25. Word-group as a unit of language. Lexical and grammatical valency.

Cliché as a stereotyped expression.

Word group in  lexicology is a combination of two or more words which are connected lexically and
grammatically.

Valency- is the potential ability of the words to occur with other words

lexical valency is the appness over word to appear in various combinations with other words example
pen tasty pen (вкусный с ручкой не идет)
Lexical valency is determined by the inner structure of the language (that is in a language).
Polysemantic word may have different valency in different meanings (example heavy rain snow study –
heavy table child)
Lexical valency of related words in different languages may not coincide example (flower pot)
sometimes we break lexical valency because some people doesn't know it.

Grammatical valency is an aptness of a word to appear in specific syntactical structures

grammatical valency is determined by the part of speech of the word belongs to 
-words balonging to different parts of speech possesses different valency
-the words below to the same part of speech either the same grammatical valency or different
grammatical valency

The related words in different languages possess different grammatical valency cliché is a stereotype
expression mechanically reproduced in speech.
All examples of cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. 
Typical expressions that are used almost at all times in formal ceremonies, festivals, courts, etc. are not
considered cliché examples; rather they befit such occasions, and are regarded as more appropriate.
Following are a few examples:
 “I second the motion” (Board or council meeting)
 “I now pronounce you man and wife” (Wedding Ceremony)
 “I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United
States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United
States.” (Oath-taking ceremony)
 “Happy Birthday!”
26. Structure and classifications of word-groups. Types of meaning of word-
groups.
Word group in lexicology is a combination of two or more words which are
connected lexically and grammatically.

The possible ways of classifying Word groups :

I. Structurally.
1) According to their syntactic pattern :

-predictive word groups- are the words groups whose structure coincides with the
structure of a simple unexpended sentence (example Mary leaves John loves)
- non predictive word groups- word groups whose structure differs from the
structure of a simple and expanded sentence (example red flower)

Two more classifications they refer only non predictive word groups :
is based on the relations between the components of the word groups

 -coordinative- whose components are semantically equal (day and night)

(словосочетания с сочинительной связью между его компонентами)
 -subordinative- one component depends on the other (словосочетания с
подчинительной связью между его компонентами)

Subordinative can be classified according to the head word :

 Nominal (a clever man )
 Verbal (to go quickly)
 Adjectival (kind to people)
2) according to the order and arrangement of the components of the word group 
(example- a red flower it is adjectives nominal, to watch a film it is verbal
noumenal, to go for a walk it is verbal prepositional )

3)according to the distribution of a word group according to it we can

distinguish:
-endocentric word group- are the word groups whose distribution coincides
with the distribution of one of its members 
-exocentric word group- are word groups whose distribution differs from the
distribution from either of its components

II. Semantically
Is based on their motivation.
Motivation of Word Group is the connection between the meaning of the word
group and the meanings of its components.

-motivated word groups- is the word groups whose meaning is deducible from
the meaning of its components ( heavy, weight)

-non-motivated word groups- if the meaning of the word groups different it is

not motivated. (heavy father)

27. Motivation in word-groups. Free word-groups and phraseological units.

Sources of phraseological units.
Motivation in word-groups- is understood as the relationship existing between
the meaning of the whole word-group and the meanings of its components.

According to the motivation we can divide:

-motivated word groups- is the word groups whose meaning is deducible from
the meaning of its components ( heavy, weight)
-non-motivated word groups- if the meaning of the word groups different it is
not motivated. (heavy father)

The degree of motivation.

Motivated word-group can be divided into :

 Completely motivated (a black dress)

 Partially motivated (black market)

Phraseologicaly units- are semantically and functionally inseparable word-

groups.

Semantically inseparable it means that they are non-motivated.

Functionally inseparably means that they function as one sentence member. ( I –
subject don`t like- predicate red-herring- object)

Phraseological unit possesses some synonyms:

Set phrase, idiom, word-equivalent- they are absolute synonyms.
Each of these synonyms underline a certain feature of a phraseological units.
Set phrase implies structural stability. Idiom underlines lack of motivation. Word
equivalent underlines functional inseparability. – these are features.

