The class will decide on three more rules to go on the
contract. For each rule the students will come up with a range of reasonable
consequences that will be followed if a rule is broken. Each person will sign the contract
at the bottom. The point of the classroom meeting and creating the social contract
together is to create responsibility and respect in the class. “This model is a
responsibility and empowerment-based versus obedience-based discipline model,
which creates an atmosphere of democracy, encouragement, hope and warmth
where clearly defined limits (with student input) and skills in resolving conflicts are
taught and applied”(Gurcan Tugba). The model is the basis for key elements in which
students can grow and mature.
An example of how the social contract is set up:
Principle 1: Respect
Rule 1: Be an active listener
Consequences: 1. Repeat what was said
2. Make up missed information on your own time.
3. Write an apology to the teacher/person that you disrespected
When students are repeat rule breakers they are given an individual behavior plan.
This plan is set up to help the student think about the behavior choices he/she has
made and how he/she will change their behavior choice next time. “Children are
allowed a chance to take ownership for their actions by involving them in the
process of understanding and questioning rules, guidelines, limits, and
consequences” (Dodge, Nizzi, Pitt & Rudolph, 2007). This behavior contracts will
allow the student to make positive decisions for themselves.
Using the Discipline with Dignity model consistently will create a mutual respect
and community within the classroom. This will help keep the focus on learning rather
than combating behavior issues. The needs of each student and teacher will be met
using this theory.

Synthesis

Motivation and Classroom Management

Classroom management refers to the actions that the teacher made in order
to organize the classroom. It requires awareness, patience, good timing
and boundaries. When classroom-management strategies are executed effectively,
teachers minimize the behaviors that impede learning for both individual students and
groups of students, while maximizing the behaviors that facilitate or enhance learning.
Classroom Motivation is important, in order for effective teaching and learning to occur
and although students ought to have some measure of motivation towards
succeeding in the classroom, teachers need to be mindful of their own behavior,
teaching style, design of course, teaching environment, nature of assignments, informal
interactions with students and appearance which can affect student motivation.
Motivation describes the wants or needs of a person that direct behavior toward a
goal. There are many things that teachers can do in order to motivate their students to
learn. Teachers should build community of learners inside the classroom. Safe
classroom environment is what every student’s need wherein they are willing to face
struggle and take every risk. The student and teacher must work together towards
common collective goals. Students must be willing to work with and assist other
students in class. Struggle should be acceptable and encouraged as a part of the
learning process.
Teachers should be an inspiration to the learners. Teachers that have
inspired, challenged, and motivated students became memorable enough years later.
Inspirational teachers represent success to their students. Through their triumphs,
students may
visualize what success looks like and go after it. Once students decide that they want
success, they will make sacrifices which leads them to their success.
Today’s learners seek a learning environment that is welcoming, friendly and
has positive place where a student can come to work toward specific goals. A
positive learning environment is the one where learners feel involved and responsible
for their learning while being comfortable enough to fully participate in
group and individual activities. When educators foster positive learning culture,
learners are more likely to have the higher motivation that leads to better and more
promising learning outcomes. Learners prefer the learning environment that pushes
their learning capacity with altering strategies and teaching practices. They want to be
a part of learning setting that provides a sense of achievement while they can be
adaptive and interactive with fellow learners as well as instructors.
Another way to establish a positive and effective learning environment is
to celebrate the learners’ success. Students feel motivated and appreciated to continue
to work hard once their work has been recognized. When learners’ achievements are
recognized and shared by the instructors with other learners, it creates a sense of
achievement and fosters healthy learning behavior. Base on the students' output,
instructors can easily recognize the ability of each students by giving them a task
weekly. This could also be done in the form of group activities or collective
assignments or projects. In addition to the celebration, it is also important to discuss
the processes or strategies used by the learner to achieve the objective. This will also
act as a guide for others to use the same learning strategy and to improve their
performance in the same manner.
7. Exceptional Learners

