FUNDACIÓN UNIVERSITARIA LOS LIBERTADORES

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
NOVEMBER OF 2019

Laboratory III
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Cristian Stivens Gutiérrez
csgutierrezt@libertadores.edu.co

Abstract: The purpose with which this laboratory was developed II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
was to demonstrate and analyze the operation of the configurations
of the operational amplifier by means of different circuits such as a) Multimeter
the shunt, integrator and active filter passes first-order lows, in order
to determine the differences that occur between these, due to its A multimeter, also a nominated tester, is an electric and portable
similarity in both design and operation, being possible to have a device, which allows a person to measure different electrical
theoretical and experimental comparison. quantities that are part of a circuit, such as currents, powers,
resistances, capacities, among others.
Keywords: operational amplifier, low pass, voltage, shunt,
integrators. It can measure magnitudes in different ranges, that is, if we know
that we are going to measure a current of 10 A (Ampere) then we
I. INTRODUCTION will choose a range of 1 A to 50 A. It can measure direct current or
alternating current digitally or analogically.
An operational amplifier is a high gain amplifier, which is fed with
positive and negative sources, which allows it to obtain excursions A multimeter has many functions. In general, it is used to measure
both above and below mass or reference point that is considered, different quantities in an electrical circuit. Some of the functions of
that is, that transfers those values that they are difficult to identify the multimeter are:
and transform by other elements. It is especially characterized by its
response in: frequency, phase change and high gain that is  Resistance measurement.
determined by externally introduced feedback. This information is  Continuity test.
highlighted because in this laboratory it is the main instrument that  Measurements of alternating current and direct current
will allow the proper functioning of the established circuits, voltages.
supported by elements such as capacitors and resistors.  Measurements of alternating and direct current intensity.
 Capacitance measurement.
In relation to the established circuits, the bypass circuit, integrator  Frequency measurement.
and active filter pass first order lows which are similar in their  Detection of the presence of alternating current. [2].
design and operation, due to the following characteristics. In the
shunt circuit the output signal is proportional to the speed of
variation of the input signal, that is, if the input signal has a
frequency with a sharp variation in a very short time, the output
signal will be inverted depending in the direction of the variation,
on the other hand, in the integrating circuit the output voltage of the
integrating circuit is proportional to the area under the input curve
(input wave), for any moment, and finally there is the active low
pass filter first order, which allows the lower frequencies to pass,
and attenuates or suppresses frequencies higher than the cutoff
frequency.

Taking into account the operation of each circuit, the assembly of
these circuits is carried out in the laboratory and data collection is
performed, obtaining possible values to compare with the theory
proposed in class, obtaining a margin of error to determine the
understanding about the topic.
Figure 1. Multimeter
b) Operational Amplifier
The term Operational Amplifier refers to an integrated component
which is used for analog signal processing. In Linear Operations
it is common to use them as amplifiers, in addition, subtraction,
derivation, integration, etc. In nonlinear operations they are used
as comparators, rectifiers, multiplication, etc. It is also common
to use sinusoidal, square, triangular, in voltage and current
sources, active filters, analogue and digital converters. One of the
common characteristics of Operational amplifiers is very high
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gain, very high input resistance and resistance. Very low output.
[3]

It is an active, multiterminal device, with a very high gain. Inside

there is a set of transistors and resistors that make the analysis of
the internal circuit difficult. The studies focus on determining its
transfer function, the ratio of output voltage to input voltage [4]

c) LM324-N

These devices consist of four independent high-gain frequency-

compensated operational amplifiers that are designed specifically to Figure 3. Electric Resistance
operate from a single supply or split supply over a wide range of
voltages and are characterized for operation from 0°C to 70°C [5]. e) Voltage

The LM324 family of op amps are popular and long-lived general The voltage (V), is the energy per unit of charge provided by a
purpose amplifiers due to their flexibility, availability, and cost- battery or power source. When we talk about potential difference
effectiveness. It is important to understand how these op amps are we refer to the difference of energy per unit of charge between two
different than most other op amps before using them in designs [6]. points of a circuit [8].

