A Review of Basic Aerodynamics 04.21.2020 (Handouts) PDF

04/21/2020
Airfoil Nomenclature
Upper Surface
Leading Main Camber Line Trailing
A Review of Basic Edge Edge
Aerodynamics Thickness
Chord Line Camber
Lower Surface
04/21/2020 Cálculo Estructural III/FCEFyN UNC 2020 by S. Preidikman 1 04/21/2020 Cálculo Estructural III/FCEFyN UNC 2020 by S. Preidikman 2
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Airfoil Nomenclature Symmetric Airfoil

Maximum Thickness 1 : Location of Maximum Thickness Chord Line
Leading 2 : Location of Maximum Camber
Edge
Radius
Maximum Camber
Chord Line equal to Main Camber Line
Leading 1
Edge 2
Chord c
Trailing
Edge
Main Camber Line
Trailing Edge Angle
Chord c
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Airfoil Nomenclature Ideal Fluid Flow about an Airfoil

• Leading Edge = Forward edge of the airfoil.
• Trailing Edge = Aft edge of the airfoil.
• Chord = Line connecting the leading and trailing edge.

Denotes the length of the airfoil.
• Mean Camber Line = Line drawn half way between the
upper and lower surface of the airfoil. Denotes the amount
of curvature of the wing.
• Point of Maximum Thickness = Thickest part of the
wing expressed as a percentage of the chord.
5 6
Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil

 
N
Chord Line R Chord Line L R
   D
M M A
V V
Resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body. Resultant aerodynamic force and the components into which it splits.
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Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil

• V∞ is the relative wind, defined as the flow velocity far
ahead of the body. The flow far away from the body is 
called the freestream, and hence V∞ is also called the
freestream velocity. By definition,
L  lift  component of R perpendicular to V ,
D  drag  component of R parallel to V ,
N  normal force  component of R perpendicular to c,  
A  axial force  component of R parallel to c.
The angle of attack  is defined as the angle between

c and V . Sign convention for aerodynamic moments.
9 10
Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

• We define a dimensional quantity called the freestream
dynamic pressure as A
Axial force coefficient: CA 
1 q S
q   V2
2 M
L Moment coefficient: CM 
Lift coefficient: CL  q Sl
q S
In the above coefficients, the reference area S and
D
Drag coefficient: CD  reference length l are chosen to pertain to the given
q S geometric body shape; for different shapes, S and l may be
N different things.
Normal force coefficient: CN 
q S
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• For 2D bodies such as airfoils, the appropriate reference • The local coefficients are defined for each spanwise
area/span is simply the chord c, and the reference length is location on a wing and may vary across the span.
the chord as well.
In contrast
• The local coefficients are then defined as follows: L D M
CL  , CD  , CM  ,
L' q S q S q Sl
Local lift coefficient: cl 
q c
are single numbers which apply to the whole wing.
D'
Local drag coefficient: cd 
q c S  reference area, l  reference lenght,
M' 1
Local moment coefficient: cm  q   V2  free-stream dynamic pressure,
q c 2 2
where the reference area S  c  1  c.   free-stream fluid density, V  free-stream velocity.
13 14

• Two additional dimensionless quantities of immediate use • It may be demonstrated that
are
Lift     V2  S  Factor
p  p
Pressure coefficient: Cp 
q  Vl V 
Factor  f   ,   ,  ,surface roughness,air turbulence 
  a 

Skin friction coefficient: Cf 
q   attitude of body,
  coefficient of viscosity (dynamic),
where p∞ is the freestream pressure and τ is the shear
stress distribution over the body surface.   kinematic viscocity of the fluid,
a  speed of sound of fluid.
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cl
• From dimensional analysis it may also be demonstrated Stall due to separation
that
L cl ,max
CL   f1  Re , M  , ;   ,
q S
D d
CD   f 2  Re , M  , ;   , a0  cl  lift slope
q S d
1
M
CM   f3  Re , M  , ;   ,
q Sl
where s 
 L 0 0
V Vl
M  , Re    ,    .
a  Schematic of lift-coefficient variation with angle of attack for an airfoil.
17 18

cm cl
cm,c 4
Lift curve
0.1
0 16 
8 
8 16
 0
1 Moment curve Angle of attack  
cm ,0
dc 0.1
cm ,  m  moment slope
d
0 Variation (smoothed) of section moment coefficient about the

 quarter chord for an NACA 63-210 airfoil. Re = 3 × 106.
negative stall  stall  , s
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cm ,0 of Airfoil Sections Aerodynamic Coefficients

cm,c 4
NACA 0012
Positive camber 0.3
cm ,0 negative NACA 2412
0.2

0.1 cm,0  0
Zero camber cm,c 4
0.0
cm ,0  0
0.1 cm ,0  0 
0.2
Negative camber
0.3 
cm,0 positive 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
Moment curves for symmetric (NACA 0012) and cambered (NACA 2412) airfoils.
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cm ,ac



The variations of pitching moment coefficient versus angle of attack
cm ,ac

cl

The variations of pitching moment coefficient versus lift coefficient
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Angle of Attack (AoA) Angle of Attack (AoA)

