Flexible Pavement Behaviour and Application OF Theory - A Review

J. R.
M 0 R G A N
B.C-E., Ph .D., Senior l ecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Un iversity of Melbourne
A J. seA L A
B.A., B.Sc .. , Australi a n Road Research Board
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION

OF ELASTIC THEORY - A REVIEW'"
(Pa per No . 509)
Recent research has suggested that a method of pavement design

based on the application of elastic theory may soon be practicable.
This paper examines the current status of the problem and sug-
gests that, although certain features of design such as fatigue in
asphaltic concrete courses are amenable to treatment by elastic
theory , such an approach is not yet applicable to the entire PQJve-
ment structure.
Some consideration is given to evidence of poor performance
in Australian pavements and the significance of deflection measure-
ments in predicting pavement serviceability.
A summary of presently available solutions to stresses and
deflections in pavements using elastic and viscoelastic theories is
given. The evidence for the suitability of such theories is ex-
amined both on the basis ot how closely p'GJvement materials
approach the assumptions of the idealized theories, and of how well
they predict actual stresses and deflections. Suggestions for im-
provements in predictive methods are given.
INTRODUCTION
I. The analysis of a flexible pavement as an ideal elastic body has been
popular because of the relative ease with which stresses, strains and deflections
can be calculated. Early work in this field was restricted to the use of solutions
developed for a homogeneous (single-layer) system, but since Burmister's solu-
tion or a two-layer system first appeared in 1943, the range has been extended
to systems having three and more layers, and to materials lacking in isotropy
and homogeneity. However, the direct application of the results to pavement
design has been generally unsuccessful because of two main factors:
(a) the difficulty of isolating the particular stresses or strains in pavements which
controlled the performance, and
(b) the lack of agreement between predicted and measured stresses, strains or
deflections.
2. Because of the number and complexity of the factors involved in pavement
performance it is unlikely that any single theory based on elastic behaviour can
account for all aspects. However, in the particular case of pavements containing
substantial thicknesses of asphaltic materials, the isolation of fatigue as a prime
failure mechanism gave the impetus for the development of the Shell rational
·ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - This review has la rgely grown from inform a tion accu mulated as part o f the
Australian R oad Research Boa rd's research prog ramme aimed at gaining a better understandin g of tbe
structura l behaviour of flexible pavements . Part o f the work was ca rr ied o ut in the Civil Engin eering
Department of the University of Melbourne a a portion of the Pavement Research P roject supported there
by the A.R.R.B. The au tho rs a re particularly grateful to their colleague, Mr. C. M, Gerrard , who critically
reviewed thi s paper a nd m ade many helpful suggestions.
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1201

MORGAN , SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BE HAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELAISTIC THEORY
design procedure (Ref. 1 and 2). Laboratory tests showed that tensile strain in
an asphaltic material was the major factor in determining fatigue life. Calcula-
tions from the elastic layered theories showed that tensile strains could be expected
to occur at the base of such layers, these have been meas ured in actual roads and
observations support this location as the point of initiation of fatigue crackin g.
Thus this rational design procedure was set up using elastic theory to calculate
the tensile strains in the asphalt. In order to take into account the influence of
the subgrade the procedure assumed a second criterion of failure , the magnitude
of the vertical stress or strain in the subgrade. The limiting values were derived
from analysis of successful pavements by applying the elastic theory. Because
of this safeguard, the procedure leads to designs quite similar to those from em-
pirical procedures such as the CBR type, where the asphalt layers are thin. Where
these layers make up a substantial part of the pavement, the results obtained are
more likely to reflect the true structural behaviour of the material.
3. Although the elastic theory appeared to successfully predict the asphalt
strains there were still large discrepancies between predicted and observed stresses
and strains in unbound materials . Many of these discrepancies have now been
eliminated by a better understanding of material characteristics and by more general
methods of calculation which take into account these particular characteristics.
This paper sets out to review the present state of knowledge regarding the use of
elastic theory in flexible pavement analysis and desi gn. In this respect, deflections
are of special importance because of the ease with which surface deflections may
be measured in pavements. A practical discussion of the significance of such
deflections is therefore included.
CA LCUL AT ION O F ST RESSES A N D STRAIN S IN IDEA L M ATERIA LS
ELASTIC MATERIALS
4. Elastic theory has been extensively used for th e computation of stresses
strains and deflections in road pavements. This has been largely because of the
availability of such solutions rather than in the belief that pavement and subgrade
materials behave as ideal elastic bodies. However, properly used , the theories
give solutions which in many cases are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.
The correct application of the solution is not simple and account must be taken
of the difference between real materials and th e ideal elastic solid if reasonabl e
predictions of stresses, strains and displacements are to be made for a wide range
of situations. Some of the available elastic solutions will now be discussed with
emphasis on the assumed material behaviour. Later in the paper the deviations
from this behaviour exhibited by pavement materials will be considered.
5. The most widely known solution is that based on the work of Boussinesq.
This deals with the stresses in a homogeneous, isotropic linearly elastic solid of
semi-infinite extent when subjected to a load applied normally to the surface. The
assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy imply respectively elastic properties
identical throughout the material and identical in all directions at any point within
the material. Elasticity in thi s context implies a relationship between stress and
strain which is independent of time, stress history (loading path) and other in-
fluences . A linearly elastic solid is most convenient to treat and enables super-
position to be employed.
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ELASTIC THEORY
6. Since road pavements, with their layered structure, obviously did not
satisfy the requirements of homogeneity, special elastic solutions for layered elastic
solids were developed. These usually made the same assumptions as for the Bous-
sinesq theory within each separate horizontal layer, and in addition specified the
conditions at the interfaces. Burmister (Ref. 3 and 4) developed the theory for
two and three-layer systems (having one or two pavement layers overlying a semi-
infinite subgrade) and published some results. Because of the complexity of the
problem and the large range of variables involved the ready availability of solu-
tions awaited development of computers of sufficient speed and storage capacity.
By 1960 these developments had been made and a tabulation of stresses at some
points in a three-layer system was produced by Jones (Ref. 5). This bulky tabula-
tion , whilst covering a sufficiently wide range of layer thicknesses and relative
stiffnesses gave only values of some stresses on the vertical axis beneath the load.
It was obvious that any extensive tabulation of stresses and strains for points
throughout the medium was impracticable because of the sheer volume of results
required.
7. A very large number of solutions has been published for stresses, strains
and displacements in layered homogeneous elastic solids. The most generally use-
ful are those which give results througbout the mass when loaded by a 'uniform
vertical load applied over a circular area at the surface. These solutions are given
below. Another tabulation has been made by Seed et al . (Ref. 6).
(a) Single-layer system
Isotropic - Ahlvin and Ulery (Ref. 7).
Anisotropic - Gerrard (Ref. 8). L.G .M. (Ref. 9). Some values only on
load axis and surface.
(b) Two-layer system
Isotropic - Gerrard (Ref. 10). Includes traction loads. Values only on
surface, interface and load axis. Fox (Ref. 11) . Stresses on load axis. Few
examples of stress distribution throughout mass. Burmister (Ref. 3). Deflec-
tion factors only.
Anisotropic - Gerrard (Ref. 12). Few examples only.
(c) Three-layer system
Isotropic - Jones (Ref. 5) tabulation, Peattie (Ref. 13) graphs. Values for
some stress and strain factors on load axis. Peattie and Jones (Ref. 14) .
Centreline surface deflection.
8. The influence of the material parameters on the results may now be con-
sidered. In an isotropic medium only Young's modulus E and Poisson's ratio v
are required. (Mathematically it is usually preferable to employ Lame's para-
meters. )
E E
A = and fL =
(1 + v) (1 - 2 v) 2(1 + v)
In the Boussinesq solution, all stress components are independent of E, and only
the radial and tangential stresses are affected by the value of v. In layered elastic
systems the stresses are influenced principally by the modular ratios and not by
the absolute values. Displacements however are influenced by the magnitude of
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MORGAN . SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVE MENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
E in the single layer system and additionally by the modular ratios in the multi-
layer system. The Poisson's ratio also influences displacements but in a non-
proportional fashion. Since interest has been mainly in vertical stresses and dis-
placements, the influence of v has been largely ignored, for in these particular cases
it is certainly subsidiary to E.
9. The particular nature of the anisotropy determines the number of elastic
constants required in this type of elastic system. A simple case is that of cross-
anisotropy or hexagonal anisotropy which requires five independent elastic con-
stants. This type of anisotropy is characterized by the elastic constants in any
horizontal plane being identical but different to those in a vertical direction. This
situation is important because it has been shown that materials deposited on a
horizontal plane and compacted by rolling or tamping exhibit this type of aniso-
tropy. The constants defining the behaviour are :
E v Young's modulus in the vertical direction
E n Young's modulus in a horizontal direction
VB V Poisson's ratio denoting influence of strain in a horizontal plane on strain
in a vertical plane
Vvn Poisson's ratio for influence of vertical strain on horizontal strain
VH Poisson's ratio for influence of horizontal strain in one direction on horizontal
strain in a complementary direction
G Shear modulus relating shear stress and shear strain in a vertical plane.
Although six constants are listed here, only five are independent because of other
relationships (Ref. 15).
10. The difficulties in the use of anisotropic solutions lie in the determination.
of some of the parameters for real materials and in assessing the influence on
stresses or displacements of changes in the parameters, particularly the Poisson's
ratios. The ratio EH/ EV which is typically less th an. unity in materials compacted
on a horizontal plane can be readil y measured and i ~ s influence on some stresses
has been documented (Ref. 9). The shear modulus G cannot be expressed in
terms of the other parameters and therefore must be measured in a special test.
The influence on stresses of th is parameter, expressed as the ratio G/ EV, has been
exemplified in the results of Gerrard and Mulholland (Ref. 15). Some results
showing the influence of changes in the Poisson's ratio on stresses have been given
by Holden (Ref. 16) , but the trends are difficult to follow. As yet, no extensive
study of the magnitudes of the constants likely to be found in real materials has
been published, no doubt due in part to the lack of su itable testing eq uipment.
11. In addition to the multi-layer theories which take account of the difference
in properties of the courses of a pavement, other cases of non-homogenei ty have
been investigated . Among these was the case fo r which the elastic modulus E
increased with depth. The solutions for this case were presented by Ohde (R ef.
17 ) based on the earlier work of Froehlich (Ref. 18). This solution was con-
sidered as a possible representation of the behaviour of sands since it was well
known that the stiffness of a sand increased with confining pressure and hence, in
a uniformly deposited mass, with depth . Since the solutions are used to determine
stresses, etc., following the application of a surface load, it would appear rational
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MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
to include this induced stress with the overburden stress in determining the varia-
tion in stiffness of the material. The mathematical complexity involved is so con-
siderabl e that a rigorous solution has only been obtained for special cases, while
numerical techniques are being used for a wider range of problems. A rigorous
solution was obtained by Borowicka (Ref. 19) for the case in which the elastic
parameter E varied as particular functions ·of depth Z, stress O"R (the stress at a
point in the medium directed to the point of application of the point or line load)
or combinations of both . More useful results can be obtained from the approxi-
mate techniques.
12. In the finite difference and finite element techniques described, the elastic
constants may be independently specified at each point or link within the grid or
network representing the mass. They may thus be assigned values varying in any
systematic manner with location, or by using iteration procedures made to depend
on the stresses at the location. In the finite difference solution (Ref. 20 and 15)
the elastic mass is divided into a grid of points at which radial and vertical dis-
placements are calculated for the usual axi-symmetric problem resulting from the
application of a uniform circular load. These are determined from initially assumed
values by applying Southwell's relaxation technique in an iterative procedure. Thp.
equ ilibrium and boundary conditions which are expressed in terms of stresses are
rewritten in terms of strains which may be calculated from the displacement
gradients in the grid by employing the finite difference approximations. The finite
element technique (Ref. 21) breaks the continuum up into a number of triangular
elements consisting of nodes joined by links. The stress-strain relationship for
each link may be separately specified, and the solu tion for displacements is obtained
to provide force equilibrium and displacement compatibility at each node. Idea]]y
the solution may be obtained by matrix inversion but, because of the large number
of equations involved to give a good representation of the continuum, iteration
techniques are used . Various examples of the methods have been published (Ref.
15, 21 and 22) indicating the possibilities of the technique.
13 . A further alternative for the treatment of non-homogeneous soils has been
suggested by Huang (Ref. 23). He has used the equations for th e multi-layer
system to obtain an approximate solution for vertical stresses and displacements
in a material in which the elastic modulus varies with the sum of the principal
stresses
E = Eo (1 + (38)
where E o = initial soil modulus , (3 = constant describing influence of 8 on E , and
B = 0"1 + 0"2 + 0"3
Tn this solution, as for all layered work, th e conditions are uniform in any hori-
zontal plane and therefore the results will be approxi mate to an extent that is as
yet unknown in th e absence of the exact solution. The medium is broken up into
seven layers, the first five each having a thickness equal to the load diameter, the
sixth having fortyfive times this thickness, and the seventh being semi-infinite. The
stresses at the midpoint of each layer are calculated based on assumed initial
moduli, and the correct modulus corresponding to these stresses calculated . Itera-
tions proceed until there is no perceptible change in the moduli calculated for
further cycles.
Volume 4. Pali 2 (1968) 1205