f) Electric current

An electric current is an ordered movement of free charges, usually

electrons, through a conductive material in an electrical circuit.
When the movement of electrons occurs in the same direction, it is
called Continuous Current (DC). The electric current always
circulates in the same direction. When the movement of the
electrons changes direction every so often it is called Alternating
Current (AC). All devices that plug directly into the network use
alternating current [9].

g) The power Supply

The power supply or power supply as it is also known, is defined

within the scope of the electronics, as the instrument that transforms
the alternating current, into one or several direct currents, which are
Figure 2. Operational Amplifier LM324N used to feed the Different devices or electronic devices. It is
classified into two types, linear type fonts or switched sources. The
d) Electric Resistance linear are designed in a simpler way, however it can become
complex, as it increases the current that it provides, although its
Electrical resistance is any opposition that finds the current as it
voltage regulation is not very effective. A switched source is
passes through a closed electrical circuit, attenuating or braking the
characterized by having the same strength as a linear one, and
free flow of electric charges or electrons. Any device or consumer
connected to an electrical circuit represents a load, resistance or having a smaller structure. Generally, this will be more efficient,
obstacle for the circulation of the electric current. however it is complex so it will be susceptible to damage. These are
often used when you need a compact and economical design [10].
Normally electrons try to circulate through the electric circuit in a
more or less organized way, according to the resistance they
encounter in their path. The lower that resistance, the greater the
existing order in the micro world of electrons; but when the
resistance is high, they begin to collide with each other and to
release energy in the form of heat. This situation means that the
temperature of the conductor always rises a little and that, in
addition, it acquires higher values at the point where the electrons
find greater resistance to its passage [7].

Figure 4. Power supply
h) Active Filter
A filter is a system that allows the passage of electrical signals at
a certain frequency range and prevents the rest from happening.
Used for input signal conditioning, signal digitalization and signal
conditioning produced [11].
Active filters are those that have controlled sources or active
elements, such as operational amplifiers, transistors or vacuum
tubes. Through an electronic circuit, a filter makes it possible to
comply with the modeling of a transfer function that changes the
input signal and gives an output signal according to the design
[12].
i) Active Filter Low Pass First Order
It allows the passage of low frequencies and attenuates the high
frequencies. It consists of five elements a capacitor, three
resistors, and an operational amplifier (opamp). The input is
through resistance R and the output is taken at the output of the
operational amplifier. It is known as active because it contains an
active element that is the operational amplifier, and is first order
because it only contains a reactive element (a capacitor). It has
three main characteristics: the gain can be greater than one, since
its attenuation is first order of 20db per decade of frequency, and
there are two circuits, the inverter and the non-inverter [13].
This type of filter let’s all frequencies pass from 0 to the cutoff
frequency and blocks the frequencies that are above it. The
frequencies that are between 0 and the cut-off frequency are called
the pass band while the frequencies that are above the cut-off
frequency are called the eliminated band. The zones between the
passing band and the deleted band are called the transition band
[14].
An active low pass filter can fulfill the design function using input
and ground resistance resistors, together with operational
amplifiers and resistor configurations and capacitors in parallel
[15].
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j) Oscilloscope
They are instruments that allow to visualize and measure an
electrical signal, with the difference that they use the
digitalization of the input signal. Digitization consists of
assigning a binary code to samples that are taken from the analog
input signal. These codes are sorted and stored sequentially so that
you can reproduce the input signal at any time. To perform the
scanning, a circuit is needed to obtain the samples and an analog-
digital converter (ADC); a memory is required for storage. After
the data is stored, different types of calculations can be done by
the same oscilloscope or computer-assisted. Trigger control,
horizontal deflection, synchronization, etc., is performed with
specialized blocks [16].
The oscilloscopes check and show the voltage signals as
waveforms and as visual representations of the voltage variation
as a function of time. The signals are represented on a graph,
which shows how the signal changes. The vertical axis (Y)
represents the measurement of tension, and the horizontal axis (X)
represents time [17].
Figure 5. Oscilloscope
k) Condenser
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is
a passive two-terminal electrical component used to
store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms
of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films
of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. The 'no conducting'
dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A
dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica,
etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor,
a capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its
plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors
(e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery),
an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing
positive charge (+Q) to collect on one plate and negative
charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no
current can flow through the capacitor. However, if an
accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads
of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
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An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value

for its capacitance. Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of
the electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the potential
difference (V) between them. The SI unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10 −12 F)
to about 1 mF (10 −3 F) [18].

