HDPS3503 Bi PDF

Faculty of Education and Languages
HDPS3503
Early Mathematics for Children
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HDPS3503
EARLY MATHEMATICS
FOR CHILDREN
Raihanah Ahmad

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Raihanah Ahmad
Moderator: Mahani Abdul Malik

Translators: Luqman Prof Datuk Dr A. Hamid

Zaitoon Zakaria
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2016

Second Edition, December 2016
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2016, HDPS3503
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvii
Topic 1 Early Mathematics Curriculum in Malaysia 1

1.1 Goals and Objectives of Early Mathematics Education in 3
Malaysia
1.1.1 Goal and Objectives of Early Mathematics 3
1.1.2 The Importance of Early Mathematics in ChildrenÊs 4
Learning
1.2 The Need for Paradigm Shift in Early Mathematics in Malaysia 4
1.2.1 ChildrenÊs Formal and Informal Mathematical Skills 5
1.2.2 Traditional Teaching Method vs Constructive 6
Teaching Method
1.3 Early Mathematics Curriculum Content in Malaysia 8
1.3.1 A Positive Environment in a Mathematics Classroom 9
1.3.2 Planning in Early Mathematics Learning 10
Summary 10
Key Terms 11
References 11
Topic 2 Implications of Learning Theories in Early Mathematics 12

2.1 PiagetÊs Cognitive Development Theory 13
2.1.1 Sensorimotor Stage 15
2.1.2 Preoperational Stage 16
2.1.3 Concrete Operational Stage 16
2.1.4 Formal Operational Stage 17
2.2 Zoltan P. DienesÊ Theory 17
2.2.1 Free Play 18
2.2.2 Structured Play (Rules of a Game) 19
2.2.3 Comparison Stage 19
2.2.4 Representations 19
2.2.5 Representation of Symbols 19
2.2.6 Formalisation 19
2.3 BrunerÊs Theory of Formation Concept 20
2.4 VygotskyÊs Theory of Social Constructivism 23
2.4.1 Culture 24
2.4.2 Effect of Environment 24
2.4.3 Zone of Proximal Development 24

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.5 Implications of Early Learning Theory of Early Mathematics 26

Summary 27
Key Terms 27
References 28
Topic 3 Language of Mathematics 29

3.1 Developing the Language of Mathematics Using Songs 30
and Verses
3.1.1 Relationship between Mathematics and Songs 31
3.1.2 Early Mathematics and Songs 31
3.2 Developing the Language of Mathematics Using ChildrenÊs 32
Literature
3.3 Storytelling as a Cultural Art Form 34
3.3.1 Story in the Classroom 34
3.3.2 Different Stories 35
3.4 Mathematical Symbols 35
3.4.1 Using Symbols 37
3.4.2 Learning Mathematical Symbol 37
3.5 Reading and Writing Numbers 39
3.5.1 Reading Scores 39
3.5.2 Writing Figures 40
Summary 41
Key Terms 41
References 42
Topic 4 Pre-numbers 44
4.1 Definitions of Pre-numbers 44
4.2 Matching 45
4.2.1 Are They the Same or Different Objects? 46
4.2.2 Matching More or Less? 48
4.2.3 Is there a Same Number in Each Set? 49
4.2.4 Does Each Set Have a Relationship or Not? 50
4.3 Classification 52
4.3.1 Preparing a Set 53
4.3.2 Mathematical Concepts Based on the Venn Diagram 54
4.4 Comparison 56
4.5 Ordering or Seriation 56
4.5.1 The Views of Piaget and Montessori 57
4.5.2 Types of Seriation 58
Summary 58
Key Terms 59
References 59

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Concept of Pre-numbers 61

5.1 PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks 61
5.1.1 PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks: Mass Experiment 62
5.1.2 PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks: Number Experiment 63
5.1.3 Analysing Data 65
5.2 Subitising 66
5.2.1 Perception Subitising 67
5.2.2 Conceptual Subitising 67
5.3 Pattern 68
5.3.1 Repeating Pattern 69
5.3.2 Increasing Pattern 71
5.3.3 Relationship Pattern 72
Summary 72
Key Terms 72
References 73
Topic 6 Calculation 74
6.1 Definition of Calculation 74
6.2 Principles of Calculation 75
6.2.1 Principle of Ordering of Numbers 75
6.2.2 Principle of Matching of One to One 75
6.2.3 Abstract Principle 75
6.3 Level of Calculation 76
6.3.1 Rote Memorisation 76
6.3.2 Rational Calculation 76
6.4 Counting Exercise 77
6.5 Forward Calculation Activities 78
6.5.1 Bag Game 78
6.5.2 Hand Game 79
6.5.3 Movement Game 79
6.6 Backward Calculation Activities 79
Summary 81
Key Terms 81
References 81

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Understanding the Early Numbers 82

7.1 History of Base-ten 83
7.1.1 Egyptian Civilisation 83
7.1.2 Roman Civilisation 85
7.1.3 Hindu-Arabic System 86
7.1.4 Others 86
7.2 Unique Features of Base-ten Systems 87
7.2.1 Numeric Number Application 87
7.2.2 Positioning System 87
7.2.3 Number Values 87
7.2.4 Algorithms 88
7.3 Establishing the Benchmark Numbers 88
7.4 Lesson Using Beansticks or Base-ten Block 90
7.4.1 Addition 91
7.4.2 Subtraction 91
7.4.3 Addition in Groups 92
7.4.4 Subtraction in Group 92
7.4.5 Multiplication 93
7.4.6 Using Beansticks and Paper/Pencil 93
7.5 Teaching Using Abacus and Money 94
Summary 95
Key Terms 95
References 96
Topic 8 Concepts and Operational Skills 97