ELASTIC THEORY
VISCOElASTIC MATERIALS
14. The stiffness of asphalt varies considerably with loading rate, particularly
at higher temperatures. To account for this, visco-elasticity theory has been
applied in order to solve for stresses and displacements. Although other pave-
ment and subgrade materials exhibit visco-elastic behaviour the extent is con-
siderably less th an for asphaltic materials and therefore the analysis has usually
been restricted to these latter materials. Most solutions have been carried out
employing the correspondence principle (Ref. 24), although Schimming and
Valera (Ref. 25) have also used a finite difference technique to obtain a direct
solution for some simple cases .
15. One of the simplest equations describing the time-dependent behaviour of
a material is
p(J' jj = QE j j
where (J' jj and E jj are the stress and strain tensors , and P and Q are linear differen-
tial operators with respect to time. The inclusion of time as an independent vari-
able leads to higher order differential equations than for the corresponding prob-
lems for elastic materials. However in some cases the correspondence principle
may be employed (Ref. 24). For quasi-static problems (ignoring inertia effects)
this is accomplished by applying Laplace transforms to the time dependent func-
tions which reduce the differential operators to algebraic expressions in terms of
the transform variable. The solution to the visco-elastic problem may then be
obtained from the solution to the analogous elastic problem by inverting this latter
solution into the time domain. This procedure can only be applied if the solution
to the elastic problem of the same geometry and boundary conditions exists and
the inversion exists.
16. Analytic solutions for the deflection of a viscoelastic medium under a
moving load were obtained by Perl off and Moavenzadeh (Ref. 26) using the
above principle. In this case the material was represented by an equivalent Kelvin
element (elastic spring and dashpot in parallel). Because of this great simplifica-
tion of real material behaviour the results give only qualitative trends. The addi-
tional complexity caused by more closely representing real material b ehaviour is
seen in the work of Barksdale and Leonards (R ef. 27). In this case a 9 to 15-
element Kelvin model was fitted to measured material response. Even this part
of the analysis involves a trial and error computer solution. The method was
applied to an analysis of the AAS.H.O. test results with fair agreement being
obtained between calculated and measured deflections. Since the solution only
appears to be practicable when Poisson's ratio is assumed constant, the results
cannot be expected to be highly accurate in any case.
17. General solutions for stresses and displacements in two layer viscoelastic
systems were presented by Ishihara (Ref. 28). He considered the 16 possible
combinations made up by having the upper and lower layers elastic (spring
element), viscous (dashpot element), Kelvin model (spring and dashpot in parallel)
or Maxwell model (spring and dashpot in series). The main results could be
summarized as follows. If the relaxation or retard ation time';' of the upper layer
'Relaxation o r retardation time is the time fo r the stress in a body to fall to Ve of its o riginal value when
the deformation is held constant. It has a value of zero for a 'true' liquid, and is infinite fo r a 'true' SJIid.
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MORGAN , SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BE H AV IOU R AND APPLICAT ION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
is greater than that of the lower layer, the reinforcing and load spreading effect
is greater than expected from the Burmister analysis. If the upper layer has the
lower retard ati on tim e then stresses are more concentrated about the load axis.
The res ults were based on the assumptions of incompressible materials (v = 0.5)
and no fricti on at the interface. Huang (R ef. 29) also carried out analyses on
two and four layer visco-elastic systems with the layers represented by a number
of Kelvin elements in series. His results broadly substanti ate those of I shihara.
However he was unable to simply evaluate the influence of si ngle material para-
meters on calculated stresses and displacements . Thus under a given set of condi-
tions th e stresses and displ acements may increase with increase in value of a
certain parameter, whereas under another set of conditions they may decrease
for th e same change.
18. Because of the extra complication involved in assuming viscoelastic be-
haviour, much analysis of asphaltic pavements has been carried out using elastic
theory. The influence of loading rate on asphalt stiffness is taken into account
by testing samples at the same rate and temperature as is observed in the field.
The time temperature superposition principle (Ref. 30) can be used to reduce
the amount of testing required to cover a large range of loading rates and tem-
peratures. This principle results fro m the observation that the curves relating
asphalt modulus to log time for different temperatures can be made to coincide
by a horizontal shift along the log time axis.
BEHAVIOUR OF REAL MATERIALS
19. The last paragraphs described a number of the more common approaches
used to obtain theoretical solutions fo r the stresses, strains and displacements in
a pavement system. Even avoiding the complication of visco-elastic behaviour by
choice of testin g technique, the assumpti ons of isotropy, homogeneity and linearity
still remain to be examined. Firstly, th e extent to which real materials exhibit
these properties will be considered ; subsequ ently a comparison will be made of
measured and predicted pavement behaviour to assess the importance of devia-
tions fro m the ideal behaviour.
ELASTICITY
20. Elasticity is used to denote a relatio nship between stress and strain wh ich
is independent of stress history, tim e and other influences. The famili ar non-linear
relationship on first load ing and the hysteresis on unloading found in a conven-
tional triaxial test on a soi l is clear evidence th at the material is inelastic. How-
ever many repetition s of load are applied to pavements at relatively low stress
levels compared with their ultimate stre ngth and under these conditions the
behaviour is mu ch closer to being linearly elastic. Fig. 1 shows the behaviour of
a sand subj ected to repetitions of deviator stress of various magnitudes (Ref. 31).
The behaviour is still not truly elastic, since hysteresis still occurs, but the deflec-
tions are largely recoverable. T he term 'resilient modulus' has been used by
Hveem to denote the ratio of repeatedly applied deviator stress to the recoverable
axial strain.
21. An extensive study of resilient moduli of various soil types has been carried
out by Seed et aJ. (Ref. 32 and 33). T hese moduli were determined at constant
Volume 4, Part 2 ( 1968) 1207

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BE HAVIOU R AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
3 0r-------------r-------------+_------------+_----.qr-~_7+_--~
25r--------------~------------_+------------~~--~-r~oH'--_r--~
Sample: Dry Sand
CJ'3 = 20 p.s.i .
'"ci. 20 r---------
I
'"'"
~ 15
(f)
~
o
~ 10 r-- - - -----+----~.
>
OJ
o
5 r-----~""""-----_l_-,
,
O ~: _____________L~_ _~L_~L_~_L _ _ L _ L _ L __ _~~~_ __ __ _ _ _~_ __ _~
o 5 10 15 20
Deformat ion x 10 - 3 in s.
Fig . 1 - Stress-strain be ha viour of sand under repeated loading (after Trollope et aI., Ref. 31 )
confining pressure on triaxial samples. The main factors influencing the resilient
modulus are given below (after Ref. 34).
(a) For fine grained soils -- stress intensity, number of stress applications, age
at initial loading (thixotropy), compaction method, and compaction density
and water content, and subsequ ent changes in these.
( b) For untreated granular material s -- confining pressure, stress level, duration
of stress application and rate of deformation, type and gradation of aggregate,
void ratio, and degree of saturation.
22 . Of these factors, the influence of stress intensity is of most significance
here. Most of the other factors would be accounted for in the normal procedure
of reproducing the field conditions in the laboratory test and are not variables
induced by the loading system. However the influence of stress on modulus cannot
be ignored and is a form of non-homogeneity which will be considered subsequently.
Similar resilient modulus determinations have been carried out on cement and
asphalt-stabilized materials and asphaltic concrete (Ref. 35 and 36). The main
factors influencing the behaviour were found to be similar to those for the untreated
granular materials. T he modulus obtained from flexural tests on beams was found
to be considerably less than that found from triaxial compression tests. This may
result from a difference in tensile and compressive modulus shown up only in the
beam tests. In any case the importance of the stress system is shown and since
flexure of such materials appears to be more the mode of field behaviour than
compression, this type of test appears preferable.
23. Considerable research has gone into determination of elastic modulus whilst
Poisson's ratio has received scant attention. This is because from the elastic solu-
tions, v affects vertical stresses not at all and vertical displacements to a much
smaller degree than does modulus. However it has a large influence on radial
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MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLlCAT10N OF
ELASTl C THEORY
stress (in the single layer case) and for more sophisticated analyses than those
performed up to the present time (1968) it cannot be neglected. Theoretically,
the upper limit of v is 0.5 , corresponding to an incompressible material. This
value appears appropriate for a saturated clay loaded under undrained conditions,
while sands are usually assigned a value in the range 0.3 to 0.4 and asphaltic
concrete somewhat higher. Measured values, particularly in sands, show a wide
range. For first loadings, Gerrard (Ref. 37) measurred values from 0.11 to 0.91
in a conventional triaxial test and 0.71 to 0.82 in a test carried out with a con-
stant ratio of horizontal to vertical stress of 1 :2.9. These values are typical for
dense sands initially loaded to high stress. On repeated loading, especially at
relatively low stresses values in the range 0.1 to 0.4 have been reported (Ref. 38).
Barkan (Ref. 39) has summarized other work and reported values in this region,
although it is sometimes difficult to determine the loading path used in his tests.
Brown and PeB (Ref. 40) reported values exceeding 0.5 from tests on cohesive
soils. These values were inferred from measured stresses and strains within a
mass loaded at the surface so that experimental errors may be large. All the above
values have been calculated on the assumption of material isotropy. Since aniso-
tropy may be of more common occurrence (para. 25 to 27) the values may be
quite meaningless.
24. Although pavement materials, and soils in general, are not truly elastic,
there is abundant evidence that under certain conditions their behaviour can be
characterized by parameters analogous to E and v of an elastic solid. These re-
sults are based largely on model tests carried out at relatively low stress levels and
after considerable repetitions of load, conditions which appear appropriate to
pavements. There is very little evidence th at the use of these parameters in theoreti-
cal solutions leads to correct predictions of stresses, strains and displacements in
loaded earth masses. The comparisons considered later are often inconclusive be-
cause of the insensitivity of the measured stresses or displacements to changes in
E or v. This has a corresponding benefit since it means that many stresses can
be reasonably predicted with little or no information on the material properties.
ISOTROPY
25 . For convenience in calculation most soils and pavement materials have
been assumed isotropic, although a considerable amount of evidence has been
accumulated to show that a wide range of materials has in fact anisotropic pro-
perties: rocks (Ref. 41) , soils (Ref. 37) and asphaltic concrete (Ref. 42). In
pavement analysis the anisotropy of rocks and natural soils is of little interest since
these m aterials will in their unaltered state form no part of the structural system
of the pavement.
26. The anisotropy of placed pavement materials is, however, of great signifi-
cance. Busching et al. (Ref. 42) showed that laboratory compacted asphalt paving
slabs had a higher stiffness in the compaction direction (vertical). The ratio of
vertical to horizontal stiffness E V/ E H measured under quasi-static conditions was
about 1.3 . Moriarty (Ref. 43) also measured higher stiffnesses in the vertical
direction for cores cu t from a rolled asphalt pavement. Because of the slow rates
of loading, th e scatter of results was considerable. Granular materials can also
Vol ume 4, Part 2 (1 968) 1209

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATIO OF
ELASTIC THEORV
be expected to show anistropy under stress. Parkin et al. (Ref. 44) showed that
the structure of a sand deposited by a low intensity fall onto a horizontal surface
was markedly anisotropic , the sand grains being strongly oriented to have their
longest axis horizontal. In terms of response to stress this resulted in the vertical
strains being only one quarter of the horizontal strains when an equal all-round
stress was applied. Gerrard (Ref. 37) has also summarized some of the evidence
to show that even uniform spheres will exhibit an anisotropic stress strain response.
Irrespective of this, it seems reasonable that compaction by rolling should result
in a marked anistropy of structure, and hence in beh aviour under stress.
27. The evidence of anisotropy in soils and unbound materials is limited be-
cause of the limited number of tests carried out in which the appropriate measure-
ments have been taken . The simplest test in principle is to measure vertical and
horizontal strains on a sample subjected to an ambient stress increase. However
this usually required sophisticated apparatus to measure the small strains accurately.
Work on these lines is being carried out and more information should become
available within the next few years. The importance of anisotropy is that it can
explain some of the characteristics of measured stresses in pavement systems (Ref.
45) without which some suggested methods of deflection prediction would be un-
suitable (Ref. 56). Unfortunately the need to measure five elastic constants will
make testing more complex, especially since the measurements cannot be carried
out in a conventional triaxial testing system.
HOMOGENEITY
28. In terms of parameters such as composition, density, moisture content, etc.,
pavements may be considered as a number of homogeneous layers. However the
elastic or resilient modulus has been shown previously to depend on stress level in
the material, so that the response of th e pavement to load could be expected to
differ from the response of a layered homogeneous system. It is this type of sys-
tematic non-homogeneity that has recently been recognized and is being applied in
theoretical analysis to attempt to improve predictions of pavement behaviour. The
nature of the relationship between resilient modulu s and stress appears to depend
mainly on the type of material and the stress system applied. The evidence is, at
this stage, meagre and based on various approaches, but the trends appear com-
patible.
29. The results of resilient modulus determinations on granular materials
carried out by Monismith et a!. (Ref. 34) were expressed as follows
MR = K0"3 n
where MR = resilient modulus, 0"3 = confining pressure, and K = constants de-
pending on the material. Typically the exponent takes a value of about 0 .5. The
results have been expressed in thi s way since all tests were carried out at constant
confining pressure 0"3. Although such a stress path is not representative of that to
be found in a loaded pavement (where 0"3 would also increase with load) this
tendency for MR to increase with stress level has been found from other tests.
Brown and Pell (Ref. 40) measured stresses and strains within the % in. fine
crushed rock basecourse of a prototype pavement subjected to a simul ated wheel
load. From these results and assuming isotropic behaviour they calculated the
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MORGA N, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIO UR AND APPLICATION O F
E LASTIC THEORY
value of the in situ secant elastic modulus, and found it could be expressed as
E s = 2040 J 1 0.57
where E s = in situ modulus (p.s.i.) , and
J 1 = first stress invari ant = 0"1 + 0"2 + 0"3'
Because of the experimental errors involved there was considerable scatter in the
resuhs. It is interesting to compare this with results obtained by Seed et aI. (Ref.
33) on a dry gravel using consta nt confining pressure tri axial test. The result
obtained expressed in terms of stress invariant J 1 was
MR = 1900 J 1 0 .61
T he modulus expressed by these formulae is a secant modulu s so that deflections
can be calculated directly from stress. The next relationship is for a tangent
modulus which requires a step by step procedure for its application.
30. Some further information has been obtained by Holden (Ref. 16 and 45 )
from triaxial tests on a sand using stress paths duplicating those measured on the
axis of a load applied to a uniform sand mass. The tangent modulus at any stage
could be expressed as
E.r = a + b O"Oc'.r. - C'TOCT.
where aOCT. = uh = ~ (al' + 2an) in triax ial test, 'TOCT. = v' ~ (av - aR) in
triaxial test, and a, b, c are positive constants.
Thjs form of the relationship gives a better idea of the influence of the stresses on
stiffness than those previously quoted. Thus E.r increases with the mean stress
level as noted before, but decreases as th e level of the shearing components in-
creases. The constants in the express ion were originally calculated from the first
loading cycle. On further cycles the same form of relationship between ET and
the stress functions was found , but the values of the constants were increased by
factors ranging from 30 to 6U. This supports the contention that, at least for this
type of stress path, the relationship is basic.
31 . The trend of increasing modulus with increasing stress level found in
granular materials is reversed in fin e grained soils. Brown and Pell (Ref. 40)
found that for the clay subgrade used in their tests, the expression for the in situ
secant modulus was
E s = 28000 J1 - 0.61 .
Alternatively the secant modulus could be expressed as
E s = 22000 12 - 0 . 61
where
12 = H(a1 - 1d3 )2 + (a2 - J d 3)2 + (as - J d 3)2]
This invariant, 12 , is analogous to deviator stress in three-dimensional applications.
The work of Seed et aI. (Ref. 32) on the resilient modulus of fine grained materials
has led to the graphical expression of MR as a function of deviator stress. Usually
MR decreases rapidly with increase in deviator stress level at first but beyond a
certain level there is no change, or even a slight increase in MR. The exact shape
of the curve relating MR and deviator stress level is significantly influenced by the
number of stress repetitions at which it is determined.
Volume 4, P a rt 2 (1968) 1211