 L0   ZLL   G  geometric AoA,
Zero Lift Line  L0  zero lift AoA, CL
  absolute AoA.
 L 0 Chord Line
    G   L 0
G CL
 L0   ZLL CL0 1
U  V
   G   L 0 CL  0
 G  geometric AoA,
Positive cambered airfoil  , G
 L0  zero lift AoA,
  L 0 G
  absolute AoA.  L0  0. 
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Angle of Attack (AoA) Angle of Attack (AoA)

 L0   ZLL Zero Lift Line  L0   ZLL
Zero Lift Line
Chord Line Chord Line
 L 0
   L 0
G
U  V
U  V CL CL
CL  CL0 G  0
Positive cambered airfoil CL  CL0

 L0  0.  , G  , G
   L0    L0
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Orientation of Airfoil at Zero Lift The Flapped Airfoil

 L0   ZLL Flap
Zero Lift Line
Chord Line
U  V 
G  L 0
      L
CL

Camber Line
“Virtual” increase in
 0 angle of attack
 G   L 0 A
CL  0 
 , G B
 0 U  V
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Effect of Flap Deflection on Lift Curve The Flapped Airfoil

cl Pressure distribution of the wing p  p
  10 cp 
cp when Hight Lift Devise (HLD) q
1.5 deflected
 0 
  10
1.0
cl
0.5
 Pressure distribution
  of original wing
10 0 5 10
0.5 x
c

1.0
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The Flapped Airfoil The Flapped Airfoil

L L2 p  p • At the airfoil level, a HLD deflection tends to cause the
cp 
cp q following six changes in the airfoil features:
L1
1. Lift coefficient (cl) is increased.
-
+    L
2. Maximum lift coefficient (cl,max) is increased.
3. Zero-lift angle of attack (αL=0) is changed.
L  L2  L1  0 4. Stall angle (αs) is changed.
5. Pitching moment coefficient is changed.
x
6. Drag coefficient is increased.
c
 7. Lift curve slope is increased.
33 34
Effect of Flaps on Lift The Effects of Flaps

without flap deflection with flap deflection without flap deflection
cl with flap deflection
Increase in cl ,max cl cm cd
cl ,max
Same slope
cd ,min
  cl
 s Laminar
0 drag
Change in  L 0 Decrease in  s
bucket
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Airfoil Nomenclature Airfoil Nomenclature

• Center of Pressure. • Center of Pressure.
The center of pressure (cp) is a point along the airfoil With increasing angle of attack, the position of the cp
chord, aft of the leading edge, about which the moves closer to the center of gravity (cg).
aerodynamic pitching moment equals zero.
The consequence of this movement is that the wing-body
The algebraic summation of the aerodynamic pressures lift has relatively no influence on the overall aerodynamic
over the upper and lower surfaces of the wing produce a moment which can only be varied significantly by
resultant force which has a definite magnitude and controlling the tail plane lift.
direction and can be deemed to act at the cp.
The moment of the force about the cp would then be zero.
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Center of Pressure Airfoil Nomenclature

N' • Aerodynamic Center.
cp The aerodynamic center (ac) is a point along the chord
M'
LE
where the pitching moment is independent of the angle of
A' attack, that is, the derivative of the pitching moment
coefficient, about the ac, with respect to the angle of
xcp attack is zero, ∂cm/∂α = 0.
In the case of a symmetrical wing section, the position of

'  x  N '  M' the ac is fixed and is coincident with the ac.
M LE cp xcp   LE
N'
In the case of a cambered wing, the position of the cp
usually lies aft of the ac.
Center of pressure for an airfoil.
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Airfoil Nomenclature The Pressure Center Movement

• Aerodynamic Center. TE
1.0
Flight angle of attacks
For subsonic sections, the ac lies near the quarter-chord
0.8
position, that is, 25% of the chord length back from the
leading edge.
0.6 Pressure center
For supersonic sections, the position moves aft, closer to
the mid-chord position. 0.4 
ac 0.1
Aerodynamic center
0.2 0.0 cm
Pitching moment coefficient 0.1
0.0  0.2 
LE 4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Angle of attack  
41 42
Equivalent Systems of Forces Center of Pressure

L' L' L pl  pu
cp
M c' 4
D' or D' or D'
x
M' c M cp'  0!
LE xcp
4
Resultant Resultant force Resultant force
force at at quarter- at center of L' L' L'
leading edge. chord point. pressure xcp
or or
  1  sin     N '  L '.
Equivalent ways of specifying the force-and-moment system M '0 M'0 M'0
on an airfoil.
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Quarter-chord Point x = c/4 Center of Pressure

F
pl  pu cp
The force on pressure center.