8.1 Prerequisite (Calculation, Concrete Experience, Problem 97
Solving and Language)
8.1.1 Calculation Aids 98
8.1.2 Experiences Using Concrete Situations 98
8.1.3 Solving Problems Using Sentence Statements 99
8.1.4 Experiences Using a Language 99
8.2 Models for Addition and Subtraction Operations 100
8.2.1 Disk or Counters 100
8.2.2 Connecting Cubes 101
8.2.3 Number Line 101
8.2.4 Balanced Scale 102
8.2.5 Take (Isolation) 102
8.2.6 Comparisons 102
8.2.7 Divisions: Overall 102

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
8.3 The Experience, Language, Picture and Symbolic (ELPS) 103

Approach for Teaching Operations
8.3.1 Concrete 104
8.3.2 Semi-concrete 104
8.3.3 Abstract 104
8.3.4 Language 104
Summary 105
Key Terms 105
References 105
Topic 9 Geometry: Shape and Space 106

9.1 Van Hiele Geometric Thinking 106
9.1.1 Step 1: Visualisation ă Identification and Naming 107
9.1.2 Step 2: Analysis ă Stating Attributes 108
9.1.3 Step 3: Informal Deduction ă Classification and 108
Attributes
9.1.4 Step 4: Deduction ă Recognise and Using Axiom 108
9.1.5 Step 5: Rigour ă Geometry System 108
9.2 Space: Block Architecture 110
9.3 Shapes: Learning at Home and School 111
9.4 Shape and Space Activities 111
9.4.1 Phase 1: Matching a Shape to the Same Shape 112
9.4.2 Phase 2: Grouping Shapes that are Similar 112
9.4.3 Phase 3: Naming Shapes 113
9.4.4 Phase 4: Drawing Shapes 113
Summary 113
Key Terms 114
References 114
Topic 10 Measurement 115

10.1 Definitions 115
10.2 Measurement Using Arbitrary Unit 116
10.3 Exploring Measurement 117
10.3.1 Length 118
10.3.2 Weight 118
10.3.3 Time 119
10.3.4 Temperature 120
10.4 Measurement Activities 120
10.4.1 Introduction to Appropriate Word for Measurement 122
10.4.2 Comparing Two Objects 122
10.4.3 Arranging of Three or More Objects 122
10.4.4 Using Informal Unit for Measurement 123
10.4.5 Standard Unit of Measurement 123

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 123
Key Terms 124
References 124

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HDPS3503 Early Mathematics for Children is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education with Honours programme. This module aims to provide basic
knowledge on Early Mathematics Education. This course should be able to make
learners to have a firm basic knowledge in Early Mathematics.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Correlate the implications of theories of Early Mathematics education;
2. Describe the assessment and examination requirements to the Early

Mathematics for children; and
3. Discuss the development and experiences that are appropriate for Early
Mathematics to children.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
The course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is as listed as
follows:
Topic 1 discusses the objectives and vision of Early Mathematics Education in

Malaysia.
Topic 2 describes the implications of the learning theory in Early Mathematics,

among the theories developed by Jean Piaget, Zoltan P. Dienes, Jerome Bruner
and Vygotsky.
Topic 3 discusses the language of mathematics to children in terms of literature,

storytelling, reading and writing.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 4 describes the concept as a pre-numbers, matching classification,

comparison and ordering/seriation.
Topic 5 describes to the concepts pre-numbers in terms of patterns, conservation

and recognition of group.
Topic 6 states the concepts, principles and calculation activities for children.
Topic 7 explains the history of early number concepts.
Topic 8 discusses the concepts and operational skills, methods and models such
as the ELPS.
Topic 9 states the theory and concepts of space and shape, including geometry,
Van HieleÊs model, architecture and others.
Topic 10 discusses on the definition, concept and activities that can be held for
the lesson on measurement.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
REFERENCES
Ahmad Zulkifli Manoh. (2013). Kemahiran pranombor. Retrieved from http://
www.scribd.com/doc/131976043/Kemahiran-pranombor
Angela Anthonysamy. (1998). Perkembangan pemikiran matematik pada

peringkat awal kanak-kanak: Satu pendekatan konstruktivisme. Sarawak,
Malaysia: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
Berger, W. F., & Shauhnessy, J. M. (1986). Characterizing the van Hiele levels of
development in geometry. Journal for Research Mathematics Education.
Oregon State University.
Church, E. B. (2010). The math in music & movement. Retrieved from http://
www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/math-music-movement
Clements, D. (1999). Subitizing: What is it? Why teach it? National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. A. (2009). Learning and teaching early maths.
Florence, KY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Crowley, M. L. (1987). The Van Hiele of the development of the geometric

thought. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Retrieved from http://handsonanswergrow.com/40-number-activities-for-
preschoolers/
Geist, K., Geist, E. A., & Kuznik, K. (2012). The patterns of music. National
Association for the Education of Young Children. Retrieved from
https://www.naeyc.org/yc/files/yc/file/201201/Geist_Patterns_of_Musi
c_Jan012.pdf
Gerard Baruch, & S. Pattabi Raman. (1998). Cognitive competence: Seriation.