ELASTIC THEORY
32. The influence, if any, of stress level on asphaltic materials should also be
considered . The effects of loading rate and temperature on stiffness is so great
that stress level may often be considered as of secondary importance. This is
certainly true at rapid loading rates (0.1 sec), but at slower rates Moriarty (Ref.
43) has shown that the behaviour of asphaltic concrete is similar to that of un-
bound granular materials. Under these circumstances the main load transmission
is probably by granular particle contact, the asphalt acting as a viscous filler
(Ref. 31).
33. There is only very limited evidence on the values of Poisson's ratio
measured at various stress levels. Brown and Pell (Ref. 40) calculated secant
values for both the clay subgrade and fine crushed rock base of their prototype
pavement. No systematic variation of v with stress was found for the clay sub-
grade, the values falling apparently randomly between 0.2 and 0.6. On the other
hand, the values for the granular base decreased linearly from about 0.4 to 0.3
with increase in J 1 from IOta 35 p.s.i. Holden (Ref. 16) also found a systematic
variation of v with stress for his first cycle loading tests. The tangent values could
be expressed approximately as
V'l'a n =a -
<TR
+ b
The range of values was 0.3 to 0.6 for a range of stress ratio values from 3 to 5
used in his tests. The secant values followed a very similar pattern when expressed
in terms of the final stress ratio in the test. Values for subsequent cycles were
much lower than those mentioned above but the results were too erratic to enable
any systematic variation to be detected . The results for the first cycle loadings
when plotted against J 1 as used by Brown and PeIJ do not show any consistent
pattern. These results suggest that the real key to the behaviour has not yet been
discovered.
COMPARISONS OF PREDICTED AND OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR
34 . T he preceding discussion has indicated many aspects of real material be-
haviour which may require recognition if confidence is to be placed in analytical
predictions. Alternatively, it may be that the differences lead to insignificant errors
in the prediction of the most important stresses, strains or deflections. Ultimately,
the decision about th e applicability of elastic theory to pavements must be based
on the comparison of measured and predicted characteristics. At present, informa-
tion is most readily available on (a) stresses in single and multi-layer systems, (b)
vertical strains and defl ections, and (c) horizontal strains in asph altic materials.
STRESS IN SINGLE AND MULTI-LAYER SYSTEMS
35. T he measurement of stress would appear to be one of the most straight-
forward ways through which the usefulness of elastic theory could be evaluated.
Unfortunately, the techniques of free-field stress measurement using pressure cells
are only now becoming properly understood. This has been particularly evident
in the delay in the recognition of the influence of the complete stress system on
the response of a pressure cell to a given normal pressure (Ref. 47 and 48) . Some
reported measurements in sands where the observed principal stress ratio at various
points is greater than the statically admissible value are obviollsly in error. Others
12 12 A.R.R.B. PRO CEEDI NGS

ELASTIC THEORY
Vert i cal Stress as Percentage of Surface Pressure Radial St ress as Perce ntage of Surfa ce Pressure
~ ( '!o j ~ ('!oj
o 20 40 q 60 o 10 20 30 40 50 60
O ~---T~--~----T---~r----j~-,~ o
I _~ ~;;;:::;
Allwood 50
"..,.. _ ~
~-::f= \~:1~~l -
Hu 51 Ser ies I 16
/ 7 Bouss inesq. v'" 0·3
o
z
3
I7/1 ""'"
;/.' I
Se ries I) 45
~
~
. U.S. Corps of Eng,".e" 49
1/
I
Fi g . 2( b) - Measured radial stresses in sands Fi g. 2(a) - Measured vertical stresses in sands
IIIay be no less in error but cannot be checked because of the lack of sufficient
information. The magnitude of this calibration error is in many cases insufficient
to explain the di screpancies between predicted and observed values, so that useful
conclusions may still be drawn.
36. Stress measurements have been reported in both uniformly prepared sand
masses (Ref. 16, 49, 50 and 51 ) and in fine grained soils (Ref. 52, 53 and 54).
Because of the bulk of the results only those which appear to be of the greatest
significance will be considered here. The stresses discussed are those resulting
from the load application and take no account of initi al stresses in the material due
to self weight or prestress. T here is very little informa tion on the magnitude of
these latter stresses although they can have a significant influence on the behaviour,
particularly in sands. Within the range of loads applied in the tests, the applied
load-stress relationship can be assumed linear, and hence the results may be ex-
pressed as percentages of the applied surface load.
37. For sands, the measured vertical and radial stresses on the centreline be-
neath the load are shown in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b), together with the predictions from
the Boussinesq theory. A lthough the four test series represented were carried out
on sands differing in grading, density and method of compaction and using various
loading plates and sequences and with stresses measured by different pressure cells,
there are certain similarities in the results. In particular, the deviations of the
observed vertical stresses are not much greater than would be expected from ex-
perimental error, bearing in mind the experimental difficulties involved.
38. The radial (horizontal) stress distributions bear little resemblance to the
predicted values. The overestimate near the surface probably results fro m the
experimental difficulties involved in measuring a rapidly varying stress and the
lack of resistance to sideways 'shoving' at this location. However, there are no
Volume 4, P art 2 (1968) 1213

ELASTIC THEORY
O"'fVq (%)
o'Z/q (%) 10 20 30 40 50
~~-o_
-
OO~__~2~O____,4_
0 ____,50_____8,O_____1~O_0-.
- " -7-- ~
--:.--
/1
I
/" /"
Z t~.0
Boo"',",, 0'3
)) = 0·5
,-
"i
2I
2
Z/a :( o. ~Theoretica L
z/a Theoretical An isotropic
An isatrap IC 3
i/
3
4 I ,
4
a
5 5
5 LL~ __L -____L -____L-____L-__ ~L-~
6
Fig. 3(a) - Measured and theoretical vertica l stresses Fi g 3( b ) - Measured and theoretical ,adial
in sand (after Holden, Ref. 16) stresses in sand (after Holden , Ref. 16)
reasons to suspect the trends shown at greater depth where the observed stresses
are consistently underestimated by the theory. This is important because of the
part played by the radial stress in predictions of surface deflections using model
tests described later in the paper. The difficulties thus caused have been discussed
by Morgan and Gerrard (Ref. 46). In an attempt to reduce this discrepancy for
his tests, Holden (Ref. 16) examined solutions for stresses in anisotropic materials.
Independent tests showed that both in response of a similarly prepared sand sample
to stress and in structure, the sand was anisotropic, the horizontal stiffness being
less than the vertical (R ef. 44). The best agreement obtained is shown in Fig.
3(a) and 3(b) for EfI / EV = 0.6. No attempt was made to measure the parameters
used so the solution presented is given as a possibility only, having some justifica-
tion and certainly giving good agreement with the observed stresses.
39. The results of the three series of vertical stress measurements carried out
in cohesive soils (Ref. 51, 52, 53 and 54) showed reasonable agreement with the
Boussinesq predictions. However, whilst Brown and Pell (Ref. 52) again found
lack of agreement for the radial stresses similar to that discussed for sands, the
W.E.S. results (Ref. 54) showed reasonable agreement. (McMahon and Yoder
(Ref. 53) measured vertical stresses only.) In both cases the fine grained soils
concerned were of low plasticity, compacted at about optimum moisture content. ·
Brown and Pell did use a dynamic loading system (single load pulse) whereas
the W.E.S. tests were carried out for a qu asi-static load . This may have had some
influence on the behaviour, but in any case Brown and Pell's results are con-
sidered to be more reliable because of their more careful pressure ce~l calibrations.
1214 A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS

0
<
2"
a
(1)
.<>- Vert ica l stress Percentage af Applied Pressure

"ti 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 a::
0
~ 0
'v
'»"
C'l
.Z
\0
a..
00
2 - Layer
'"»
()
--- Q = 9 Kips, h, = 11 in
r
»
C)
."
~ & r
2 II m
& ><
",,0
-!£
W
cc
r
m
N 0 &
tT1."
r»
3 '" ~<
-1 m
"0 Surface Base S ubbase Subgrade Reference (is:
0
L '" Asphalt Concrete ( 5") Crush ed stone
m
-IZ
::t-l
C
[02 " ) } m
F
A.A . S.H . O. Otc
( 6") :<1m
.r:. 4
....., ® {crushed stone
( ~''') Clay loam Rood Test
o<:t
»
( 3")
I
0..
sand - gravel (12") <
0
ClJ
( 5") 5
c
• As p halt Concrete ( 3") Silty sand '"»

5 Z
( 8") Micaceous Ci
0 Macadam 18") sandy Sowers & Vesic (Ref. 56) »
• Soil cement
Sand asphalt
(8")
( 8")
sil t ."
."
r
&
6 (i
( 6") »
'"
V Rol le d asphalt ( 4 ") Tar macadam
"
( 9") Fisher et al (Re f . 8 5 )
-I
5
z
0 Crushed stone (4"-12") Cl ay M'Ma hon & Yoder (Ref. 53) 0
."
Fi g. 4 - Measured and theoretical radial stresses in two·layer pavements and prototypes (after Vesic. Ref. 55)
MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION Or
E LASTIC THEORY
40. Stress measurements away from the centreline lead to conclusions similar
to the above; that is, the vertical stresses are reasonably well predicted, whilst the
radial stresses are significantly underestimated. In view of the expected deviations
of soils from the assumptions of isotropy and homogeneity involved in the Bous-
sinesq theory, the agreement obtained for the vertical stresses is perhaps surprising.
Fig. (3a) shows that this stress distribution is not greatly different for an anisotropic
material. Furthermore, Huang (Ref. 23) in his investigation of stress distribution
in materials with stress-dependent properties of the form E = Eo (1 + f3() (see
para. 13) found that the greatest deviation from the Boussinesq case was only
about 30 per cent. Thus the apparent agreement, which is often observed, results
from the insensitivity of the vertical stress distribution to quite marked deviations
from the assumed ideal behaviour. The radial stress distribution is obviously a
much more sensitive indicator, and is moreover of considerable importance so
that it is unfortunate that few investigators have considered it.
41. Measurements of stresses in multi-layer systems are of great interest be-
cause of their relationship to flexible pavement behaviour. Again, it is unfortunate
that few investigators have observed other than vertical stresses. Vesic (Ref. 55)
assembled the results of tests carried out by various workers and compared them
with the Boussinesq single layer and the Burmister two-layer systems as shown in
Fig. 4. The constructions comprised a number of different surfaces on subgrades
of sand, sandy-silt, clay-loam or clay: In many cases attempts were made to
measure an elastic modulus from a triaxial test. The large modular ratios thus pre-
dicted (see, for example Ref. 56) suggested that the stresses in the subgrade should
be considerably less than the Boussinesq values. It will be convenient to consider
the results in three groups:
(a) values exceeding the Boussinesq stresses,
(b) values close to the Boussinesq solution which would be expected to corres-
pond instead to the layered stresses for E d E2 = 10 (where El = modulus of
upper layer, E 2 = modulus of lower layer), and
(c) a very small group of values close to the layered stresses fo r Ed E2 = 100.
42. Vesic suggested th at the values in group (a), above the Boussinesq pre-
dictions, could be correct if proper consideration were taken of anisotropy or
difference in modulus found in compression and tension of the surface and base
courses. Both these factors can be shown to result in an increase in vertical stress
if it is assumed that the most common cases apply, i. e. horizontal less tban vertical
stiffness in an anisotropic pavement material ; and tension less than compression
modulus. Alternatively the results may be experim entall y in error because of
incorrect cell calibrations, but details of these are not known.
43. Of more interest is th e group of results ( b) which from the independent
tests to determine elastic moduli would have been expected to be below the single
layer results. The exceptions to these, group (c), comprise constructions baving
stiff soil cement or tar macadam bases. Vesic attributed the failure of two-layer
theory in many cases to the lack of tensile strength in the upper layers. The
recent work on the influence of confining pressure on the elastic modulus of
granular materials (para. 33) suggests tbat this could also be an important factor.
12 16 A.R.R.B. PROCE EDINGS