Sources of phraseological units according to the source, it can be divided into:

-native
-borrowed

Sources of native:
-terminological and professional vocabularies (to cut the painter – to become
independent)
- British literature (bakers dozen)
- Suppositions and legends ( a black sheep)
- Historical facts and events ( for a sheep as a lamb) – двум смертям не бывать
одну миновать
- Phenomena and facts of everyday life (to carry coals to Newcastle- ехать в
Тулу со своим самоваром)

The main sources of borrowed phraseological units:

-the holy script
-ancient legends and myths
- facts and events of old history

28. Classifications of phraseological units. Criteria lying at the base of the

classifications. Semantic classification of phraseological units.
Phraseological units- is a semantically and functionally inseparable word group.
(Semantically inseparable means that they are non-motivated).

STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS (A.V. Koonin)

According to the way phrases are formed:

1) Primary way of forming – unit is formed on the bases of a free-word group

(transferring of the meaning a terminological word-group , transforming the
meaning ///// , alliteration, expressiveness, distanting, archaisms)

2) Secondary ways on the bases of another phraseological unit. (conversion,

changing the grammatical form, analogy, shortening of proverbs..)

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS (A.I.

SMIRNITSKY)

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky classified PUs as highly idiomatic set expressions

functioning as word equivalents, and characterized by their semantic and
grammatical unity. He suggested three classes of stereotyped phrases:

1. traditional phrases (nice distinction, rough sketch;

2. phraseological combinations (to fall in love, to get up);

3. idioms (to wash one’s dirty linen in public);

 The second group (phraseological combinations) fall into two subgroups:

1. one-top phraseological units, which were compared with derived words;

1. verb-adverb PUs of the type to give up, e.g. to bring up, to try out,
to look up, to drop in, etc.

2. PUs of the type to be tired, e.g. to be surprised, to be up to, etc.

3. Prepositional substantative units, e.g. by heart.

2. two-top phraseological units, which were compared with compound words.

1. attributive-nominal, e.g. brains trust, white elephant, blind alley.

Units of this type function as noun equivalents;

2. verb-nominal phrases, e.g. to know the ropes, to take place, etc.

3. phraseological repetitions, e.g. ups and downs , rough and ready,

flat as a pancake. They function as adverbs or adjectives equivalents;

4. adverbial multi-top units, e.g. every other day.

Prof. Amosova classifies phraseological units according to the type of

context. Phraseological units are marked by fixed (permanent) context,
which can’t be changed: French leave (but not Spanish or Russian). Two
groups are singled out: phrasemes and idioms.

1. Prasemes consist of two components one of which is praseologically

bound, the second serves as the determining context: green eye (ревнивый
взгляд), green hand(неопытный работник), green years (юные
годы), green wound (незажившая рана), etc.

2. Idioms are characterized by idiomaticity: their meaning is created by the

whole group and is not a mere combination of the meanings of its
components: red tape(бюрократическая волокита), mare’s
nest (нонсенс), to pin one’s heart on one’s sleeve (не скрывать своих
чувств).

In the classification proposed by acad. Vinogradov

it is based on the degree of motivation.

1) Phraseological fusions – are phraseological units with a very low degree

of motivation. (it means that we can not guess the meaning) - non-motivated
(the king’s picture )

2) Phraseological unites - are phraseological units which one of the

components is taken in its direct meaning and the other one in its figurative
or transferred meaning (an old salt – старый моряк)

3) Phraseological collocations are phraseological units in which the

components are taken in their direct meaning but their collocation is stable.
(cash and carry- supermarket)

 phraseological units are classified according to the semantic principle, and

namely to the degree of motivation of meaning, i.e. the relationship between
the meaning of the whole unit and the meaning of its components. Three
groups are distinguished: phraseological fusions (сращения), phraseological
unities (единства), phraseological combinations (сочетания).