Escondido, CA: Anisa.
Jasni Ehwan. (2012). Pengajaran matematik pra-sekolah. Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia: Universiti Terbuka Malaysia.
Marmasse, N., Bletsas, A., & Marti, S. (2000). Numerical mechanisms and
ChildrenÊs concept on numbers. The Media Laboratory Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (1989). Curriculum and

evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. Retrieved from http://handsonaswegrow.com/40-number-
activities-for-preschoolers/
Nor Hashimah Hashim, & Yahya Che Lah. (2006). Panduan pendidikan
prasekolah. Pahang, Malaysia: PTS Professional.
Noraini Idris. (2010). Matematik untuk kanak-kanak. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:

Pusat Pendidikan Berterusan Universiti Malaya.
Ojose, B. (2008). Applying piagetÊs theory of cognitive development to

mathematics instruction. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM).
Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan. (2008). Pembelajaran

menyeronokkan dan bermakna, Jilid 1. Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum
Malaysia.
Shahabuddin Hashim, Rohizani Yaakub, & Mohd Zohir Ahmad. (2007). Pedagogi:
Strategi dan teknik mengajar dengan berkesan. Pahang, Malaysia: PTS
Professional.
Smith, S. S. (2008). Early childhood mathematics (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Tadkiroatun Musfiroh. (2003). Memperkenalkan huruf di taman kanak-kanak.

Retrieved from http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/tmp/
memperkenalkan%20huruf%20dan%20angka.pdf
Tan G. K. (2013). Matematik awal. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/

doc/136641581/Matematik-Awal.
Zainal Abidin Zainuddin, & Afrinaleni Suardi. (2008). Keberkesanan kaedah

konstruktivisme dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran matematik. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia.

COURSE GUIDE  xvii
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xviii  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Early
1 Mathematics
Curriculum in
Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of Early Mathematics;
2. Explain the importance of learning mathematics; and
3. Explain the objectives of Early Mathematics Curriculum.
 INTRODUCTION
The development of preschool education will have a deep and meaningful
impact to the Early Mathematics Education.
Mathematics is the practice and exploration of patterns related to quantity, space

and time. According to Noraini Idris (2010), mathematics is a form of language
because it involves communication between concept and symbol. In the
development of childrenÊs knowledge, they learn about patterns of shape, size,
space, distance and time which involves simple mathematical language.
For example:
6+3=9
In the previous example, mathematics has helped us to know that 9 is the sum of
6 and 3.

2  TOPIC 1 EARLY MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN MALAYSIA
Mathematics is also an arrangement or patterns. According to Kennedy, Tipps

and Johnson (2008), mathematics forms beautiful patterns and it is a way to
describe events around the world.
Pattern is something that is repetitive and creates connections. These are

important to help us in expecting the next thing that will happen. For example, if
the length of a square increases, then the surface area will also increase. This is
illustrated in Figure 1.1:
Figure 1.1: Comparison of the rectangular area that has a different pattern
If mathematics is properly taught to children at an early stage of their lives,

children will be able to appreciate and use mathematical concepts throughout
their entire lives.

TOPIC 1 EARLY MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN MALAYSIA  3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Using your own words, discuss the meaning of mathematics according

to the definition as mentioned earlier in a more extensive manner.
1.1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF EARLY

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
Early Mathematics develops essential mathematical experiences for preschool
children. The experiences include the concept of pre-numbers, numbers, basic
mathematics operations, value of money, time, shape and space.
1.1.1 Goal and Objectives of Early Mathematics

According to Noraini Idris (2010), the objectives of Early Mathematics are as
follows:
(a) Learning to appreciate mathematics;
(b) Building self-confidence on the ability of performing the subject;
(c) Becoming mathematical problem solvers;
(d) Learning to communicate mathematically; and
(e) Learning to explain in mathematical language.
Goals of Early Mathematics are focused on building the understanding of

mathematical concept, the ability to communicate in mathematics and
applications of mathematics in solving problems (NCTM, 1989). There are studies
that have been done in this field which shows that the concepts have helped
children learn mathematics more effectively.

1.1.2 The Importance of Early Mathematics in

Children’s Learning
Early Mathematics is a subject that is very important to children because it:
(a) Builds childrenÊs ability to reason logically and rationally;
(b) Improves childrenÊs daily life skills on the subject of transactions, travelling,
food, education and work;
(c) Understands and recognises the concept of space, area, length, volume,
time and symbol in mathematics;
(d) Provides opportunities to develop skills in classifying, comparing,

measuring, producing graphs, counting and performing numeric
operations;
(e) Improves knowledge and experience about basic mathematics;
(f) Improves specific skills such as thinking;
(g) Increases curiosity and interest in exploring;
(h) Provides a variety of opportunities to hold, explore materials, modify

materials related to mathematical ideas; and
(i) Participates in activities starting from the physical world and translating it
into ideas.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Discuss situations in mathematics in achieving the objectives of

Early Mathematics as mentioned earlier.
1.2 THE NEED FOR PARADIGM SHIFT IN

EARLY MATHEMATICS IN MALAYSIA
The previous Early Mathematics curriculum is based on the cognitive component
of National Preschool Curriculum. This curriculum has been revamped and
updated where Early Mathematics is part of the core aspects of science and
technology in the National Pre-school Standard Curriculum (2010).