MORGA N, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
Unfortunately, for many of the tests reported, little or no information is given on

the method used to find E. A common procedure is to carry out a triaxial test,
but at a value of confining pressure that is arbitrarily selected and considerably
greater than the corresponding radial stress in the layered system. This results in
an overestimate of the modulus of granular materials, and hence of modular ratio
when such a course is used on a fine grained subgrade whose modulus is less
sensitive to variations in confining pressure. Klomp and Dorman (Ref. 57) have
reported field measurements of modular ratios for unbound materials with a prac-
tical maximum of two or three because of the stress system set up in compaction.
Thus the values of group (b) may in fact be closely predicted by the two-layer
theory using the correct (low) value of modular ratio. The values of group (c)
show the expected reduction in vertical stress; in these cases the modulus of the
material is largely uninfluenced by confining pressure.
44. Brown and Pell (Ref. 40) measured, among other values, the radial stresses
in a two-layer system comprised of a fine crushed rock base overlying a stiff clay
subgrade. For such a system the modular ratio was calculated to be close to unity
from the separate in situ modulus determinations. Therefore comparisons were
made with the two-layer theory for values of E t/E 2 in the range 0.5 to 1.3 . The
comparisons were somewhat inconclusive because of the small difference from the
Boussinesq values, but they concluded that the prediction of vertical stress from
the two-layer theory was satisfactory, whilst the radial stresses except as the inter-
face were underestimated.
45 . Thus, considering the results of measurements in both single and multi-

layer systems, the following conclusions seem reasonable.
(a) Vertical stress distributions are given with reasonable accuracy by the appro-
priate one of the Boussinesq single layer or the Burmister multi-layer theories.
For two-layer systems, the modular ratio used for unbound bases is probably
only 2 or 3 so that the difference between the stresses predicted by the
theories is small. Only when the base has significant unconfined stiffness is
a high er modular ratio and hence higher stress reduction in the subgrade
achieved . Variations from the assumed conditions of isotropy and homo-
geneity are unlikely to influence the vertical stress significantly.
( b ) R adial stresses, except close to the surface in single layer systems, are sig-
nificantly underestim ated by both the singl e and multi-l ayer theories . In one
single-layer case for a sand mass, better agreement has been obtained by
taking into account the known ani sotropy of th e material.
VERTICAL STRAINS AND DEFLECTIONS
46. In assessing the usefulness of elastic theory in p redicting strains and deflec-
tions it is sufficient, fo r unbound materials, to cons ider the vertical direction only.
There is justification for this in that vertical deflections give a good indication of
the overall structural strength of a pavement (para. 65) and furthermore may be
readily meas ured in the field by the Benkleman beam and other devices. Since
the performance of asphaltic concrete courses is largely influenced by the hori-
zontal strai ns set up under load, such pred ictions are best considered separately.
Volume 4, P a rt 2 (1 968) l 2 17
ELASTIC THEORY
Ve rtical Displacement % surfac e valu e

2 10 20 40 60 80 lOa
o
,
N"'"
Fig . 5 - Vertical displacements in sands, observed

and predicted
47. Some information can be obtained by considering the surface deflection

only, but a far more complete picture may be obtained by taking into account the
distribution of deflection with depth. The most complete sets of data are for
single layer systems, sands having been tested by W.E.S. (Ref. 49) , Eggestad
(Ref. 58) and Holden (Ref. 16); and clays by W.E.S. (Ref. 54) and Brown and
Pell (Ref. 52). In some cases difficulties were found in measuring small strains
and deflections (see, for example comments in Ref. 54 and 52) but the trends
appear consistent and reliable. In comparing observed and predicted values, an
immediate difficulty arises because of the need to specify an absolute value of E,
Young's modulus. This does not arise in stress predictions because they are
independent of E in the single layer system and depend only on modular ratio in
the multi-layer system. This difficulty may be overcome by selecting a number
of arbitrary values of E and plotting the curves, alternatively the shape of the
depth displacement plot may be considered. This latter procedure is similar to
comparing displacement factors rather than absolute values.
48. The results of tests carried out on sands (Ref. 16, 49 and 58) are shown
in Fig. 5, the abscissa being the ratio of deflection at the particular depth to the
surface deflection, and the ordinate the depth as a fraction of the radius of the
loaded area (z/ a) . The W.E.S. results were given directly as deflections (extra-
polated to give a value for surface deflection) whereas the other experimental
results were given as strain distributions which were integrated to give deflections.
The marked similarity between the results of W.E.S. and Holden is perhaps sur-
prising since the method of compaction and stress history of the sands was quite
different. Eggestad 's results were somewhat different, the very low valu es at
depth being markedly influenced by the proxinlity of a rigid base at z/ a = 5
(The ' base' for W.E.S. tests was at a depth greater than z/ a = 10 and Holden's
tests were carried out with a rigid base at z/ a = 10) . Also shown is the deflection
distribution from the Boussinesq theory, and Huang's solution (Ref. 23) for a
material increasing greatly in stiffness with bulk stress. Although this latter solu-
tion was developed specifically for granular materials, it is apparent that the
predicted behaviour is quite different from that measured.
1218 A.R.R.B. PROCEED! os

ELASTIC THEORY
'60
0·5
/'
//
~ 1·0
rl I
/ I
'·5
~/ /
/ /
2·0
/
f i
/
- - - Bous s lnesq E:;:. 8650 p.s .... "V :;:. O· d
- - Bousslnesq E:;:. A, 770p.s.i , lJ :;:. 0·4
Fig . 6 - Vertical strains in cohesive
~ Range of m eas ured values
subgrade (after Brown and Pelf, Ref. 52)
o Values calculated USin g "local" modulus
49. The most consistent data for cohesive soils appear to be those given by
Brown and PeIl (Ref. 52). The vertical strains were measured with a 'spool' type
gauge having a length of 2Yz in. and a diameter of 2 in. These gave reliable
results except at low strain levels. The results on the centreline beneath the load
are shown in Fig. 6. The abscissa used is the norm alized strain ezz/ P in micro-
strain per p.s.i. of swiace pressure, the ordinate again being z/ a. Tests were
carried out using pulse loads applied for periods of between 0.1 and 2.0 sec. The
considerable variation in the results occurs because of the different loading times
and contact pressures used, the strain increasing with increase in either of these
variables. Curves are shown for values of E = 8700 p.s .i. and 4800 p.s.i. , v = 0.4
using Boussinesq theory. The experimental results show that the strain distribu-
tion differs markedly from that predicted . In an attempt to take into account the
non-homogeneity of the soil, Brown and Pell calculated strains using values of
'local modulus'. These local moduli were calculated for each point fro m the
stresses and strains measured there, and were used in the Boussinesq theory to
calculate the strain assuming th at the whole mass had these properties. The
values used varied from E = 5700 p.s.i., v = 0.35 at depth z/ a = 0.25; to
E = 18,000 p.s.i., v = 0.44 at a = 2.00. The real si gnificance of these local Z/
moduli is open to conjecture, but from th e results shown in Fig. 6 it appears that
their use gives better agreement with measured strains than the Boussinesq theory.
Of course the approach is of limited general use because E and v were deter-
mined from measurements inside the mass and not from the simpler model tests.
V olume 4, Part 2 (1968) 12 19

ELASTIC THEORY
50. Further evidence can be produced showing that deflections are not satis-
factorily predicted by the conventional isotropic theory. Dehlen (Ref. 59)
carried out deflection and curvature measurements on a number of flexible pave-
ments and compared the results with both the single and multi-layer theories.
Although the nature of the pavement and subgrade materials was not specified the
deflection depth profile was similar to those shown in Fig. 4, that is, the deflection
decreased more rapidly with depth than predicted. The curvature measurements,
involving surface deflections at points away from the load axis would be expected
to be more sensitive to deviations from theory. Dehlen found that both at the
pavement surface and at subgrade level the computed radii of curvature were
considerably greater than those measured, that is, the deflections were more
concentrated about the load than expected from theory. This same behaviour
may be seen from the W.E.S. results (Ref. 49) , the vertical deflections dropping
off very rapidly with distance from the load centreline. For tests on sands involv-
ing repeated loads at one location Gerrard* found that the structure of the sand
was greatly altered in a truncated cone below the load, indicating that stresses and
deflections were concentrated in this region.
51. The results from the tests considered show that for vertical strain or
deflection prediction, the Boussinesq theory is quite inadequate. This conclusion
is based on the differi ng distributions with depth of the measured and observed
values, and does not take into account the problems associated with determining
a value of elastic modulus in order to find an absolute surface deflection. Attempts
to take into account the non-homogeneity of the soil resulting from stress applica-
tion cannot yet be considered successful, although such attempts are few. Since
vertical surface deflection is insensitive to many factors which appear to influence
the depth-deflection relationship, the possibility remains that it can be predicted
from the use of elastic theory in an approximate fashion. This approach is dis-
cussed later in the paper.
TENSILE STRAINS IN ASPHALTIC MATERIALS
52. The horizontal tensile strain at the base of an asphaltic layer has been
widely accepted as the criterion for fatigue failure of these materials. Certainly,
large tensile strains have been measured at the base of the layers (for example
R ef. 60) , but tensile strains were also measured at the surface. These surface
strains can also be predicted theoretically (Gerrard, R ef. 12) , but field measure-
ments show them to be of much smaller magnitude th an those at the base of the
layer. Thus cracking is more likely to be initiated at the base, but further growth
is made difficult by the confinement at the interface. The general consensus of
opinion is that the base strains are most critical, and therefo re these will be given
most consideration.
53. As in stress measurements there are considerable difficulties involved in
obtaining the results and in comparing them with the predictions, so that they
are beyond the scope of routine investigations. Wire resistance strain gauges have
been widely used, with special care taken in the selection of gauge type and size,
adhesive and installation procedure. The excellent techniques described by Klomp
and Niesman (Ref. 61) allow for the direct placement of gauges at various levels
'U npublished tests, 1967 .
1220 A.R.R.B. PROCE EDINGS

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXLBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION Or
ELASTIC THEORY
E 2
u
---0'>
:::.::::
10 4
Vl
:;:J
:;:J
-0
0 6 30
L
20
4 15
10
2
V =5 km/h.
103 ______- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~ ~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L -______~________~____
-10 o 10 20 30 40
Temperature °c
fig. 7 - Asphalt modul us related to temperature and rate of loading (vehicle speed); (after Klomp anti
Niesman , Ref. 61)
as the pavement is constructed, and placement at the base of the layer by their
prior attachment to prefabricated sand sheet slabs.
54. The 'elastic' modulus of the asphaltic materials is usually found from model
tests at the rates of loading and temperature measured in the field. For tests
carried out under rolling wheel loads, this can be determined approximately from
an examination of the strain gauge output variation with time. The uncertainty
arises because it is usually found that the equivalent loading time for a gauge
placed along the wheel track is several times that for a transverse gauge (Ref. 62).
The temperature gradient throughout the pavement even under the best of condi-
tions makes selection of the equivalent model temperature difficult, and field tests
may have to be restricted to times when conditions are most uniform. A typical
result showing relationships between modulus, temperature and rate of loading
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1221

ELASTIC THEORY
6
Stra in E x 10-
o -1 00 - 200
-------------.------~~---~
:!Oa.
9·5 _'"
"0
c
'"
E
'">a
a..
14
Fig. 8 - Typi ca l strain p rofi le in as ph a ltic surface
200 10 0 0
6
course (a fter G usfeldt and Oem pwol/f,
S tra in c x 10- Ref.62)
(expressed in terms of vehicle speed) is shown in Fig. 7 (Ref. 61). These results
were obtained from field wave propagation tests and laboratory three-point bend-
ing and free vibration tests.
55. For tests carried out using the most advanced techniques, the comparisons
between observed and predicted values from the layered theory show reasonable
agreement although the scatter of the results may be quite large. It appears that
the values at the base of the layer are given most accurately, a fortunate circum-
stance in view of their importance. Fig. 8 shows strains measured on a test strip
loaded by a rolling wheel (Gusfeldt and Dempwolf, Ref. 62) . The asphalt sur-
face was 14 cm thick and results were obtained at depths of 0, 9.5 and 14 cm .
Of interest are the higher values recorded both at the surface and the base by the
transverse gauges. Klomp and Niesman (Ref. 61) tested an in-service pavement
150
100
50
~ Pavement Modulus Kg /cm 2 .....

10' d 6 B 10 5
c
0 Computed. d epth 4-5 em.
U; Wheel loa d :: 22 00 Kg . ...
-50
- 10 0
• Wheel load:: 1275 Kg .