Figure 7. Signal Generator

III. LIST OF COMPONENTS

ELEMENT NAME VALUE QUANTITY

Figure 6. Different types of condensers.
Low Pass R1:1,5 kΩ 1
l) Shunt R2:150 kΩ 1
Resistor
The shunt is generally used to protect the speed controller from a Shunt R: 330 Ω 1
load drawing too much current, or to limit the speed of the Integrators R:330 Ω 1
attached motor. If you want to play fast and loose with such a
controller and are thirsty for more speed, there’s a simple Multimeter ___________ ________ 1
trick. By cutting the connection from the shunt to the controller’s Protoboard ___________ ________ 1
sense line, and instead tying the sense line to ground, it will appear
as if no current is flowing since no voltage drop is measured. The Banana – Caiman 3
Connection
speed controller will respond by giving all the power it can, which Caiman - caiman ________ 2
Cables
usually ends in flames as the transistors in the controller fail under “Jumper” cables Various
excessive load [19]. Operational _________
LM324-N 1
Amplifier
m) Electronic Integrators Power ____________ _________
1
Electronic integrators or electrical integrating circuits have Supply
largely displaced mechanical integrators. Signal ____________ _________
1
The illustration (bottom) shows an electrical circuit that acts as an Generator
integrator. For time-varying input, if the resistance R shown in the Oscilloscope ____________ _________ 1
schematic diagram is very large compared with the capacitive
reactance XC of the capacitor C, the current will be almost in
Low Pass 104,22nf
phase with the input voltage EIN, but the output voltage EOUT will 1
Condenser Shunt 104.22nf
lag the phase of the input voltage EIN by almost 90°. Thus the 1
Integrators 104,22nf
output voltage EOUT is the time integral of the input voltage EIN,
as well as the product of the current and the capacitive
Table N° 1. List of components
reactance, XC [20].
n) Signal Generator IV. PROCESS

A signal generator is piece of test equipment that produces an 1) Integrators

electrical signal in the form of a wave. This is used as a stimulus
for the item being tested.
a) The values of R and C are found using the formulas
Signal generators in all their forms are widely used within test and proposed in class
development systems, being used with other test instruments. b) Experimentally assemble the circuit proposed by the tutor
for the integrator model
Signal generators come in various forms able to produce a variety
of waveforms for different test applications. Some of these test
instruments address the RF testing arena, whilst others are used
for audio testing, possibly as a sine wave generator, etc. and others
for providing pulses, possibly for exciting digital circuits. There
are thousands of different applications for signal generators.
However, they differ from the measuring test instruments like
oscilloscope, digital multimeters, spectrum analyzers, etc. in that
rather than measuring a signal, they generate a signal to be applied Figure 8. Circuit Integrator
to a unit under test [21].
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c) Having the integrator circuit assembled, connect the dual d) Having the low pass circuit assembled connect the dual
source with an 18V Vcc and a -18V Vee source with an 18V Vcc and a -18V Vee
d) Connect the signal generator to pin 2 of the LM324N e) Connect the signal generator to pin 2 of the LM324N
operational amplifier starting at a frequency of 4 Hz operational amplifier starting at a frequency of 1 Hz
e) With the oscilloscope probes, it connects to pin 1 and 2 to f) With the oscilloscope probes, it connects to pin 1 and 2 to
know the output and input signal respectively know the output and input signal respectively
f) Configure the oscilloscope so that it is possible to see Vin, g) Configure the oscilloscope so that it is possible to see Vin,
Vout and the phase Vout and the phase
g) The frequency is varied by (4.40, 400, 4k and 40k) Hz, h) The frequency is varied in (1,10, 100, 1k and 10k) Hz,
taking the data from the output and input signal for each taking the data of the output and input signal for each
value value.
V. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
2) Shunt
1) Low Pass
a) The values of R and C are found using the formulas
proposed in class −𝑅2 1
b) Experimentally assemble the circuit proposed by the tutor 𝑇(𝑡) = ∗
𝑅1 1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶
for the shunt model
𝑅2
|𝑇𝐷𝐶 | ∗ = 100
𝑅1