1.2.1 Children’s Formal and Informal Mathematical

Skills
Children in preschool come with experience and informal knowledge about
various concepts and skills such as counting. According to Renga and Dalla
(1993), an early stage acquisition of mathematics skills is important, as this will
affect the perceptions and attitudes of children towards learning mathematics
throughout their lives.
We would certainly agree that most issues that occur in everyday life correlates
to mathematical concepts. Issues such as the size of the shoes you want to buy,
the time required to drive from office to home, or a child who has two apples as
compared to me who only have one apple. All of these situations correlate with
mathematics.
A child will learn to listen, understand and speak indirectly on mathematical

concepts. For example:
(a) Children learn to use containers such as buckets, jugs, bottles, cups and
bowls (handling of different shapes such as spheres, cuboid and cylinder);
(b) Children use mathematical comparative concepts such as, full and empty,
less than, large and small, long and short;
(c) Children apply matching concept such as, one apple for dad and one for
mom, or match a shirt with trousers; and
(d) Children learn to use sorting concepts such as sorting rambutan and
strawberries.
The activities mentioned above involve handling of different shapes, sorting,

comparing and matching, which are the most important aspects in mathematics.
Thus, past experiences and informal knowledge play a very big role to children
even before they start attending schools.

1.2.2 Traditional Teaching Method vs Constructive

Teaching Method
Constructive teaching means the process by which someone builds his/her own
understanding of what is presented to him/her using existing experience and
knowledge. In this case, the teacher assumes that a child is active in his/her
studies.
Children will always bring ideas and phenomena of their existing daily
experience in the classroom. According to Driver and Oldham (1985), among the
most important factors to be considered in a constructivist environment are:
(a) Learning output depends not only on the learning environment, but also
experiences, attitudes and goals of the students involved;
(b) Learning involves the building of knowledge through experience with the
physical environment and social interaction;
(c) Constructive process involves the relationship between science or past

experiences with the forming, examining, reconstructing ideas and
hypotheses processes;
(d) It also involves the reorganisation of ideas;
(e) Meaning that has been established does not necessarily lead to belief; and
(f) The learning process is something active. The students have goals and can
control their own learning.
In this constructivist approach, the learning environment is child-centred where

the children are the important focus and teachers only act as facilitators. Children
are encouraged to share their ideas and theory to solve problems in this setting.
Children will also be taught to use concrete materials (see Figure 1.2) because
they can help them relate their experience with the mathematics learning that
will be studied.

According to a study by Zainal Abidin Zainuddin and Afrinaleni Suardi (2008),

using the constructivist approach, children will be active during the learning
process. This is because it encourages students to think more, be more confident,
socialise more and have more fun with activities performed.
Figure 1.2: The use of important concrete materials for childrenÊs learning
Source: http://nadiraatika.edublogs.org;
http://pengajaranmatematikmte3109.blogspot.com;
http://epitomeofsuccessnems.blogspot.com;
http://raihanibtisam.blogspot.com

1.3 EARLY MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM

CONTENT IN MALAYSIA
Early Mathematics curriculum is part of the backbone of Science and Technology.
It was formulated based on the National Education Philosophy as follows:
„Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the

potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonious based on a firm belief in God. Such an effort is
designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent,
who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and capable of
achieving high levels of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute
to the harmony and prosperity of the society and Nation‰.
National Preschool Standard Curriculum (2010)
According to the National Preschool Standard Curriculum (2012), several focuses

of Early Mathematics have been identified as shown in Table 1.1:
Table 1.1: Early Mathematics Curriculum in Malaysia
Focus Explanation
Pre-numbers  Matching objects
experience  Comparing the quantity of objects
 Making seriation according to a characteristic
 Recognising patterns and building repetitive pattern
Concept of  Understanding the numbers 1 to 10
number  Knowing zero
 Understanding the numbers 10 to 20
 Understanding series 20, 30, 40 and 50
Mathematics  Understanding addition operation within two decimal places
operations  Understanding subtraction operation within two decimal places
Value of money  Recognising the different values of money
Concept of time  Understanding time in the context of everyday life
Shape and space  Knowing the location of objects in space
 Knowing the shapes that are commonly found in the environment
Construction  Building a connection between two objects
 Building enclosed areas
 Making various structures according to their own creativity

Early Mathematics curriculum such as the concept of pre-numbers, numbers,

mathematical operation, money, time, shape and space will enrich childrenÊs
mathematical experience. Early Mathematics is learnt at a specific time and can
be integrated with all themed-learning activities using methods that are fun.
Early Mathematics teaching can be improved by the use of concrete materials

along with fun and effective learning approaches for children.
ACTIVITY 1.3
In a group, discuss the different approaches you can use in teaching

Mathematics to children.
1.3.1 A Positive Environment in a Mathematics

Classroom
Ali is five years old and lives in a village. For children who grew up in a village,
Ali has restricted environment. As compared to Siti, a five year old child who
lives in Ampang, grows up in a city that provides advantages in terms of her
living environment. Siti has a play room with good decoration for growth and
learning. Indirectly, Siti was learning more than Ali.
According to Isbell (2013), positive environment can maximise childrenÊs

intellectual potential in addition to meeting the basic needs of emotional security.
The main goal of Early Mathematics educators is to create a sense of satisfaction
for the children who are able to do their own task.
Among the main elements to create a positive classroom environment in Early

Mathematics are the use of concrete materials and active involvement of children
in learning. This way, children will be actively involved and encouraged to
participate in class discussions, sought clarification and request justification for
the answers.
According to Noraini Idris (2010), Early Mathematics educators can generate

success in the following ways:
(a) Help the children when they are having trouble answering questions;
(b) Encourage communication in teaching and learning;
(c) Use many examples and demonstrations to help comprehension;