-1 50 " = 2000 Kg .
, = 2200 Kg.
Inflotlon pressure 7-0 Kg /em 2 Fig . 9 - Strains measu re d (average and SO ) an d
- 200
calculated as functions of average pave -
me nt modulus at three depths in pavem ent
(after Klomp and Niesman , Ref. 61 )
1222 A.R .R.B. PROCEE DIN GS

MORGAN , SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEME T BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
using the front wheel of a truck as the applied load. Their resulcs are shown in
Fig. 9 plotted against average pavement modulus. (Readings were obtained at
depths of 1, 4.5 and 18 .5 cm in a 19 cm asphalt surface course.) For low asphalt
stiffness (high temperature) the results show considerable scatter, however it is
seen that strains at the base of the layer are adequately estimated whereas nearer
the surface the elastic theory tends to underestimate the observed value
PREDICTION OF VERTICAL DEFLECTIONS IN PAVEMENTS
56. Although it has been shown that the direct application of elastic theory IS
of little use in the prediction of vertical strains and deflections various approximate
and semi-empirical approaches based on this theory have been developed. The
incentive for this is the desire to predict the surface deflection on the centreline of
the load for the analysis of flexible and rigid plate load tests and Benkleman
beam tests. The importance of this deflection as an indicator of pavement per-
formance will be discussed in Section 6, so that the variables affecting perform-
ance will be shown up in their influence on surface deflection. For this particular
case the analysis is simplified since conditions on the load centreline are axi-
symmetrical and the stress state can be accurately reproduced in the ordinary
triaxial cell. Unless otherwise mentioned the following discussion is limited to
this case.
STRESS· PATH METHOD
57. This method was suggested as a general approach to the problem of pre-
dicting deflections in soils by Lambe (Ref. 63). It recognizes that no single values
Vert ical (Axial) S tra in Ez (x 10- 3 )
5 10 15 20 25
4
~~
..........
)
8 L.---'
/
V
-;;:- 12
~ 16
I
/\
Cl 17
Q)
o I
20 ,
I
I
J r--- -
24
,
'.I
I
V
!I
y
Final ve r tica l
compress ive strain
( for q = 30 p.s.i . )
28
29 ·7 - lL f ig. 10 - Predicte d vertica l strain d istri bution be-
neath load (after Holden, Ref. 16)
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1223
ELASTIC THEORY
of E and IJ can represent soil behaviour and therefore determines the empirical
stress-strain relation for the actual stresses applied in the problem. The pro-
cedure is:
(a) a number of representative points are selected on the load axis to a depth of
say 2a,
(b) for each point the initial and final stresses (both vertical and radial) are
estimated and hence the stress path which each point would follow under
load can be calculated,
(c) triaxial samples are subjected to the stress paths corresponding to each of
the points and the vertical strains measured, and
(d) the strains are integrated to give the total surface deflection.
The stress increases are calculated from elastic theory, the Boussinesq isotropic
theory being implied. It was shown earlier that this underestimates the radial
stresses, and for other than very light loads Morgan and Gerrard (Ref. 56) have
shown that the stress paths so obtained are statically inadmissible. This problem
may be overcome by employing for example anisotropic theory, or by measuring
the actual stress increases in a model or prototype test.
58. Morgan and Holden (Ref. 45) used the stress path method to predict the
deflection of a uniform load applied to a sand mass. Since it was obvious that
stresses predicted from the isotropic theory led to inadmissible stress ratios, the
actual stresses were measured using miniature earth pressure cells. The results
are shown in Fig. 3. The value of Ko = 1 /3 was also measured in; situ. Ten re-
presentative points on the load centreline were selected and triaxial samples tested
under the corresponding stress paths. The resulting strains are shown in Fig. 10,
as a function of the depth involved . When integrated, the deflection over the 29.7
in. layer was found to be 0.280 in . or 119 per cent of the value measured in-
dependently. The dotted line shows a strain distribution which would give the
correct value. At this depth, the induced stresses are small and difficult to measure
so that errors in this range are more likely.
RESILIENT MODULUS METHOD
59. A modification of the stress path technique has been used by Monismith
et al. (Ref. 34) to predict the resilient deflections beneath a repeatedly loaded
plate on prototype and actual pavements. This makes the approximation that the
sample stress-strain response can be determined at constant confining pressure in
the triaxial cell rather th an by applying the calculated changes in both axial and
radial stress. In addition, since th e procedure was developed for pavements, multi-
layer elastic theory is used. This requires further steps in the solution since the
modular ratios are unknown until the moduli (which are functions of the stresses)
are calculated. For a three-layer system consisting of an asphalt surface , granular
base and cohesive subgrade, the procedure is as follows:
(a) a modulus is estimated for each of the layers,
(b) the interface stresses are determined from three-layer theory (Jones Ref. 5) ,
(c) the initial vertical and horizontal stresses are added,
(d) the resilient moduli of the base and subgrade are evaluated from the known
relationship with the stresses and compared with (a) above,

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BE H AVIOUR AND APPLICATION OP
ELASTIC THEORY
TABLE I
Plate diamete r (in.) 8 12
Contact pressure (p .s.i.) 40 80 40 80
Asp halt modulu s E, (p.s. i. X 10') 250 250 250 250

Basecourse modulu s Eo (ps.i. X 10') 10 11.3 10.6 11.2
Subgrade modulus E. (p.s.i. X 10' ) 12.8 9 .9 12.6 9 .8
Ca lcul ated de fl ection (i n. X 10....) 8.7 18 .2 9 .3 18.9
E, (p.s.i. X 108 ) 400 400 400 400

3
E. (p.s.i. X 10 ) 10.5 11.3 10.4 11.3
E, (p.s.i. X 103 ) 14.0 10.6 13 .2 10.3
Calculated deflection (i n. X 10.... ) 7 .2 15.3 7 .8 16.5
Measured d eflection 7 .0 13 .0 4 .5 12.0
Ca lculated defle ction (i n. X 10..... )

Reanalysis by Huang (Ref. 86))
E, = 250 X 10' p .•. i. 7 .0 14.5 6 .9 14.9
E, = 3
400 X 10 p .•. i. 5.7 12.3 6.0 12.8
(e) if a difference in moduli exists, the values are adjusted and the steps (a) - (d)
repeated until agreement is reached, and
(f) the deflection is computed from the three-layer theory.
60. The asphalt concrete modulus is assumed to depend only on temperature

and rate of loading, and to be independent of stress. The resilient modulus of
the granular base is expressed as a function of the radial stress as discussed in
para. 33. Since this stress varies throughout the layer the mean value is taken,
and added to the initial radial stress of (v / 1 - v)yz derived from the no lateral
strain condition for an elastic material. The subgrade modulus is assumed to be
controlled by the vertical pressure at its surface (made up of overburden stress
plus the calculated load stress). A resilient modulu s may be fo und from repeated
plate load tests on the subgrade alone or from model tests carried out in un-
confined triaxial compression. Burmister (Ref. 64) fro m an approximate analysis
has shown that the stresses are related by (Tel = 0.29 (To
where (To = pressure applied in plate load test, and
O"eI = corresponding vertical stress to be applied to sample.
TABLE I gives the results of an analysis of a three layer system comprised of 4 in.
asphalt concrete, 12 in. untreated aggregate base, on a subgrade of highly plastic
clay overlying a silty clay (Ref. 34). The two values of E for the asphalt surface
correspond to the range of temperature observed in the test. The agreement with
the measured values is surprisingly good considering the approximate nature of
Volume 4 , Part 2 (1968) 1225

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICAT ION Or
ELASTIC THEORY
o
u
D
B -r
vertical stress inc rem ent D.O'v
~
est imo ~ e d = tru e
A ~ _ _- '
Fig . 11 - Estimated and most probab le st reS!

Radial St re ss O'R
paths
the analysis and the known errors involved in the use of elastic theory. A re-
analysis of the results by Huang (Ref. 86) leads to better agreement between the
predicted and observed values. The original deflections are based on the assump-
tion of a flexib le load whereas in fact rigid plates were used . This may be corrected
approximately by applying the same reduction factor as holds for the homogeneous
half space of 0.785 . Additionally Monismith et al. calculated stresses assuming
v = 0.5 and displacements assuming v = 0.35 since these were the only figures
then available. Huang's results are shown in TABLE I , for both stresses and deflec-
tions calculated using v = 0.35 and applying a correction for the rigid plate
loading.
Verti c al Defle c tio n ( l(i) i nch eS )
s /0 IS 20
s I
10
1/ lJ
I I.
I
De fl e c. l ion
Profil e
II
30
I
Fig 12(a) - Predicted displaceme nt distri butio n
in pav e ment usi ng finite element
techniq ue (after Mo nismith a nd Dun-
can, Ref. 65 )
1226 A.R.R.B . PROCEEDINGS

ELASTIC THEORY
Deflection - Perc entage of Sur fa ce Value
o 20 40 60 ao 100
o
/ VJ
BOUSS ineS q/
Pred ict Ion 1
l/
a--
10
f.----'
.c
c.
I
I
" Measured Beneath
Flexibl e Plote. a " d ,o .
~ 20 -'
25 I
I
30 -
Fig . 12(b) - Measured di sp lacemenls al various
deplhs, on We rri bee lesl trado
(after Moriarly, Ref. 43 )
35
61. The agreement so found is worth investigating since it implies that the
isotropic elastic theory accurately predicts stress. T he deflections in the surfacing
and subgrade may be ignored for this purpose since the first is small and the
second is based on vertical stress prediction which has been shown to be accept-
able. On the other hand the basecourse modulu s (or strain) is based on radial
stress which measurements have shown to be und erestimated by theory. How-
ever it can be shown qu alitatively that the error made in the calculation of the
radial stress may be compensated by the approximation made in the application
of the stress path to the sample. Consider Fig. 11 which shows the stresses applied
to an element, the radial stress only being underestim ated. In the true stress path
method the strain is measured as the stresses vary from A, the initial stress point,
to B along th e Path AB. In the approxim ate method , the stress path is actually
given by ACD , all the radial stress increase being applied before the vertical stress
is applied. Since the strain resulting fro m a given increment of vertical stress
decreases as the radial stress increases it can be seen that the vertical strains
resulting from the vertical stress increase (T will be less along the path CE th an along
AE; but for th.e increase (T they will beb greater along E D than along EB. The net
difference along ABB and ACED may therefore be small, a possible explanation
of th e success of the approximate method.
ST RESS-DEPENDENT STIFFNESS METH OD
62. As described earlier (para. 12 and ] 3) num erical computation techniques
such as the finite element and finite difference methods are adapted to the solution
of cases in wh ich the material stiffness is dependent on stress. Duncan et al (Ref.
65) have applied the finite element ana lysis to the problem of determining the
deflections in a three layer pavement system resulting from a surface loading. The
stiffness of the granular base and the cohesive subgrade are assumed to vary with
stress as described in para. 60, whilst the modulus of the asphalt surfacing was
Volume 4, P art 2 (1968) 1227

ELASTIC THEORY
Vcrtlca I Stress (i. Of SL' rface Val ue)
T-__________~
o r______~2 Sr_-------/TO~------~2rO----~-----~
60
r_------~
roo
/
---- A A pp I iad Load 18 p,s.i.
I
2
-- 8 Incremental at 0 P.S.l. I ///
I ---- C lncrsmtlntal at 18 P.E.i. /~

3
;:;.10 4-
5
:0
'"
'"c:
6
::., C>
8 f--t-- i l
!) I I
Fig . 13(a) - Predicted vertical stress distribution (after Gerrard and Morgan , Ref. 66)
considered to be dependent on temperature and rate of loading. The method IS

similar to that described in para. 59 with two differences:
(a) within each of the lower layers the stiffness is allowed to vary with both verti-
cal and radial position, rather than being assumed constant in all horizontal
planes, and
(b) the iterations required to reach the solution are carried out within the pro-
gramme, successive trials being made until the change in values is negligible.
No direct comparisons with field observations are available as yet, but Fig. 12a
shows defl ections predicted for a particular three-layer pavement. The large deflec-
tion occurring in the granular base results from the low stiffness there. The con-
fining pressure (radial stress) is small. A similar deflection distribution (Fig. 12b)
was found by Moriarty (Ref. 43) from tests on the A.R.R.B. test track at Werri-
bee. The large proportion of deflection occurring in the thin granular base is
notable.
63. For the single layer case, the solution by Huang ( Ref. 23) has already
been described (para. 13). This assumes conditions to be uniform in all hori-

MORGAN , SC ALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION Of"
ELASTIC THEORY
'Wrtlcal Di sp lace m e nt (% 0 f Surface va lue )
o
I z 5 10 20 So
A /,
2 - --
- --- A Appli&d Load 18 P,S.i.
/ /.1 I
3
----- C
B I ncremen tal
I ncremental
at OIlS.i.
at 18 p,s.i .
B
/.' A I
I/~/
C/
/
/
V//I
Vi
- - -- - I
f- -
;/'
."
<Il
a::
c
::c.
5 -
6
- -
- -
- - -
----
----
-If/1
//,
/ I
r---
'"
0 I/ ;/
7 - - - --
7,
8
IF
9
Fig . 13( b ) -
/'
/,
Predicted vertical deAection distribution (after Gerrard and Morga n, Ref. 66) .
zontal planes. As discussed in para. 48 the deflection distribution predicted by

this approach does not agree with those measured by various investigators. An
improvement has been effected by using the finite difference technique in conjunc-
tion with a stress dependent tangent modulus of the type described in para. 30.
Some preliminary results are shown in Fig. 13 (Ref. 66). The vertical stress and
deflection distributions are shown at different stages of loading. Further work is
required before the method can be fully evaluated .
64 . These techniques employing elastic analysis in conjunction with stress-
dependent moduli appear to show promise. However they are still in a preliminary
stage of development and further research is required. The forms of the stress-
dependent relationships assumed have been based on axi-symmetric stress systems
and their application to conditions in a general stress field may not be justified.
Again if the consideration of anisotropy proves to be necessary to obtain an
accurate prediction of radial stress, one must measure or estimate a greater number
of elastic constants than the two required in the elastic theory. (Although five
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968 ) 1229