a. Learners with Exceptionalities, Inclusion & Special Education

In line with the Department’s thrust in providing quality and inclusive basic
education for all, the Department of Education (DepEd) continues to provide the
necessary educational interventions for learners with certain exceptionalities through
its Special Education (Sped) program.
The Sped program of DepEd provides a holistic approach in catering to the needs
of learners with various exceptionalities. This program ensures that learners with
exceptionalities will have access to quality education by giving them their individual and
unique learning needs.
This initiative caters to learners with visual impairment, hearing
impairment, intellectual disability, learning disability, autism spectrum disorder,
communication disorder, physical disability, emotional and behavioral disorder,
multiple disability with visual impairment, and to those who are orthopedically
handicapped, chronically ill, and gifted and talented.
To date, DepEd has recognized a total of 648 Sped Centers and regular
schools offering the program—471 of which are catering to elementary students and
177 are catering to High School students.
The Education Department has recorded around 250,000 enrollees with
certain exceptionalities at the elementary level and around 100,000 at the high school
level in School Year (SY) 2015-2016.
Instructional programs
The parents or guardians of learners with certain exceptionalities may reach out
to principals or guidance counselors of schools where they wish to enroll their
children to determine the necessary instructional program that their children need best.
The instructional programs that the SPED teachers shall implement are the
following:
1. Self-contained/Special Class – a separate class for only one type of exceptionality
which serves moderate to severe types of disabilities;
2. Itinerant Teaching – a traveling teacher reaches out to children with special needs in
other schools or at home to provide direct and consultative services;
3. Resource Room – a designated place where the child with special needs enrolled
in the regular school program goes to in order to make use of the specialized
equipment, either in a tutorial situation or in a small group session handled by a
SPED teacher;
4. Pull-out – a kind of program where the child enrolled in the regular class reports to
the resource room for a period of time for special instructions by the SPED teacher;
5. Integration/Mainstreaming – refers to the enrolment of a child with special needs in
a regular class with support services. There are two degrees of integration:
Partial Integration and Full Integration. In Partial Integration/Mainstreaming, a
child with special needs enrolled in a special class is integrated with regular
children in non-academic activities like work education, physical education, arts,
school programs, etc, then gradually integrated in the academic subjects if
qualified. Meanwhile, in Full Integration/Mainstreaming, a child with special needs
sits in the regular class in all academic and non-academic subjects; and
6. Inclusion – all children with disabilities, regardless of the nature and severity of
their disability and need for related services, receive their total education within the
regular education classroom.
Strengthening teachers’ capabilities
In SY 2015-2016, DepEd has provided capability trainings to 345 teachers and
45 administrators and supervisors involved in delivering quality education to learners
with certain exceptionalities.
Among the partners of DepEd in enhancing the capabilities of teachers
handling learners with exceptionalities and in promoting the SPED advocacy are the
Resources for the Blind Inc., Autism Society of the Philippines, Leonard Cheshire for
the Disabled Foundation (LCDF), and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder Society
(ADHD Society).
Moreover, the other partner organizations of DepEd for the SPED program are
the Learning Disabilities Association (LDA), Philippine Association for the
Intellectually Disabled (PAFID), National Association for the Gifted (NAG), Philippine
Federation for the Rehabilitation of the Disabled (PFRD), Parents Advocate for the
Visually Impaired Children (PAVIC), and National Council on Disability Affairs (NCDA).

b. Response to Interventions

Response to Intervention (RTI) is a multi-tier approach to the early identification

and support of students with learning and behavior needs. The RTI process begins with
high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general
education classroom. Struggling learners are provided with interventions at
increasing levels of intensity to accelerate their rate of learning. These services may be
provided by a variety of personnel, including general education teachers, special
educators, and specialists. Progress is closely monitored to assess both the learning
rate and level of performance of individual students. Educational decisions about
the intensity and duration of interventions are based on individual student response
to instruction. RTI is designed for use when making decisions in both general education
and special education, creating a well-integrated system of instruction and intervention
guided by child outcome data.
For RTI implementation to work well, the following essential components must be
implemented with fidelity and in a rigorous manner:
 High-quality, scientifically based classroom instruction. All students receive
high-quality, research-based instruction in the general education classroom.
 Ongoing student assessment. Universal screening and progress
monitoring provide information about a student’s learning rate and level of
achievement, both individually and in comparison with the peer group. These
data are then used when determining which students need closer monitoring or
intervention. Throughout the RTI process, student progress is monitored
frequently to examine student
 achievement and gauge the effectiveness of the curriculum. Decisions
made regarding students’ instructional needs are based on multiple data points
taken in context over time.
 Tiered instruction. A multi-tier approach is used to efficiently
differentiate instruction for all students. The model incorporates increasing
intensities of instruction offering specific, research-based interventions
matched to student needs.
 Parent involvement. Schools implementing RTI provide parents information
about their child’s progress, the instruction and interventions used, the staff
who are delivering the instruction, and the academic or behavioral goals for their
child.
Though there is no single, thoroughly researched and widely practiced “model” of
the RTI process, it is generally defined as a three-tier (or three-step) model of school
supports that uses research-based academic and/or behavioral interventions. The
Three-Tier Model is described below.
Tier 1: High-Quality Classroom Instruction, Screening, and Group Interventions
Within Tier 1, all students receive high-quality, scientifically based instruction
provided by qualified personnel to ensure that their difficulties are not due to
inadequate instruction. All students are screened on a periodic basis to establish an
academic and behavioral baseline and to identify struggling learners who need
additional support. Students identified as being “at risk” through universal screenings
and/or results on state-or district wide tests receive supplemental instruction during the
school day in the regular classroom. The length of time for this step can vary, but it
generally should not exceed 8 weeks. During that time, student progress is closely
monitored using a validated screening system s uch a s c u r r ic ulum- b as ed
measu r em ent. At the end of this period, students showing significant progress are
generally returned to the regular classroom program. Students not showing adequate
progress are moved to Tier 2.
Tier 2: Targeted Interventions
Students not making adequate progress in the regular classroom in Tier 1
are provided with increasingly intensive instruction matched to their needs on the
basis of levels of performance and rates of progress. Intensity varies across group size,
frequency and duration of intervention, and level of training of the professionals
providing instruction or intervention. These services and interventions are provided in
small-group settings in addition to instruction in the general curriculum. In the early
grades (kindergarten through 3rd grade), interventions are usually in the areas of
reading and math. A longer period of time may be required for this tier, but it should
generally not exceed a grading period. Students who continue to show too little
progress at this level of intervention are then considered for more intensive
interventions as part of Tier 3.
Tier 3: Intensive Interventions and Comprehensive Evaluation
At this level, students receive individualized, intensive interventions that target
the students’ skill deficits. Students who do not achieve the desired level of
progress in response to these targeted interventions are then referred for
a comprehensive evaluation and considered for eligibility for special education
services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
(IDEA 2004). The data collected during Tiers 1, 2, and 3 are included and used to
make the eligibility decision.
It should be noted that at any point in an RTI process, IDEA 2004 allows parents
to request a formal evaluation to determine eligibility for special education. An RTI
process cannot be used to deny or delay a formal evaluation for special education.
In addition to variations in the tiers used to deliver RTI services, schools use
different approaches in implementation, such as problem-solving, functional
assessment, standard protocol, and hybrid approaches. Although there are many
formats for how a school might implement RTI to best serve the needs of its students,
in every case RTI can be a school-wide framework for efficiently allocating resources
to improve student outcomes.
c. Effective Strategies for Assisting Students with Disabilities