(d) Provide training to help teachers before children make something by

themselves; and
(e) Provide many free training using the technology available.
Early Mathematics educators are encouraged to teach mathematics with a

purpose to create understanding. Questions such as why, how, what and so on
can stimulate childrenÊs understanding. According to Calfee and Drum (1986), a
teacher who frequently asks such questions when interacting with students in the
class, will produce an unexpected response and answer from the children. This
proves that the process of understanding is happening.
1.3.2 Planning in Early Mathematics Learning

Before designing lesson plan for Early Mathematics, educators should have the
objective to make a learning fun. This can be achieved if children are individually
involved and understood what is going on, free to ask questions, managed to
relate to the topics being taught to gain success.
If an educator shows great attitude and passion, children will also show
excitement, enthusiasm and willingness to learn.
Early Mathematics educators also need to know the essential facts, concepts and
procedures about a subject in order to help in childrenÊs learning.
 Mathematics is used in an individual daily life.
 Experience is very important in a learning process.
 Constructivist approach and the use of concrete material help in childrenÊs

learning.
 Positive Early Mathematics environment is important in creating fun

learning.

Concrete materials National Pre-school Standard

Curriculum
Constructivist approach
Positive environment
Early Mathematics education

Calfee, R. C., & Drum, P. A. (1986). Research on teaching reading. In M. Wittrock

(Ed.). Handbook of research on teaching. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Driver, R., & Oldham, V. (1985). A constructivist approach to curriculum

development. Studies in Science Education, 13, 105ă122.
Isbell, R. (2013). Early childhood education speaker and consultant. Retrieved

from http://drisbell.com/
Kennedy, L. M., & Tipps, S., & Johnson, A. (2008). Guiding childrenÊs learning of
mathematics. Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning.
of Teachers of Mathematics.

Renga, S., & Dalla, L. (1993). Affect: A critical component of mathematical

learning in early childhood. In R. J. Jensen (Ed.). Research ideas for the
classroom: Early childhood mathematics (pp. 22ă39). New York, NY:
Macmillan.
Zainal Abidin Zainuddin, & Afrinaleni Suardi. (2008). Keberkesanan kaedah

konstruktivisme dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran matematik. Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

Topic  Implications
2 of Learning
Theories in
Early
Mathematics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the various theories and learning principles of Early
Mathematics;
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each learning theory;
and
3. Discuss the implications of learning theories to learning of Early
Mathematics.
 INTRODUCTION
In order to provide an effective mathematics lesson plan, it is important for
educators to understand the theories on how people learn and their abilities to
apply these theories in learning mathematics.
Throughout human civilisation, many individuals have studied the intellectual

development and the natural conditions of learning in a variety of ways. This has
led to a variety of theories which has been used until now.

TOPIC 2 IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORIES IN EARLY MATHEMATICS  13
ACTIVITY 2.1
From your knowledge, list down the prominent individuals in the

theory of human learning.
2.1 PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

THEORY
John Piaget (see Figure 2.1), (from 1896 to 1980) originated from Switzerland was
a biologist who studied human cognitive development. According to Piaget, the
mind can grow, change and adapt to the problem when interacting with the
environment.
Figure 2.1: John Piaget

Source: http://chatafrik.com
He also found that every child goes through different stages of development at
different ages. He believed children develop their own environment through a
process of exploration, manipulation and evaluation of their physical environment.
Piaget has introduced four key concepts that explain this process as described in
Figure 2.2:

14  TOPIC 2 IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORIES IN EARLY MATHEMATICS
Figure 2.2: Four key concepts of children development
Now, let us discuss these concepts one by one:
(a) Scheme
Scheme is a cognitive structure that allows individual to manage and adapt
to the environmental conditions. Analogically speaking, scheme is a cabinet
that stores a lot of files and each file represents a schema. Scheme is the
process of creating, refining, modifying, organising and managing. For
example, a new born baby already has a scheme to suck milk, grasp and
others.
(b) Assimilation
Assimilation is a cognitive process in which it is a consolidation of new
information or new experience into existing schemes. The process of
assimilation happens all the time.
(c) Accommodation
Accommodation or modification is a qualitative change and development
of schemes. If the information received is in accordance with the existing
scheme, then it will be absorbed into the scheme. Conversely, if the
information does not fit, then it will be rejected or modified. This increase
in knowledge and experience will help to improve the existing scheme.
Accommodation process occurs continuously until the person reaches a
stable and solid level of understanding for a particular skill.

(d) Balance
Balance is a process in which the children strike a balance between the
process of assimilation and accommodation. For example, when the
children receive new information, they will absorb the information into a
scheme. If it is successful, then a balance will be achieved. Conversely, if the
information is not absorbed, it will be modified first. This process occurs
continuously, starting from infants to adults.
Based on study and observation, Piaget found that childrenÊs cognitive

development has changed via four different stages, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: PiagetÊs stages of cognitive development
These four stages will be discussed further in the next subtopic.
2.1.1 Sensorimotor Stage

This stage starts from birth until the age of two years. Children learn about their
environment through sensory impressions and their response. Children also
know things exist in their physical and non-physical natural environment, but do
not think directly why something exists. For example, children know the mother
will accompany them if they cry. In this case, the children know the relationship
between objects.
For example, babies use their mouth to feel an object and use their eye-and-hand
coordination to reach an object. At the final stage of sensorimotor, children can
do an imitation of the behaviour seen or imitate observed behaviours such as
waving. As the children grow, the action of this treatment will become more
accurate.