ELASTIC THEORY
elastic constants are required to determine all stresses in the case of cross-anisotropy,
only three are req uired to estimate vertical deflections if the stresses are already
known.) However, these issues can only be settled when further comparisons of
predicted and measured behaviour have been made.
DEFLECTION AND PERFORMANCE
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANC E
65. Early work on permanent deformation and elastic deflection was primarily
limited to airfield pavements (Ref. 3, 67, 68, 69 and 70) with little application
to roads, because of the cumbersome equipment to supply the reaction load and
the time involved in testing. However, with the development of a simple instru-
ment (Benkleman beam) to measure deflection and evidence of its application
to predict failure at the W.A.S.H.O. road test (Ref. 71), a tremendous impetus
was given to the use of deflection testing in evaluating existing roads. Further a
report by Hveem (Ref. 72), the findings of the A.A.S.H.O. road test (Ref. 73),
and subsequent investigations by other workers (Ref. 74 and 75) confirmed the
W.A.S.H.O. conclusion that elastic deflection was as good an indicator of per-
formance as any other field test.
66. Any investigator must consider carefully this statement in order to clearly
define what deflection actually indicates in performance. Resulting from investiga-
tions at the A.A.S .H.O. road test, the performance of a road pavement is defined
by the curve relating serviceability or riding qualities with repetitions of load and
time. A measure of the slope of this curve or the rate of decrease in serviceability
with load applications is termed the performance of a road.
67. The measure is primarily a use function. The structural condition of a
road is made up of many types of imperfections (Ref. 76) some of which con-
tribute to the ride, whilst others do not. Uneven deformation is an example of
7
~o )8 ~ ip Single Axle Load
"".;\~ --
•I ••
0 .- . .
~
~
1-
o '020 -01-0 -060 -odo , { OO · { ?o
Def l ee tion (inches)

Fig . 14 - Re la tio nship betwee n axle load a ppl icatio n at a serviceabil ity of 2.5 an d sp ri ng 1959 Cree p
speed deflect ions (after A.A.S.H.O . t est, Ref. 73)

MORGAN , SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEME NT BE HAVIOUR AND A P P LI CATIO N O F
ELASTIC THE ORY
the former, whilst cracking and uniform rutting is an example of the latter. Admit-
tedly uniform deformations which do not affect the ride seldom occur in practice,
but the fact that they occurred at the AAS.H.O. test, stresses the importance of
defining the imperfections which make up the measure of performance and estab-
lishing their causes.
68. The vertical maximum deflection measured at the surface of a pavement
under load is equal to the integrated effect of all vertical elastic strai ns occurring
in each layer of the pavement and subgrade to an unknown depth. In other words
a surface deflection test does not indicate the magnitude of th e deflection in any
one layer and hence it is difficult to visualise how a single measure can predict
the complete response and ultimate behaviour of a pavement under loading. The
questions, why should deflection be a good indicator of performance and what
part of performance it actually defines, must be considered.
69. Considerable difference of opinion appears to exist in the interpretation

of deflection tests. Some investigators, such as Hveem (Ref. 72) , consider it to
be entirely a fatigue criterion, whilst others regard it as indicating the adequ acy
of depth of pavement over a subgrade for given traffic conditions. The fatigue
views are summarized in the following conclusion by Hveem (Ref. 72) : "There
is unusually close correlation between observations of cracking and fatigue type
failures in bituminous pavements and the measured deflections which the pave-
ment must undergo with each passing wheel load. "
70. Fatigue itself is not evid enced by permanent deformation at the beginning
of failure, but rather by cracking. H ence if deflection is the criterion, it should
not correlate with the riding history (or performance) as outlined previously, but
rather with cracking hi story . Further to correct for fatigue, overall deflection must
be reduced by increasing the depth of pavement over the subgrade.
71. For pavements with a sprayed seal coat, Beaton et al. (Ref. 77 ) has
established limiting criteria for various traffic categories. In such a case, fatigue
is hardly likely to be a problem, hence such values are almost certain to be limiting
deflections to prevent deform ations du e to over-straining in th e subgrade .
72. When artificially bonded layers are used, the subgrade criteria must be
reduced by an amount sufficient to prevent fatigue cracking in those layers. This
will depend upon the stiffness and thickness of the layer. The cracking is prob-
ably governed by the tensile strain at the base of the bonded layer (Ref. 2) and
this in turn is governed by the radius of curvature of the deflecti on bowl on load-
ing (Ref. 59). It has been shown (Ref. 78 and 79) th at, for a given pavement
type and thickness, the maximum deflection correlates reasonably well with the
radius of curvature. T he limits for tensile strain , which are required to preclude
fatigue effects in a bonded pavement layer, are th erefore established either by a
deflection or curvature procedure.
73. At the same tim e, the subgrade must not be overstressed. This is accom-
plished by limiting the vertical strain in the subgrade, which is again fixed by
deflection. The values to be used were established at the AA.S.H.O. test Fig. 14
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1231

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BE HAVIOUR AN D APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY
Spring
I ""
1959
,/ "
""
/
,," / "
,,
~m~ =
V ~" "
- 0-0071 + 0'8:. 5~ /' "
r2 - 0 . 833 • ""
....'J
rms~b== o·P037~
I'-.. -
-/
);/. V ·",," "
"
"
, "
""
""
III
-/
/'
""
Qj
o
....
~ ' 020 "
. "
"
"
.... .'..
V
". .
"
10
E
""
~
c: / "
""
to
..0
E "
/'
UJ
' 0>'0
, "" ""
"
"
,
•
/' </
/ " ""
""
"
o / " ./
"
/
o ' 0/0 ·060
Total Deflect io n ( Inc hes)

Fig . 15 - Relatio nship between total defl ection and emba nkment de fl ecti on (after A.A.S.H.O . test, Ref. 73)
(5
I i[
I - - - -- + - - dJ
o
" 1-- - - - \-- - - -- - J-

z
Q
I- - - - - - --1-- -
~ 12' ~ ~------+-- - - 1 . -0
~
a - - - - - - -f- - -
I-
,- ----!-------!------+.-;.~
~
~ 4 - -e--- -
>
t: CRUSHED ~OCK ASPHAL TIC CONCRETE
I
o a 5 10 15 5 10 15
THICKNESS IN INCHES TH ICK NESS IN INCHES
Fig . 16(a) - Effect of t hickn ess of pavement on d eflec- fi g. 16(b) - Effect of thickness of pavement on deflection
tio n within the pavement - cru she d rock within the pavement - as ph altic concrete
(after Scala a nd Dickinson, Ref. 78) (after Scala a nd Dickinson, Ref. 78)
1232 A .R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION O F
ELASTIC THEORY
(Ref. 73) . The deflection test therefore furnishes two criteria (Ref. 1) for the
evaluation of pavements. It would seem reasonable to suppose, that a pavement
design based on fatigue criteria, would automatically preclude failure arising from
su bgrade deformation , however this depends on the layer maintaining its load
spreading properties.
74. The major part of the deflection in the pavements at the AAS.H.O. test
(Ref. 73), when the maximum deflection was greater than 0.020 in. arose in the
subgrad e (Fig. 15). At Werribee the deflection on the pavement material was
approximately 0.006 in . and 0.008 in. for two types of material and independent
of thickness or magnitude of deflection (Fig. 16) . Other evidence is available from
plate loading tests performed at H ybla Valley (Ref. 83) where three quarters of
the elastic deflection occurred in the subgrade.
75. In most instances the largest with in-layer deflection occurs in the top layer
of the subgrade, hence this is normally the critical layer contro lling performance.
There is some indication th at for roads built on embankments the deflection criteria
are somewhat higher, because the deflection is distributed to a greater depth.
Similarly some weak sub-bases can contribute almost the same percentage deflec-
tion as the subgrade, in which case the critical layer could be the sub-base. It is
apparent that deflection cannot evaluate the perfo rmance of a pavement in regard
to fatigue and/ or depth adequacy in all situations .
76. In strong pavements (deflection < 0.020 in.), the subgrade is not stressed
sufficiently by the test load to indicate a response in that layer. The lack of any
change in deflection du e to subgrade seasonal moisture variation and the non-
significant difference between inner and outer wheelpath deflections also indicate
that the deflection occurring on such roads is mainly within the pavement itself.
Hence on high class pavements, e.g. freeways, a deflection primarily becomes a
criterion limiting fatigue.
77 . It is fairly definite that total deflection can predict the performance of most
roads with respect to subgrade deformation and/ or pavement fatigue under repeti-
tions of lo ad. However the performance of a pavement must depend upon the
ability of the layers to withstand all stresses and strains to which they are sub-
jected. The perfo rm ance resulting from these other responses cannot be expected
to be predicted from a vertical deflection test. For example, Zube and Forsyth
(Ref. 79) referring to deflection testing state : "Evidence of the instability of the
structural section, as manifested by permanent path rutting or indication of sig-
nificant permanent deformation on the deflection traces reveals a problem beyond
the scope of the deflection method."
78 . The complete influence bowl of vertical deflection under load can be
measured. However the magnitude of the deflection occurring within a pavement
layer is so small (and of the order of experimen tal error) that any significant
differences in response to load is very difficult to detect from these bowls. For
example, movement resulting from the effect of shear fo rces applied at the surface
of a pavement could not be detected using the deflection bowl technique by
Morgan and Scala (Ref. 84) . Hence a road giving poor performance from this
effect ca nnot be predicted by a vertical deflection test.
Volume 4, P art 2 (1968) 1233

MORGAN , SCALA - F LEXIB LE PAVEMENT BE HAVIOUR AND APP LI CATI ON OF
ELASTIC THEORY
79. The normal A.A.S.H.O. procedure for the Benkleman beam deflection test
requires the residual as well as the total deflection to be observed. Considerable
discussion has taken place in the United States on the significance of the residuals,
even to the extent of altering the test and only measuring the deflection rebound
(Ref. 74). Scala (R ef. 87) has shown that the residuals are important and sig-
nificant in predicting the performance of ro ads. The cause is not proven, however
they appear to be due to insufficient shear strength, e.g. a lack of cohesion or com-
paction, in the upper layers of an otherwise adequately strong pavement.
INSTRUMENT S
80. The four major tools used in connection with the measurement of deflec-
tion are (a) Benkleman beam , ( b) plate bearing tests , (c) impedance method
(Ref. 85), and (d) Dynaflect (Ref. 86). Most of the work in the evaluation of
the performance of pavements has been carried out using the beam. However
the dual wheels of a vehicle with which the pavement is tested is a fairly complex
loading system, about which little is known . Any alteration to the system (e.g.
tyre pressure) involves further difficulties. For this reason little use can be made
of the instrument at this stage, to prove any theoretical predictions. The pl ate
bearing test, with a known variable loading system , mu st be preferred for this
purpose.
81. In the Shell impedance method (Ref. 82) , vertical vibrations are propa-
gated through a layered medium . Measurement is made of the force and the
elastic deflection at the surface. In general the theory is extremely difficult. The
mechanical impedances are measured at various frequencies and loads. Various
hypotheses are put forward to explain the response, however it appears that, in
use, an entirely empirical approach will be necessary for some considerable time.
The stiffness, S, obtained by using thi s test has been compared with the results
from normal Benkleman tests by Szendrel and Kuhn (R ef. 84) and an inverse
correlation was noted (Ref. 83) .
82. The D ynaflect employing the impedance principle has been developed for
routine use. The deflection of a pavement is measured und er a fixed vibratory
force of 1000 lb at a constant frequ ency of Hz and is fo und to correlate very
well with the bea m deflection. This instrument, because of its greater mobility
and lighter weight, may come into greater use in evaluating existing roads, proving
each stage during construction and determining the reducti on in deflection with
the addition of each layer. The beam, with a normal load , causes too much move-
ment in the surface to give reliable results during construction.
83. Each instrument has advantages and disadvantages. For routine work, the
beam and Dynaflect are ideal, whilst the Impedance approach and plate loading
test are slow and cumbersome. T he controlled and variable loading systems of
the two latter instruments make them extremely suitable for research work. The
rate of lo ading is easily varied by frequency in the impedance device, but is more
difficult to vary in the plate loading test.
84. Without a knowledge of the elastic parameters of the individual layers in-
dependently obtained, no check on the actu al values for deflection is possible.
Considerable work has been done on establis hing the elastic modulus of each layer
1234 A.R.R .B. PROC EED! OS