1. Phraseological fusions are non-motivated. The meaning of the whole is not

deduced from the meanings of the components: to kiss the hare’s
foot (опаздывать), to kick the bucket (сыграть в ящик), the king’s
picture (фальшивая монета)

2. Phraseological unities are motivated through the image expressed in the

whole construction, the metaphores on which they are based are
transparent: to turn over a new leaf, to dance on a tight rope.

3. Phraseological combinations are motivated; one of their components is

used in its direct meaning while the other can be used figuratively: bosom
friend, to get in touch with.

Phraseological units can be clasified as parts of speech. This classification was

suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet

b) verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-

jam, to get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to make
headlines.

c) adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead.

d) adverb phraseological units: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails.

e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V. Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs,

sayings and quotations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him tick», » I am
easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too many cooks spoil the broth»,
while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a
way».

Criteria lying at the base of the classifications

1. Stability- is an essential feature of set-phrases.
2. Function- semantic and grammatical inseparability.
3. Context- fixed.

29.Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. Neutral words, literary

and colloquial vocabularies. Special and common vocabularies. Standard
English vocabulary.
Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary- is differentiation based on
the spheres of the usage of the word.

Here we can distinguish:

-Neutral voc- is the whole set of words with universal character unrestricted in
their usage. ( these words don`t differ in their stylistic character, and they can be
used in any situations, these words form the balk of English voc.) child, begin,
boy. Neutral words possess no stylistic coloring. They are the main source of
polysemy and synonymy.
Literary voc - is the whole set of words with scientific official poetic marking.
(Literary vocabulary has no dialect or local character) (infant, proceed,
commence)
Literary voc is elevated, stable, possessing bookish character.
Colloquial vocabulary- is the whole set of conversational words employed in
non-official every day communication. Colloquial voc. Is unstable or fleeting,
possessing lively spoken character. (daddy, go on)

Litarary and colloquial vocabulary can be divided into two groups:

Special vocabulary- is the voc used by certain group of people.

Common vocabulary- can be colloquial and literary. Common colloquial voc is

used by all people. ( native speakers of the language)
Common literary vooc is the voc used by all educated people.

Standard English vocabulary- is the voc formed by neutral voc, common

literary. common colloquial voc.
30. Literary vocabulary. Terms and terminological systems. Archaic and
poetic words. Barbarisms and foreignisms.

Literary vocabulary- is the whole set of words with scientific official poetic
marking. (Literary vocabulary has no dialect or local character) ( infant, proceed,
commence)
Literary voc is elevated, stable, possessing bookish character.

Terms- are words or word-combinations serving as a name of a strictly

scientific notion. ( lexicology, lexical valence)
All terms can be divided into 2 types: (by their usage)
-general- are the terms which are used in any branch of science. (method,
equivalent)
-special- are the terms which are used in a particular science.(derivational base)
Terms have a tendency to lose their stylistic coloring and the pantry of the neutral
voc (radio, TV)

Poetic word- is a rarely used literary word which aims at producing an elevated
effect. (maid-girl)
These words have a tendency to age and drop out of the vocabulary, we call them
archaic words- which were aged and drop out of the vocabulary and while
aging the words undergo 3 stages:
1) Obsolescent word- are rarely used words which gradually pass of common
usage. They are in the vocabulary, people know them but use very rare. ( thy,
thou)
2) Obsolete words- are words which have already gone out of used but are still
recognizable by the speaking community. ( nay- no, methings – I thnink)
3 Archaic words proper or archaisms – are the words which are no longer
recognizable in the language because they have either dropped out of the
language or changed in their appearance so much that have become
unrecognizable. ( descant- melody, losel- lazy)

Barbarisms (non-assimilated words)- are the borrowings which are not

assimilated in the recipient language. (chao, Adjos) – ( belong to the voc of this
language)

We shouldn`t mix it with foreignisms.

Foreignisms- are the words from another language which are used for a certain
stylistic effect. ( don`t belong)