2.1.2 Preoperational Stage

This stage starts from two to six years old. At this stage, children are more
sociable and use language and signs to describe something. Children begin to
reflect and plan activity or movement by using their minds to form scheme. Signs
used include language, gestures and pictures will be used for stating objects,
people or events experienced by children.
For example, children take on cartoon characters like in animation of „Upin and
Ipin‰ or play a mother, father or doctor figure.
At this stage, the childrenÊs thinking is still intuitive where they are unable to
think logically and rationally. These features are said to be „centralised‰; hence
they cannot dominate the process of transformation, reversals and reasoning.
According to Piaget, children at this stage also show egocentric attitude, which is
seeing and understanding the environment through their own perspective.
2.1.3 Concrete Operational Stage

This stage starts from the age of six to twelve years old. At this stage, children
begin to to grasp the concept of the matching, understand the concept of
reversals and can reverse an abstract process.
At this phase as well, children can learn more than two things at a time and be
able to master the concepts of immortality. Children also have the ability to
classify, organise and distinguish objects. They can also understand basic
arithmetic, mass, length, and transitive properties and mathematical processes.
However, the learning still relies on effective learning of concrete objects and
direct experience.
According to Piaget, the childrenÊs thinking is gradually transformed from

egocentric to objective manner. With this thought, the children can understand
the perceptions and opinions of others even if they are different from their
perception. They also begin to inquire and receive their friendsÊ insights during
play.

2.1.4 Formal Operational Stage

This stage starts from the age of 12 years old. Children at this point enter the
stage of abstract thinking. They have the ability to think without concrete
experience, draw conclusions by structuring situations mentally as an example;
proving mathematics theories. Children also can use mathematical symbols and
abstract ideas, associate one concept with others, manipulate the concept
mentally and use logic to solve problems.
At this stage, the egocentric teenagers appear. They are more focused on their
own ideas and thoughts, difficult to accept the views of others and have a feeling
as if their actions are always observed by others.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Discuss with appropriate examples of how children can achieve a

balance according to John PiagetÊs theory.
2.2 ZOLTAN P. DIENES’ THEORY
Figure 2.4: Zoltan P. Dienes

Source: http://crises-deim.urv.cat

Prof Zoltan P. Dienes (refer to Figure 2.4), (from 1916 to 2014) is a mathematician,
psychologist and educator and has contributed to the learning theory. According
Dienes, mathematical concepts can be learnt through six stages (see Figure 2.5):
Figure 2.5: Six stages of learning mathematical concepts by Dienes
These six stages will be discussed further in the next subtopics.
2.2.1 Free Play

At this stage, children are given the opportunity to carry out mathematical
activities using teaching aids related to concepts to be learnt. They will be doing
this unstructured, without any regulation. At this stage, children form mental
structure and attitudes that can provide them an understanding of the
mathematical concept.
For example, when they are given logic blocks, children learn abstract concepts
such as colour, thickness and other characteristics or properties of the object that
are being manipulated.

2.2.2 Structured Play (Rules of a Game)

This game is played according to specific rules. At this stage, children will
discover the rules in games and prepare themselves to conduct the game in
accordance with the rules.
According to Dienes (1967), children need activities to gather experience.
2.2.3 Comparison Stage

Once children are exposed to a number of mathematical games, these games will
be discussed and compared with each other. Teachers are encouraged to
introduce several games with similar rule structure, but use different materials.
This is to make it apparent that there is a common core to a number of different
looking games, which can be identified as the mathematical content of those
games that are similar in structure even though they are different from the point
of view of the elements used for playing them.
This will encourage learners to take the first step towards abstraction. The stage
is called the comparison stage.
2.2.4 Representations
Representation is taking in the nature of the situation. Children determine their
representation according to a specific concept, after they discover similarities in
the nature of the situations faced by them. Representation is abstract.
2.2.5 Representation of Symbols

Representation of symbols is an effective way to express the concept of
representative images. Children need to be guided in order to use symbols to
represent mathematical concepts.
2.2.6 Formalisation
Children use symbols that they have understood to solve problems or build
theorem, law and mathematical formulas in forming a formal system.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Zoltan P. Dienes is a mathematician, psychologist and educator.

According to Dienes, mathematics can be learnt through six stages.
Explain.
2.3 BRUNER’S THEORY OF FORMATION

CONCEPT
Jerome Bruner (see Figure 2.6), was born in 1915, was a great figure in the theory
of cognitive learning theory and introduced the theory of formation concept.
Bruner emphasised on formation concept theory in cognitive flow. According to
him, the concept is important to people because it serves to enable us to identify,
understand and remember the concepts easily.
Figure 2.6: Jerome Bruner

Source: http://www.loschermo.it
He also believed that children learn through structural concepts that they have
discovered. Children make up concept through separating objects according to
their similarities and differences. For example, children understand that a shape
is a rectangle with the concept that a rectangle has four sides, then includes all
quadrilateral shape into a four-sided category and includes triangle into a three-
sided category.
Based on existing knowledge of the concept of square, children construct a

square with the concept of separate forms, according to the corners.