ELASTIC THEORY
by plate bearing tests ; however, some system of stress and strain distribution must
be assumed to obtain these values. Wave propagation techniques (Ref. 84) have
been tried in the field , but, except for the surface layer in unknown pavements,
the interpretation of the results is extremely difficult.
CONCLUSIONS
85. It is clear th at elasti c theory will play an ever increasing role in the design
and analysis of flexible pavements. The particular theory chosen may not be the
simple Boussinesq or Burmister idealizations, now that many of the deviations of
pavement materials from the ideal have been identified to allow more realistic
matching of assumptio ns and actual behaviour. However the result will be to
further complicate the procedures and thus place them even more beyond the
reach of many practising engineers. It is then even more necessary for the results
of research in this field to be placed in the overall perspective of road design and
construction. It must also be remembered that no formulae can easily allow for
every factor influencing the performance of a road in a particular situation.
86. The available elastic and viscoelastic solutions for multi-layer pavements
have been reviewed, and there now exists a sufficient range of such solutions for
practical use. It is unlikely that the consideration of viscoelastic behaviour will
become widespread because of the resulting complication, especially in view of the
simplifying assumptions incorporated elsewhere. The sensitivity of asphaltic
material stiffness to temperature and rate of loading may be allowed for by carry-
ing out the model tests for modulus determination at conditions simulating those
obtaining in the field .
87. An examination of the properties of pavement material indicates that they
do not demonstrate the elasticity, isotropy and homogeneity usually assumed.
Under repeated loadings, many materials show quasi-elastic behaviour - the
deflections being recovered on unloading. This leads to the definition of a resilent
modulus which has been used with some success to predict deflections. The com-
pacting techniques used in roadmaking are considered likely to result in stiffness
anisotropy, the materials being stiffer in the vertical than in the horizontal direction.
This causes considerable variations in predicted horizontal stresses, which are
significant in many testing procedures aimed at reproducing pavement behaviour
in a model test. Finally, it has been found possible to define one of the most
significant important cases of non-homogeneity, the change in stiffness resulting
from a change in stress. Various relationships between stiffness and stress have
been determined and a considerable similarity has been found between the relation-
ships for similar materials.
88. Deviations from the ideal are only important if they lead to considerable
errors in the predicted stress or strain. Three sets of comparisons have been
considered:
(a) Stress distributions - In single layer systems vertical stresses are usually
adequately predicted because they are insensitive to many factors, while
radial stresses tend to be underestimated. The general failure of two and
three layer systems to satisfy the Burmister predictions appears to be due to
a lower than expected modulus for the stiffer layers resulting from their in-
Volume 4, P a rt 2 (1968) 1235

ELASTIC THEORY
ability to withstand tension, or their dependence on confining stress which

may not be sufficient.
(b) Vertical deflection distributions are badly predicted both in magnitude and
distribution with depth. They tend in granular materials to be more concen-
trated about the load than expected, perhaps due to the stress dependence
of stiffness.
(c) The horizontal tensile strain at the base of an asphalt layer appears to be
satisfactorily predicted by the theory. This is the main justification for the
use of. the Shell rational design method.
89. Because of the practical significance of vertical deflections various
approaches have been tried to improve the accuracy beyond that attainable by the
simple theory. In single layer systems the considerations of stress-dependent stiff-
ness has produced some promising results. In multi-layer systems there has also
been some progress in predicting resilient plate-load deflections from laboratory
determinations of resilient moduli. This approach is based on a step-by-step
procedure using published values for three-layer elastic systems.
REFERENCES
1. Dormon, G. M. , The extension to practice of a fundamental procedure for
the design of flexible pa,vements, Proc. Intern. Conf. Structural Design of
Asphalt Pavements, p. 785 (Univ. of Michigan 1962).
2. Dormon, G. M. and Edwards, J. M., Developments in the application in
practice of a fundamental procedure for the design of flexible pavements,
Proc. Sec. Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements (Univ. of
Michigan 1967) .
3. Burmister, D . M ., The theory of stresses and displacements in layered sys-
tems and applications to design of airport runways, Proc. H .RB. , 23, 126
(1943) .
4. Burmister, D. M., The general theory of stresses and displacements in layered
systems, J. appl. Physics, 16: 2 (1945).
5. Jones, A ., Tables oj stresses in three-layer elastic systems, H .RB. Bull. No.
342, 176 (1962).
6. Seed, H. B., Mitry, F . G., Monismith, C. L. and Chan, C. K. , The prediction
of flexible pavement deflections from laboratory repeated load tests,
N.C.H.RP. Rep . No. 35 (1967) .
7. Ahlvin, R G. and Ulery, H. H ., Tabulated values for determining the com-
plete pattern of stresses, strains and deflections beneath a uniform circular
{Dad on a homogeneous half space, H.RB. Bull. No. 342, 1 (1962).
8. Gerrard, C. M. , The a.xi-symmetric deformation of a homogeneous cross-
anisotropic elastic half space, to be published in H.R.B. (1968) .
9. Anon., Stress distribution in a homogeneous anisotropic elastic half-space (in
Dutch) , L.G.M. Mededelingen, Part 5, No.2 (1960).
10. Gerrard , C. M., Tables of stresses, strains and displacements in two-layer sys-
tems under various traffic loadings, to be published.
11. Fox, L. , Computation of traffic stresses in a single road structure, RR.L. ,
Techn. Paper 9 (1948) .
1236 A.R .R .B. PROCEEDI NGS

ELASTIC THEORY
12. Gerrard, C. M., Stresses and displacements in layered or cross-anisotropic,

elastic systems, Proc. 5th A.N.Z. Conf. on S.M.F.B. (1967) .
13. Peattie, K. R , Stress and strain factors for three-layer elastic systems, H.R.B.
Bull . No. 342, 215 (1962) .
14. Peattie, K. R. and Jones, A. , Surface deflections of road structures, Proc.
Symp. Road Tests for Pavement Design. Lisbon : Laboratorio, Nacional de
Engeharia Civil, p. VIn 1-30 (1962).
15. Gerrard, C. M . and Mulholland, P ., Stress strain and displacement distribu-
tions in cross anisotropic and two-layer isotropic elastic systems, Proc. 3rd
Conf. A.RRB ., 3, 1123 (1966) .
16. Holden, J. c., Stresses and strains in a sand mass subjected to a uniform
circular load, Univ. of Melbourne, Civ. Engng Dept, Departmental Rep. No.
13 (1967) .
17. Ohde, J. , Zur Th eorie der Druckverteilung im Baugrund (the theory of
pressure distribution in soil), Der Bauingenieur, 20, 451 (1939) .
18. Froelich, O. K., Druckverdeeling in Bouwgrond (pressure distribution In
soil), De Ingenieur, 47: 16, B-51 (1932) .
J 9. Borowicka, H. , Einfache Losungen in modifizierten Halbraum (simple solu-
tions in modified half-space) , Mitteilungen des Instituts fur Grundbau und
Boden mechanik, Technische Hochschule, Wien, 6, 75 (1965) .
20. Cumming, D . A. and Gerrard, C. M. , Computation of stresses in pavements,
Proc. 2nd Conf. A.RR.B., 2, 729 (1964).
21. Ang, A. H . and Rainer, J. H ., Model for wave motions in axi-symmetric solids,
Proc. A.S.C.E., 90: EM5 , 195 (1964) .
22. Hoeg, K. , Christian , J. T . and Whitman, R v. , Settlement of strip load on
elastic-plastic soil, Proc. A.S.C.E. , 94 : SM2, 431 (1968) .
23. Huang, Y. H. , Stresses and displacements in non-linear soil media, Proc.
A.S.C.B., 94: SMI (1968).
24. Bland, D . R , Th e theory of viscoelasticity, Pergamon Press, London (1960) .
25. Schimming, B. B. and Valera, J. , Some implications of viscoelastic subgrade
behaviour, H.R.B., Rec. No. 108, p . 31 (1966).
26. Perl off, W. H. and Moavenzadeh, F. , Deflection of viscoelastic medium due
to a mo ving load, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural Design Asphalt Pave-
ments (Univ. of Michigan 1967).
27. Barksdale, R D. and Leonards, G. A. , Predicting performance of bituminous
surfaced pavements, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural Design Asphalt Pave-
ments (Michigan 1967).
28 . Ishihara, K. , The general theory of stresses and displacements in two-laye;·
viscoelastic systems, Soil and Foundation , 2, 51 (1962).
29 . Huang, Y. H. , Stresses and displacements in viscoelastic layered systems
under circular loaded areas, Proc. 2nd Intern . Conf. Structural Design Asphalt
Pavements (Michigan 1967) .
30. Ferry, J. D ., Viscoelastic properties of polymers, John Wiley (New York
1961).
31 . Trollope, D . H. , Lee, 1. K. and Morris, J. , Stresses and deformation in tw~
layer pavement structures under slow repeated loading, Proc. A.RRB., 1:
2, 693 (1962) .
Volume 4 , Part 2 (1968) 123 7

MORGAN, SCALA - FLEX IB LE PAVEMENT B EHAVIOUR AN D APPLICATION Or
ELAST IC THEORY
32. Seed, H. B., Chan, C. K. and Lee, C. E., R esilience characteristics of sub-
grade soils and their relation to fatigue failures in asphalt pavements, Proc.
Intern . Conf. Structural Design Asphalt Pavements, p. 611 (Michigan 1963).
33. Seed, H. B. , Mitry, F . G. , Monismith, C. L. and Chan, C. K. , Prediction of
pavement deflections from labO'ratory repeated load tests, R ep. No. TE 65-6
(Univ. of California 1965 ).
34. Monismith, C. L., Seed, H. B., Mitry, F. G. and Chan, C. K., Prediction 01
pavement deflections from laboratory tests, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural
Design of Asphalt Pavements (Univ. of Michigan 1967).
35. Mitchell, J. K. and Shen, C. K., Soil-cement properties determined by re-
peated loading in relation to bases far flexib le pavements, Proc. 2nd Intern.
Conf. Structural D esign of Asphalt Pavements (Univ. of Michigan 1967).
36. Monismith, C. L., Terrel, R. L. and Chan, C. K., Laad transmissian charac-
teristics af asphalt treated base caurses, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural
37. Gerrard, C. M ., Some aspects af the stress-strain behaviour of a sand, Aust.
Rd R es., 3 : 67 (1967).
38. Morgan, J. R ., The respO'nse O'f granular materials to' repeated loading, Proc.
3rd Conf. AR.R.B ., 3, 1178 (1966).
39. Barkan, D ., Dynamics 0'1 bases and faundations, McGraw-Hill (New York
1962).
40. Brown, S. F . and Pell, P. S. , An experimental investigatian 0'1 the stresses,
strains and deflections in a layered pG!Vement structure subjected to' dynamic
loads, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements (Univ.
of Michigan 1967) .
41. Ruiz, M . D. , Anisotropy oj rock masses in various underground prajects in
Brazil, Proc. 1st Con gr. Intern. Soc. Rock Mechanics, p . 263 (Lisbon 1966).
42 . Busching, H. W. , Goetz, W . H. and Harr, M. E. , Stress-defarmation be-
haviour of anisatrapic bituminous mixtures, Proc. AA.P.T. , 36,632 (1967).
43. Mori arty, J. P., Stresses and deflectians in loaded flexible pavements, M .Eng.Sc.
Thesis (Univ. of M elbourne 1967) .
44. Parkin, A. K. , Gerrard, C. M. and Willoughby, D . R. , Discussion to Ko and
Scott, Proc. AS.C.E., 94 : SMl , 336 (1968).
45. Morgan, J. R. and Holden, J. c. , Deflectian predictian in prototype PQlve-
ments, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements
(Michigan 1967) .
46. Morgan, J. R. and Gerrard, C. M ., Discussion to Lambe (Ref. 63) sub-
mitted to AS.C.E. (1968) .
47. Lee, I. K. and Morgan , J. R. , Stress and deflection measurement in sub-
grade materials, Proc. 3rd Conf. AR.R.B. , 3, 1168 (1967) .
48. Morgan, J . R. and Gerrard, C. M ., Free field stress and strain measurement,
Paper submitted to Symp. on Field Measurements in Soil Engineering, Proc.
4th Conf. AR.R.B. (1968) .
49. Investigation of pressures and deflectians for flexible pavements, Rep. No.4,
Homogeneous sand test section, Techn. Memo. 3-323, U.S. Army Engineers
W.E.S. (1954).

ELASTIC THEORY
50. Allwood , R. J., An experimental investigation of the distribution of pres-

sures in sand, Ph.D . Thesis (Univ. of Birmingham 1956); unpublished.
51. Kolbuszewski, J . and Ru, G . C. Y. , An interim research report on pressure
distributions and m easurement in sands, Proc. Midland Soc. S.M.F.E., 4, 73
(1961) .
52. Brown, S. F. and Pell, P . S., Subgrade stress and deformation under dynamic
load, Proc. AS.C.E., 93 : SMl , 17 (1967).
53. McMahon, T. F. and Yoder, E. J., Design of a pressure sensitive cell and
model studies of pressure in a flexible pavement subgrade, Proc. H.R.B. 39,
650 (1960) .
54. Investigation of pressures and deflections for flexible pavements, Rep. No.1,
Homogeneous clayey-silt test section , Techn. Memo. 3-323 , U.S. Army En-
gineers, W.E.S. (1951).
55 . Vesic, A B., Discussion, Proc. Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt
Pavements, p. 283 (Univ. of Michigan 1963).
56. Sowers, G. F. and Vesic, A. B. , Vertical stresses in subgrades beneath static-
ally loaded flexible pavements, H.R.E. Bull. No. 342, 90 (1962).
57. Klomp, A. G. J. and Dormon, G. M., Stress distribution and dynamic test-
ing in relation to road design, Proc. AR.R.E., 2: 2, 701 (1964).
58 . Eggestad, A., Deformation measurements below a model footing on the sur-
face of dry sand, Proc. European Conf. S.M.F.E., 1, 223 (Wiesbaden 1963) .
59 . Dehlen, G. L., Flexure of a road surfacing, its relation to fatigue crack-
ing and factors determining its severity, H .R.E. , Bull. No. 321,26 (1962).
60. Garrison, W. A. (Chairman of Committee) , Three-year evaluation of Shell
Avenue test road, H.R.B. , Rec. No. 117, 71 (1966).
61. Klomp, A J. G. and Niesman, Th. W., Observed and calculated strains at
various depths in asphalt pavements, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural
62 . Gusfeldt, K. H. and Dempwolff, K. R., Stress and strain measurements in
experimental road sections under controlled loading conditions, Proc. 2nd
Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements (Univ. of Michigan
1967) .
63. Lambe, T. W. , Stress path method, Proc. AS.C.E. , 93: SM6, 309 (1967).
64. Burmister, D. M. , Discussion, AS.T.M., Spec. Techn. Pub!. No. 79, 139
(1947) .
65. Monismith, C. L. and Duncan, J ., to be published.
66. Gerrard, C. M. and Morgan, J. R. , discussion to Ref. 23, submitted to
AS.C.E. (1968).
67. U.S. War Department, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Design of runways,
aprons and taxiways at army air force stations, Engng Manual Chapter XX
(Washington D .C. 1943).
68. U.S. War Department, Office of the Chief of Engineers , Rigid pavements,
Engng Manual Part XII, Airfield pavement design, Chapter III (Washington
D.C. 1947).
69. Palmer, L. A and Barker, E. S., Soil displacement under a circular loaded
area, Proc. H.R.B ., 20, 279 (1940).
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1239