Special education classes provide a unique service to physically or

mentally challenged students. The ideal special education classroom provides quality
instruction to students with disabilities. While the push in education these days seems
to be toward online education and the inclusion of special education students
within mainstream classrooms, special education classes are still needed for
more severely disabled students. The purpose of the special education classroom
setting is to provide more intensive, individualized attention to the students who most
need it.
However, even in special education classroom settings there can be a wide a
range of skill levels and abilities. Here are some strategies that special education
teachers can use to benefit all of their students:
1. Form small groups
Forming small groups of two or three students within the class grouped according
to their level can help with personalizing the teaching while not sacrificing class
instruction time. For example, in math class, one group could be working on the basics
while a more advanced group could be working on their geometry skills. Students
would be grouped together according to similar skill levels and objectives along their
education pathway.
2. Create classroom centers
Classroom centers are another effective way students can be grouped. Each
center would specialize in one area or level. The centers would be self-contained in
terms of instructions and all lesson materials. They would also be somewhat self-
explanatory and self-guided to allow the teacher to rotate among the different
centers and provide appropriate guidance. A teaching assistant, parent or volunteer
could help facilitate the groups. Such centers would strike a balance between being
self-explanatory, without totally giving up more direct teacher time.
3. Blend ‘the Basics’ with more specialized instruction
Still another way of instructing multiple levels of students is to teach
general concepts to the whole group while pairing it with individual instruction. Since
every school subject has some general concepts that could be relevant, individual
students can benefit from this no matter what their level of proficiency.
Reading comprehension strategies, the basics of math, organizing writing ideas,
or even a scientific theory are some examples of general concepts that could be
taught to support what each student is learning in that area. Students can then
apply this knowledge to their particular individual assignments. However, the teacher
could always add some additional content for more advanced students.
4. Rotate lessons
Lessons within the different groups or centers could be rotated so that on any
given day the teacher could introduce new material to one group, while only having to
check in on others who are doing more independent activities. The teacher assistant
could also be of service within such a lesson cycle.
5. Try thematic instruction
Thematic instruction is where a single theme is tied into multiple subject areas.
This method of teaching has been shown to be very effective in special education
classrooms. A “theme” could be anything from a current event, honing the
skill of reading comprehension, a writing topic or a historical event. For example, a
historical event could be tied into all other subjects. The theme should be attention-
getting — something that will grab the students’ interest and keep them engaged.
6. Provide different levels of books and materials
Since there will be a variety of proficiency levels in the classroom, be sure to
have different levels of textbooks and other teaching materials available for each
subject. Having a range of levels
on hand will ensure that each student can learn at the appropriate level. This minimizes
frustration and maximizes confidence and forward momentum in the student.
 Teaching special education students effectively can be enhanced with
some adjustments. Regardless of the severity of their disabilities, classes can be
structured in a way that caters to the individual level of functioning.
Doing so does not mean giving up quality personal instruction time. No matter what
the content areas or variety of levels your students are working on, harmony and
integration are possible. Strategies such as grouping, learning centers, rotating lessons,
choosing class themes and having a flexible array of texts and materials can help
teachers to provide ideal instruction and support within their special education classes.