Bruner agreed with Piaget that cognitive development of children goes through
certain stages. However, Bruner emphasised that learning through discovery is
modifying childrenÊs knowledge with a pattern in a new situation.
Bruner and his assistant Kenney have successfully built three cognitive
developments as indicated in Figure 2.7:
Figure 2.7: BrunerÊs three stages of cognitive development
Now, let us take a look at each of the cognitive development.
(a) Enactive Representation (Birth to One Year Old)

This stage occurs before the other stages. At this stage, childrenÊs
knowledge is acquired from their movement activities made such as direct
experience and concrete activities. For example, a baby remembers his/her
experience shaking a rattle which is given to him/her (see Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8: A baby plays with rattle

Source: http://pentruea.md
(b) Iconic Representation (One to Six Years Old)

This stage is where information is stored in a visual form of an image
(mental image in the brain). Some of the opinions believe that learning is
much easier if science can be portrayed in the form of diagrams or
illustrations. Figure 2.9 shows an example of a child looking at one picture
in a picture book.
Figure 2.9: Child looking at picture book

Source: http://siraplimau.com
(c) Symbolic Representation (Over Seven Years Old)

It is the level at which information is stored as code or symbol, for example;
in the form of language. The symbol is more flexible because it can be
manipulated, arranged, classified and others. At this stage, learning or
knowledge is stored in the form of words, mathematical symbols or other
symbol systems. Figure 2.10 shows an example of a child reading a book
with mathematical symbols.
Figure 2.10: Child reading a Mathematics book

Source: http://siraplimau.com

BrunerÊs constructivist theory mentioned that learning is more effective if

educators can track the enactive level up to the symbolic level. Bruner also said
the children are able to learn a variety of materials if instructions are prepared
systematically.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Discuss how mathematics can be taught using all three levels as we

have already discussed.
2.4 VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF SOCIAL

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Vygotsky whose real name is Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, see Figure 2.11 (1896 ă
1934) lived during the same period as Piaget. He was born in Russia and lived
through the Russian Revolution.
Figure 2.11: Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Source: http://chatafrik.com
VygotskyÊs theory states that children have two levels of development namely
cultural and natural level. According to him, learning occurs when children work
or learn to handle tasks that have not been studied, but these tasks are still within
their abilities. Vygotsky also believed the learning process is efficient and
effective when the children learn cooperatively with other children in a

supported environment (supportive) by mentoring someone who is more

matured, for example a teacher.
2.4.1 Culture
Vygotsky stated that the cultural and social environment of children is important
in influencing their knowledge. Children learn through songs, language, art and
games. Culture influences the learning process where children learn through
interaction and collaboration with others and the environment.
2.4.2 Effect of Environment

According to Vygotsky, the children's development does not happen just because
of only one factor but it is also influenced by the environment.
2.4.3 Zone of Proximal Development

The importance of interaction in the cognitive development of children was
described by Vygotsky in the concept of Zone of Proximal Development. The
Zone of Proximal Development is a term used by Vygotsky to explain how
difficult skills can be performed by children with the help and guidance of an
adult or more skilled individuals.
According to Noraini Idris (2010), Zone of Proximal Development represents the

cognitive skills of children in the process of maturity and will reach maturity
with the help of more skilled individuals. Vygotsky divides childrenÊs
development into upper limit and lower limit as follows:
(a) Upper Limit

ChildrenÊs skill levels that can be achieved with the assistance from more
skilled individuals.
(b) Lower Limit

Skills that can be achieved by children without any assistance.

Table 2.1 illustrates an example of upper limit, lower limit and Proximal
Development Zone.
Table 2.1: Example of Proximal Development
Development Zone Example

Upper Limit Perform addition of number 1 ă 1,000 by themselves
Proximal Development Zone Perform addition of number 1 ă 1,000 with assistance
Lower Limit Children are already proficient in performing addition
of number 1 ă 100
Scaffolding is an idea closely related to the Zone of Proximal Development. It is a

structure that supports others. When the new structure is strong or complete and
can stand alone, the support structure will be removed.
Through this technique, assistance and guidance from people who are more
knowledgeable is necessary in order to master the skills. Assistance in childrenÊs
learning process will be reduced or completely removed when the children have
reached the level of skills required.
Conversation and interaction is an important tool during the process of

scaffolding. Conversation helps children construct new concepts more
systematically with the help from individuals who are more skilled, for example
Early Mathematics educators.
Types of scaffolding and their application in the classroom are shown in Table 2.
2:
Table 2.2: Types of Scaffolding
Types of Scaffolding Examples

Modelling A teacher demonstrates how to paint before directing
the children to try painting on their own.
Briefing Physics teacher expresses his/her opinion while solving

questions on the whiteboard.
Asking questions After explaining a model, teachers will ask questions to

students.
Instructional adaptation A physical education teacher will lower the nets when
teaching how to catch a ball and the net is then increased
to a higher level when students are more skilful.
Helpful guidance Children in kindergarten are taught how to tie shoelaces

by following the steps shown by teachers.

According to Vygotsky, apart from communicating with other people in order to

learn new or more difficult skills, the children also communicate with
themselves.
ACTIVITY 2.4
In groups, discuss examples of children who have reached the upper

limit, the lower limit of the Zone of Proximal Development.
2.5 IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORY OF

EARLY MATHEMATICS
All the theories outlined by Piaget, Bruner, Dienes and Vygotsky are closely
related to the concept of constructivism. It is a theory about knowledge and
attractive learning, motivating and facilitating the understanding of learning.
According to Angela Anthonysamy (1998), constructivism also suggests that

children actively construct their knowledge based on existing knowledge that
they have. It can be produced through games and experimentation and
cooperative learning. When children work together, indirectly, they share the
process of construction of an idea. Then, children will build new knowledge as a
result of learning independently.
In the constructivist approach, a child-centred learning environment where the

children become the basic foundation and teachers act as facilitators. Here are the
implications of learning theory in Early Mathematics:
(a) Using concrete materials as teaching aids;
(b) Providing brief and clear instructions;
(c) Explanation of a matter should be given in words which are easily

understood by children. Educators should also consider childrenÊs point of
view;
(d) Giving children the opportunity to perform on their own (hands-on) in

certain skills. This provides an opportunity to improve children confidence;
(e) Giving an opportunity to children to manipulate and test objects that are
taught. Children should be taught to think creatively and critically;