MORGAN. SCALA - FLEXI BLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY (DISCUSSION BY TAYLOR)
70. McLeod, N. W., Airport runway evaluation in Canada, H.RB., Res. Rep.
AB (1947).
71. The W.A.S.H.G. road test, H.RB. Spec. Rep. 22 (1955).
72. Hveem, F. N., Pavement deflections and fatigue failures, H.RB., Bull. No.
114 (1955).
73. The A.A.S.H.O . road test, Part 5, H.RB. , Spec. R ep. 61E (1962).
74. Canadian Good Roads Association, Pavement evaluation studies in Canada,
Proc. Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements (Univ. of Michi-
gan 1963).
75. Nichols, F. P., Jr, Flexible pavement research in Virginia, H.RB. , Bull. No.
269 (1960).
76. Yoder, E. J. and Milhous, R T., Comparison of different methods of measur-
ing pavement condition, H.RB., N.C.H.R.P . Rep. No.7 (1964).
77. Beaton, J. L., Zube, E. and Forsyth, R , Field application of the resilience de-
sign procedure for flexible pavements, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural
78. Scala, A J. and Dickinson, E. J ., The use of asphalt pavement structures in
the Australian environment, Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Structural Design of
Asphalt Pavements (vniv. of Michigan 1967).
79. Zube, E. and Forsyth, R , Flexible pavement maintenance requirements as de-
termined by deflection measurements, H.RB., Rec. 129 (1966).
80. Benkleman, A C. and Williams, S., The structural behaviour of flexible pave-
ments, Proc. Intern. Conf. Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements (Univ. of
Michigan 1962).
81. Morgan, J. R and Scala, A J., Deflection in flexible pavements, Aust. Rd
Res., 2 : 5 (1965).
82. Vander, P., AS.T.M. Spec. Pub!. No. 156 (1954).
83. Scrivener, F. H., Swift, G. and Moore, W. M., A new research tool for measur-
ing pavement deflection, H.RB., Rec. No. 129 (1966).
84. Szendrei, M. E. and Kukn, S. H., An interpretation of vibration tests on
roads by the impedance method, H.R.B., Res. Rec. No. 46 (1963).
85. Fisher, J. M., Lee, A R and Millard, R. S., Research and its application
to road construction, Proc. I.C.E., 12, 399 (1959).
86. Huang, Y., Discussion to Ref. 34; ibid.
87. Scala, A J. , Measurement of the performance of roads, Proc. 4th Conf.
ARRB. (1968).
DISCUSSIONS
H . T A Y LOR, B.Sc. , Australian Road Research Board

90. Para. 12: It should be noted that another class of finite element technique
is in use, in which the elements of the model are not bars but zones which can
be imagined as regions with the load-deformation properties of the prototype
material. This method is particularly well set out for two-dimensional elastic
analysis by Clough (Ref. 88) and is capable of extension to three dimensions as
shown by Zienkiewicz (Ref. 89). Since in theory the method is capable of dealing

ELASTIC THEORY (DISCUSSION BY HANKS)
with quite general types of load-deformation behaviour, the writer is engaged in

developing a computer model, based on this approach, at the University of Sydney.
9 1. Para. 40: Here the authors compare three stress distributions, those in the
thecretical models with an isotropic medium (the Boussinesq) and an anisotropic
medium having EH < E", and that in a real sand. Holden has shown that the
measured vertical stresses are adequately predicted by either theory, but that the
Boussinesq model predicts horizontal stress less accurately than an anisotropic
model. The authors have stated, however, that the Boussinesq model 'significantly
underestimated' the radial (inward) reaction of the material. This is true at
moderate depths in the material , but near the surface the Boussinesq model shows
larger horizontal stresses than the anisotropic model, and presumably much larger
stresses than in the real sand. Perhaps the stress distribution in real sand varies
from the Boussinesq more because the material near the surface cannot resist the
wedging action of the load (which is therefore resisted lower down) than because
it is in fact anisotropic.
92. Para. 79: All pavement materials when loaded and unloaded are left with
residual deformations . When these show up as measurable vertical residuals in
the Benkleman beam test the question arises whether this represents a damaging
lack of deformation resistance in part of the pavement. Care must be taken
however to avoid too many presumptions as to where and why the deformations
take place. For example we can probably say that an upward residual represents
deformations near the surface since the only deformation mechanisms we can
conceive of as producing any upward movement are shallow. However, down-
ward residuals could well come from anywhere in the pavement or subgrade.
J. N. HAN K S, B.Sc., Principal Scientific Officer, M aterials Research Division, Country

Road s Board , Victori a
93. One section (para. 28 to 33) of this paper deals with the problems arising
from the assumption of homogeneity and it commences, "In terms of parameters
such as composition, density, moisture content, etc., pavements may be considered
as a number of homogeneous layers". This seems to deal very off-handedly with the
problem but in discussion it transpired that the authors were thinking solely of
vertical inhomogeneity when each layer can be treated as a series of homogeneous
sub-layers. The discussor wishes to suggest that horizontal inhomogeneity is both
substantial and relevant. Though extending of knowledge, theoretically and by
experiment, is desirable and often pays off with insights in the same or allied
fields, there are limits where the effort seems of little value. The present situation
seems to be such a case because enormous effort is being expended to increase
the precision of an analysis in terms of vertical strata differences yet no attention
is being paid to the known wide horizontal differences. In view of present and
forseeable methods and standards of road construction, the particular suggestion
is made that analysis should treat the situation where substantial modular differ-
ences occur along and across the loaded layers.
94. Earlier it had been assumed that the modular ratio between layers would
necessarily be hjgh so that quite noticeable changes in properties in a horizontal
Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1241

ELASTIC THEORY (AUTHORS' CLOSURE)
direction would be relatively low in proportion and therefore cou ld be safely

ignored . However it is now clear (e.g. para. 35 to 45 ) that this assumption is
greatly in error, perh aps to one order or more. Th e obvious ded uction is that
horizontal inhomogeneity will substantialIy affect pred icted results. Anybody
(such as one of the authors) who has been closely connected with testing on
pavements - old or new - will have often observed, even on the highest standard
roads, numerou s areas where the properties of the materi als, ( be they b ase, sub-
base or subgrade) chan ge markedly over a few inches, certainly well within the
zone of influence of any p articular load. Analysis which takes this fact into
account might give a clue to the explanati on of the seemingly inconsistent be-
haviour of small pavement areas which appear sometimes to be controlled by the
strongest elements, sometimes by averages yet sometim es by the weakest spots.
95 . The discussor wishes to emphasize that he is only referring to lateral and
longitudinal differences in material characteristics on a micro-scale. Though the
usual differences on a macro-scale, e.g. yards, chains, furlongs , have a great in-
fluence on the final construction design, such differences equally bedevil all methods
of design and the situation always occurs that a group of estimates has to be inte-
grated in some manner into a single value.
96. Apart from th e single facet described above, the paper is considered to
be a very informative and very useful survey . The conclusions (para. 85 t0' 89) are
particularly commended as a very fair and relevant summ ary of th e present situation .
AUTHORS' CLOSURE
To H. T A Y LOR , Australian Road Research Board

97. Para. 40: The radial stresses measured in the sand close to the surface
are expected to be less reli able th an those measured at depth . This arises because
the cell, which is of finite dim ensions, is placed in a stress field which is r apidly
varying. Therefore th e values near the surface have been given less weight than
they would otherwise have received and no firm conclusion about the stress levels
there have been drawn .
98. However it was noted during loading that the rate of increase of pressure
on these cells dropped as the lo ad increased, apparentl y as a result of yielding
and movement of the sand from under the plate. This was not associated with
any corresponding increase in radial pressure on cells at greater depths so that
the writer's th eory cannot be substa ntiated . It is also difficult to see why any
horizontal load arising fro m a 'wedgi ng action', as suggested, should h ave a con-
stant component as required in the proposed explanation.
99. Para. 79: It is agreed th at considerable care must be taken to avoid too
many presumptions as to where and why the deformations take place. In analysing
the results of deflection tests, residuals can only be interpreted correctly when
the deflection is low or, in other words, the pavement (except for one layer)
should be responding elastically to the load. In almost all such situ ations, the
1242 A.R.R.B . PROCEEDINGS

MORGAN , SCALA - FLEXIBLE PAVE ME NT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION OF
ELASTIC THEORY (AUTHORS' CLOSURE)
residual, if it occurs, represents an upward movement in the normal AAS.H.O.

beam test.
To J . N . HAN K S, Co untry R oads Boa rd , Victoria

100. The writer has drawn attention to a characteristic of flexible pavements
which was not specificall y included in the review of elastic theory. It is evident
that differences in behaviour occurring over very small horizontal distances, unless
arising systematically as a result of the particular load and p avement combination,
cannot be satisfactorily analysed. This suggests that, if such important differences
occur, attention must be given to the type of material and placement conditions
if a pavement is to behave satisfactorily. Field surveys for informatio n on such
differences would provide valu able data for the research worker who operates
under much better controlled conditions of material placement.
101. Very rapid changes in properties over short distances have been observed
in tests on the pavement model at University of Melbourne, but these have
occurred in a systematic fashion and can be predicted. However, the differences
in behaviour may not be obvious from an examination of such obvious measure-
ments as density or moisture content but may ari se as a result of the material
fabric and/ or the influences of the applied load.
REFERENCES
88. R. W. Clough, The finite elem ent m ethod in structural mechanics, Chapter 7
of "Stress Analysis", ed. O. C. Zienkiewicz and G. S. Holister (Wiley 1965) .
89. O. C. Zienkiewicz, Th e finite Elem ent M ethod in Structural and Continuum
Mechanics (McGraw-Hili 1967).
Volume 4, P art 2 (1968) 1243

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J. R.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND APPLICATION

Recent research has suggested that a method of pavement design

Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1201

1202 A.R .R .B. PRO CEE D! GS

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1204 A .R .R.B . P RO CEEDI GS

Volume 4. Pali 2 (1968) 1205

1206 A.R .R .B. PROCEEDINGS

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1208 A.R.R.B. PROCEE DINGS

Vol ume 4, Part 2 (1 968) 1209

1210 A.R.R.B. PROC EEDINGS

Volume 4, P a rt 2 (1968) 1211

12 12 A.R.R.B. PRO CEEDI NGS

/ 7 Bouss inesq. v'" 0·3

Volume 4, P art 2 (1968) 1213

5 LL~ __L -____L -____L-____L-__ ~L-~

1214 A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS

.<>- Vert ica l stress Percentage af Applied Pressure

• As p halt Concrete ( 3") Silty sand '"»

12 16 A.R.R.B. PROCE EDINGS

Unfortunately, for many of the tests reported, little or no information is given on

45 . Thus, considering the results of measurements in both single and multi-

Ve rtical Displacement % surfac e valu e

Fig . 5 - Vertical displacements in sands, observed

47. Some information can be obtained by considering the surface deflection

1218 A.R.R.B. PROCEED! os

V olume 4, Part 2 (1968) 12 19

1220 A.R.R.B. PROCE EDINGS

Volume 4, Part 2 (1968) 1221

~ Pavement Modulus Kg /cm 2 .....

• Wheel load:: 1275 Kg .

1222 A.R .R.B. PROCEE DIN GS

1224 A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS

Plate diamete r (in.) 8 12

Contact pressure (p .s.i.) 40 80 40 80

Asp halt modulu s E, (p.s. i. X 10') 250 250 250 250

E, (p.s.i. X 108 ) 400 400 400 400

Calculated deflection (i n. X 10.... ) 7 .2 15.3 7 .8 16.5

Measured d eflection 7 .0 13 .0 4 .5 12.0

Ca lculated defle ction (i n. X 10..... )

E, = 250 X 10' p .•. i. 7 .0 14.5 6 .9 14.9

60. The asphalt concrete modulus is assumed to depend only on temperature

Volume 4 , Part 2 (1968) 1225

Fig . 11 - Estimated and most probab le st reS!

1226 A.R.R.B . PROCEEDINGS

Volume 4, P art 2 (1968) 1227

Vcrtlca I Stress (i. Of SL' rface Val ue)

I ---- C lncrsmtlntal at 18 P.E.i. /~

considered to be dependent on temperature and rate of loading. The method IS

1228 A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS

'Wrtlcal Di sp lace m e nt (% 0 f Surface va lue )

zontal planes. As discussed in para. 48 the deflection distribution predicted by

Volume 4, Part 2 (1968 ) 1229

~o )8 ~ ip Single Axle Load

Def l ee tion (inches)

1230 A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS

5 LL~ L -L -L-L- ~L-~