𝑅2 150𝑘
= = 100
𝑅1 1,5𝑘

1
𝑤𝑂 =
𝑅2 ∗ 𝑐

Figure 9. Circuit Shunt 2) Integrator

c) Having the shut circuit assembled, connect the dual 0 + 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) 0 + 𝑉𝑂 (𝑡)
+ =0
source with an 18V Vcc and a -18V Vee 1 𝑅
d) Connect the signal generator to pin 2 of the LM324N 𝑆𝐶
operational amplifier starting at a frequency of 3 Hz
e) With the oscilloscope probes, it connects to pin 1 and 2 to 𝑉𝑂 (𝑡)
−𝑆 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) − =0
know the output and input signal respectively 𝑅
f) Configure the oscilloscope so that it is possible to see Vin,
Vout and the phase 𝑉𝑂 (𝑡)
= -S*R*C
g) The frequency is varied in (3.30, 300, 3k and 30k) Hz, 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡)
taking the data of the output and input signal for each
value −1 𝑡
𝑉𝑂 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑉 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶 0 𝑖
3) Low Pass
𝐺 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝐶
a) Because the integrator circuit is saturated, it is corrected
by performing the active filter passes first order lows.
𝑅2
b) The values of R1, R2 and C are found using the formulas 𝐼𝐷𝐶 ∗ 𝑅1 > ∗𝑉
proposed in class 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝐶𝐶
c) Experimentally assemble the circuit proposed by the tutor
for the first order low pass active filter model 𝑅2 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑅1 > ∗
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝐼𝐷𝐶

3) Shunt
𝑑
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

0 − 𝑉𝑂 (𝑡) 𝑑
= 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

Figure10. Active Filter Low Pass First Order −𝑉𝑂 (𝑡) 𝑑

= 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
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𝑑 Table 4 shows the values that were obtained to obtain from the
𝑉𝑂 (𝑡) = −𝑅𝐶 ∗ 𝑉 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 integrator circuit, but it was not possible to make a graph since the
circuit did not work because it was saturated.

With the equations set out above, it was possible to obtain the CONCLUSIONS
theoretical values that will be shown below,
The integrator circuit did not function properly because it
 Low Pass: R1: 1,5 kΩ; R2:150 kΩ was not a stable circuit and was saturated from very low
 Integrator: R: 330 Ω frequencies
 Shunt: R: 330 Ω
 C=104,22 nf, it was established because it was the element The active low pass filter of the first order was stable up to a
available at the time of practice frequency of 10 kHz because it was not possible to take phase
 Vcc = 18 V and VEE, randomly chosen data