 5  0   5 
F F
L' ac
 M '  0 Addition of two equal and
opposite forces.
xcp xcp xcp 
F F
L'
M'
Force and moment on the
aerodynamic center (ac).
c4 c4 c4 Mc 4 ac
45 46
Useful Aerodynamic Expressions Useful Aerodynamic Expressions

 t CL  CL ,0  CL ,  CL ,   HOT .
CL ,  CL  1.8  1  0.8 max 
  c 
tmax
 maximum thickness-to-chord ratio of the airfoil.
c  
 CM ,c 4  C M ,c 4   0  C M , c 4   C M ,c 4   HOT
For 2D airfoils: cl ,  cl  2  0    0   0
  0  0  0
 
  CM ,c 4  0  CM ,0 , C M ,c 4  CM , , CM ,c 4  CM ,  ,
C L  C L  0  C L   CL   HOT ,  0    0   0
 0   00   0  0  0
 0
  CM ,c 4  CM ,0  CM ,  CM ,   HOT .
CL  0  CL ,0 , CL  CL , , CL  CL , ,
 0   00   0
 0
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Divergence Elastic and Flexural Axes

• The mass axis it is the locus of the mass centers of the
cross sections.
• The shear center is defined as the point on a particular 2D

wing cross-section at which a transverse shear load must
be applied in order to produce zero rate of twist (i.e. zero
twist per unit span) at that section; it is important to note
that it is a section property.
• The flexural center is the point on a particular wing cross-

section at which a transverse shear load must be applied in
order to produce zero twist of that section relative to the
ac
U wing root.
Elastic Axis
49 50
Elastic and Flexural Axes Elastic and Flexural Axes

• The elastic axis is then defined as the locus of shear The bending and torsion deformation of the wing can be
centers along the wing, whilst the flexural axis (or line) is defined about the elastic axis and the elastic potential (or
the locus of flexural centers, and so is a wing property. strain) energies evaluated in terms of the flexural rigidity
EI and torsional rigidity GJ, both defined about the elastic
For the simple case of a uniform unswept homogeneous
axis.
wing, these axes will be straight, and the elastic and
flexural axes will coincide, whereas for a more realistic Thus the use of the elastic axis permits the static
wing where sweep, taper, warping and cut-outs etc. are decoupling of bending and torsion.
present, then the two axes will be different and sometimes
However, if the mass axis does not coincide with the
difficult to define.
elastic axis then dynamic coupling will occur through
Arguably, the flexural axis is more relevant than the elastic inertia terms.
axis for the more complex cases and can help in
understanding aeroelastic phenomena.
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Divergence Divergence
• Hypotheses: • Hypotheses:
1.   0 and  is small. cl  cl ,0  cl ,  0  2  2 ,
2. Linear Aerodynamics:
L  q Scl  q S  cl ,   2 q S .
 CL ,  constant, HOT  0.
3. 2D-Thin Airfoil Theory:
cm ,c 4  cm,0  cm ,  0  0  0,
 CL  cl , CL ,  cl ,  2 , cl  cl ,0  cl , .
4. Symmetric Airfoil: M c 4  q Sccm ,c 4  0.

 cl ,0  0, cm,0  0. 
cm,  cm ,c 4  0.
  0
53 54
Aileron Reversal Aileron Reversal


1.0
Effectiveness
Aileron
Aileron
Reversal
Speed
Rigid Wing
U 
0.0
Equivalent Airspeed
cl
 Elastic Wing
U  elastic

cl
 rigid
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04/21/2020
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04/21/2020

Airfoil Nomenclature Symmetric Airfoil

Airfoil Nomenclature Ideal Fluid Flow about an Airfoil

• Trailing Edge = Aft edge of the airfoil.

• Chord = Line connecting the leading and trailing edge.

Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil

Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil Aerodynamic Forces on an Airfoil

The angle of attack  is defined as the angle between

Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

0 Variation (smoothed) of section moment coefﬁcient about the

cm ,0 of Airfoil Sections Aerodynamic Coefficients

Aerodynamic Coefficients Aerodynamic Coefficients

Angle of Attack (AoA) Angle of Attack (AoA)

Angle of Attack (AoA) Angle of Attack (AoA)

Orientation of Airfoil at Zero Lift The Flapped Airfoil

Effect of Flap Deflection on Lift Curve The Flapped Airfoil

The Flapped Airfoil The Flapped Airfoil

Effect of Flaps on Lift The Effects of Flaps

Airfoil Nomenclature Airfoil Nomenclature

The moment of the force about the cp would then be zero.

Center of Pressure Airfoil Nomenclature

In the case of a symmetrical wing section, the position of

Airfoil Nomenclature The Pressure Center Movement

Equivalent Systems of Forces Center of Pressure

Quarter-chord Point x = c/4 Center of Pressure

The force on pressure center.

Useful Aerodynamic Expressions Useful Aerodynamic Expressions

Divergence Elastic and Flexural Axes

• The shear center is defined as the point on a particular 2D

• The flexural center is the point on a particular wing cross-

Elastic and Flexural Axes Elastic and Flexural Axes

1.   0 and  is small. cl  cl ,0  cl ,  0  2  2 ,

4. Symmetric Airfoil: M c 4  q Sccm ,c 4  0.

Aileron Reversal Aileron Reversal

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