Synthesis
Exceptional Learners

Exceptional learners range from students with disabilities or other hardships

that prevent them from participating in the traditional classroom. The term exceptional is
used to refer to any child that is above or below the average on the spectrum of learning
ability. Exceptional students are those who fall outside of the normal range of
development and their skills were develop differently from other students. Students
that have Autism Spectrum Disorder, developmental delay and intellectual disability
are some of those who belong to the exceptional learners. In order to provide their
learning needs and for them to develop their fullest potential special education is
present.
Special education can help children with disabilities to remove any barriers to
learning. It provides individualized plans for the children with disabilities to help them
succeed. There are different special education intervention namely preventive,
remedial and compensatory. Preventive interventions are designed to prevent
potential or existing problems from becoming a disability. Special education in this
form seeks to either stop something from happening or reduce a condition that has
been identified. Remedial interventions are designed to eliminate the effects of a
disability. They are generally used to teach children with disabilities skills that allow
them to function successfully and independently. They may be aimed at academic,
social, personal, and/or vocational goals. Compensatory interventions involve teaching
special skills or using special devices to improve functioning. Compensatory
intervention may be best identified as teaching a child to perform a task or conquer a
skill in spite of a disability. It involves providing children with disabilities an asset that
non-disabled children do not need.
Response to Intervention (RTI) can be used to know whether student has
Special Learning Disability (SLD) or not. It is hard to identify if why does student
don’t have adequate learning progress unless they will undergo medical test to
determine a SLD and RTI is helpful as a way to solve problems and find interventions
that work for this. If your child responds to interventions at a certain level, then there is
no need for him or her to receive services at a higher level. RTI can also
prevent over-identification of children eligible for special education; however, it
can’t be used to delay a student’s evaluation for special education if there is a
suspected SLD, nor should it be used as the only way a student that is screened for
special education.
Everyone of us don’t want to feel excluded from a group. It may bring up many
painful emotions to us like sadness, isolation, confusion, etc. Discrimination sometimes
exist for those children with disabilities which seems that they are on the lower level of
the society. They often receive negative feedback from schools and hence refuse
to develop positive cognition to the outside world. As humans, we all have an
equal right to receive proper education. Even they have disability, they have also
the right to live a fulfilling life and exploring its fullest potential.
As a teacher in the field of special education you should advance in knowing the
learning needs of students with special needs. It is important that you identify how
will your child learns best. You should be dedicated, resourceful, inventive and
determined teacher to ensure that they thrive individually. Special education
teacher always look positive to their learners. They think that despite of their
disabilities their
learners can also achieve excellence. Learning should be a fun and an
adventurous activity for both children with and without special needs. Having a
disability of any kind should never stop anybody from conquering the world.

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https://blog.neolms.com/5-ways-to-be-a-good-teacher/
6 Strategies for Teaching Special Education Classes Retrieved May 28, 2020 from
https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/6-strategies-for-teaching-
special-education-classes/

B. Other Resources

https://www.edglossary.org/multicultural-education/
http://www.phenomenaleducation.info/school-of-the-future.html
https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/graduate-students/resources-graduate-student-
teachers/diversity-classroom
http://www.nde-ed.org/TeachingResources/ClassroomTips/Diversity.htm
http://www.psychologycampus.com/educational-psychology/
https://www.apa.org/action/science/teaching-learning/?tab=3
https://www.trade-schools.net/articles/issues-in-education
http://www.rtinetwork.org/learn/what/whatisrti
http://bokcenter.harvard.edu/docs/TFTrace.html (1 of 7) [9/2/2003 1:29:48 PM]
https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/01/23/what-is-social-justice-education-
anyway.html
https://www.enhancementthemes.ac.uk/docs/ethemes/developing-and-supporting-the-
curriculum/curriculum-directions-decisions-and-debate.pdf?sfvrsn=b445f681_10
https://www.slideshare.net/rhamylle13/psychological-foundations-of-education-
complete?fbclid=IwAR1i81CuAcmNA9Gz5lohkK0dx4IHHeTvrKrvQjDRbIfI7LM9E
WJVGNJm0hU
https://www.bgsu.edu/education-and-human-development/school-of-educational-
foundations-leadership-policy/educational-foundations-inquiry/social-foundations-
of-education.html
https://www.quora.com/What-is-meant-by-the-term-contemporary-
education#:~:text=Contemporary%20Education%20is%20the%20implementation,t
he%20world%20outside%20of%20school
https://www.masters-in-special-education.com/what-is-special-education-2/