f Amp1 Amp2 ph
GAIN
It is possible to conclude that some circuits may have the
(Hz) (V) (V) (º) purpose of being filters depending on the application, the
1 200 10,00 185 20,000 characteristics and the required implements.
10 1104 7,60 231 145,263
It is observed that the differentiator and integrator circuits,
100 1104 7,20 89 153,333 and the active filter passes low-order first, modify the output
1000 520 1,46 270 356,164 signals turning them into a different type of signal,
Table Nº2. Low Pass Values depending on the input signal, that is, in the case of the
integrating circuit it transforms rectangular pulses in linear
Table Nº2 shows the values taken during the laboratory practice in
ramp signals and the shunt circuit transforms triangular to
the active low pass filter of the first order, where it is possible to
make a graph (see ANNEXES) that demonstrates the laboratory's
square signals.
successful approach compared to what is seen in class
REFERENCES
Amp1 Amp2
f (Hz) ph (º) Delay (s) GAIN [1]. https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/oscilloscope
(V) (V)
4,50E+0 40,71
30 11,4 2,80E-01 85
0 4 [2].
19,84
300 12,9 0,65 88 4,35E-04
6 https://como-funciona.co/un-multimetro/
3000 12,5 13,8 92 5,00E-05 0,906
-3,67E- [3].
30000 13,2 5,45 -45 2,422
03 https://www.academia.edu/9033574/CONVERTIDOR_DE_VOL
-2,00E- TAJE_A_CORRIENTE_PRESENTADO_POR
300000 10,9 2,67 -39 4,082
01
Table Nº3. Shunt Values [4].
Table Nº3 shows the values obtained from the shunt circuit with https://es.slideshare.net/hasorcorp/amplificador-operacional-lab-n4
which a graph is made demonstrating that the low pass and the shunt
circuit are inverse
[5]. https://www.ti.com/product/LM324
Amp1 Amp2
f (Hz) ph (º) Delay (s) GAIN
(V) (V) [6]. https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sloa277/sloa277.pdf
8,75E+0 0,37
40 11,5 30,7 -145
0 5
[7].
0,32
400 11,2 34,8 -119 7,40E-04
2 http://www.asifunciona.com/electrotecnia/ke_resistencia/ke_resist
1,30
4000 17,8 13,6 -57 3,20E-05 encia_1.htm
9
5,59
40000 10,9 1,95 -6,7 9,87E-04 [8].
0
4,87
400000 11,2 2,3 15,4 9,70E-08 https://www.edu.xunta.es/espazoAbalar/sites/espazoAbalar/files/d
0
Table Nº4. Integrate Values atos/1464947843/contido/21_voltaje_tensin_o_diferencia_de_pote
ncial.html
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[9].
https://www.edu.xunta.es/espazoAbalar/sites/espazoAbalar/files/d
atos/1464947843/contido/12_la_corriente_elctrica.html
ANNEXES.
The following figures show the relationship of the frequency
with respect to the gain obtained, as indicated above.

[10]. https://conceptodefinicion.de/fuente-de-alimentacion/
FREQUENCY VS GAIN
[11].
https://www2.ulpgc.es/hege/almacen/download/29/29861/filtros.p 400,000
df 350,000
300,000
[12]. https://www.lifeder.com/filtros-activos/
250,000

GAIN
[13]. https://wilaebaelectronica.blogspot.com/2017/01/filtro-pasa- 200,000
bajos-activo-de-1er-orden-rc.html
150,000
[14]. 100,000
http://repobib.ubiobio.cl/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2273/1/Saez_ 50,000
Saldias_Manuel_Alejandro.pdf
0,000
[15]. https://www.lifeder.com/filtros-activos/ 0 500 1000 1500
[16]. FREQUENCY
http://edii.uclm.es/~arodenas/Solar4/Componentes/OSC/OSCILO
SCOPIOS_DIGITALES.HTM
Figure 1. Low Pass graphic
[17]. https://www.fluke.com/es-co/informacion/mejores-
practicas/aspectos-basicos-de-las-herramientas-de-
prueba/osciloscopios-portatiles/funciones-basicas-de-un-
osciloscopio FREQUENCY VS GAIN
[18] https://learn.adafruit.com/circuit-playground-c-is-for- 45,000
capacitor/what-is-a-capacitor 40,000
35,000
[19] https://hackaday.com/2018/02/08/how-current-shunts-work/
30,000
25,000
GAIN

[20] https://www.britannica.com/technology/integrator#ref71898
20,000
[21] https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-
15,000
methods/signal-generators/what-is-a-signal-generator.php
10,000
5,000
0,000
0 100000 200000 300000 400000
FREQUENCY

Figure 2. Shunt Circuit Graphic

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