(f) Teaching children to experience more on complex things;
(g) Introducing easy and systematic problem-solving questions; and
(h) Introducing a broad concept and not only bound by facts. Students are
allowed to explore and self-study the concept that is being taught.
In conclusion, children learn mathematics through experience and observation of

things. Children also can improve their thinking in producing a new concept.
 Piaget found that childrenÊs cognitive development varies and evolves

through four stages, namely, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational and formal operations.
 Dienes emphasised that mathematical concepts can be learnt through six

stages, namely, free play, structured play, comparison stage, representation,
representation of symbol and finally, formalisation.
 Bruner argued that children make up the concept by separating objects

according to the characteristics of similarities and differences.
 According to Vygotsky, apart from communicating with others to learn new

or more difficult skills, children also need to communicate with themselves.
Accommodation Proximal Development Zone

Assimilation Scaffolding
DienesÊ theory Scheme
Egocentric Social theory by Vygotsky
Formation theory by Bruner Theory of cognitive development


Dienes, Z. P. (1967). The power of mathematics. London, England: Hutchinson

University Library.


Topic  Language of
3 Mathematics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain methods to develop mathematical proficiency using songs
and verses;
2. Practise the method of increasing interest in language of mathematics
through the use of childrenÊs literature;
3. Describe storytelling as a form of art and culture;
4. Identify the symbols of mathematics;
5. Apply the reading and writing of numbers; and
6. Discuss examples of writing suitable literature for children.
 INTRODUCTION
According to Smith (2008), the language of mathematics can be harmonised into
various forms of communication to improve learning skills. Learning through the
language of mathematics can be obtained by various methods, for example, role
play, songs, nursery rhymes, childrenÊs stories, childrenÊs books with pictures
that focusing on learning the language using themes, pictures and so on. The
language of mathematics is divided into two aspects which are communications
and symbols.
Imagine the skills involved while singing „Ten Black Children (Sepuluh Budak
Hitam)‰. The song allows children to recognise most mathematical concepts such
as counting, pattern (through repetitive melody, rhythm and lyrics), matching
and comparing (via the beat of the song, sound and pitch). Adding movement
into singing this song will create a comprehensive learning package for this track.

30  TOPIC 3 LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS
This is how the relationship between language and mathematics can be

established, via song is one of the examples that can be described here.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Discuss the meaning of mathematics according to the definition as

described in a more elaborative way.
3.1 DEVELOPING THE LANGUAGE OF

MATHEMATICS USING SONGS AND
VERSES
Music and song are childrenÊs first lesson about patterns, without the children
knowing that they are actually learning mathematics. Music plays an important
role for the childrenÊs learning about patterns at home and school. According to
Geist and Geist (2008), music could ensure children learn for a longer period of
time. Learning experiences through music will give a positive attitude towards
mathematics and could provide an appropriate environment for children.
There are various mathematical concepts that can be found in songs (see Figure
3.1).
Figure 3.1: A variety of mathematical concepts in a song

TOPIC 3 LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS  31
Music consists of rhythmic patterns and can be structured from easy or complex, it
depends on the activities conducted. Teaching pattern through music helps
strengthen the childrenÊs capacity and improves their cognitive abilities. Teaching
pattern to children is the key to the concept of „emergent mathematics‰.
3.1.1 Relationship between Mathematics and Songs

As mentioned earlier, many mathematical concepts can be found in songs such as
matching, comparison, composition, pattern and so on. According to Strickland
(2002), early childhood period is very important because at this time the brain is
experiencing rapid growth of connection between neurons. Therefore, music is
the perfect opportunity in learning mathematics.
According to Gardiner (2000), the progress in learning mathematics among

children is parallel with active study of music.
3.1.2 Early Mathematics and Songs

According to the National Preschool Standard Curriculum, there is still plenty
that could be developed between music and mathematics. The importance of
learning mathematics is to promote thinking and problem solving at once. Music
and songs are the effective method for learning.
Examples of how mathematics can be related to songs are shown in Table 3.1
(NCTM, 2008):
Table 3.1: Relationship between Mathematics and Songs
Main Focus Description Relationship with Music

Numbers and Understanding numbers,  Count rhythms („how many‰ in a
operation including counting, rhythmic pattern).
cardinality and comparison.
 Comparison rhythm („Less‰,
„more‰).
Geometry Identifying shapes and  Notation (the notation is „higher‰

describing relationships. or „lower‰).
 Sorting sound pattern.
Measurement Identifying properties of  Intonation („higher‰ or „lower‰).

measurement and matching
objects based on their  Rate (cadence „rapid‰ or „slow‰)
properties.

Table 3.1 is an example of the basis that can be displayed here. Of course there
are many mathematical concepts and examples that can be connected with music
which could be used in classroom activities.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Give examples of songs with activities that can be used in teaching

mathematics in a classroom.
3.2 DEVELOPING THE LANGUAGE OF

MATHEMATICS USING CHILDREN’S
LITERATURE
According to William James, see Figure 3.2 (a 20th century psychologist and
expert philosophy), the consolidation of mathematical literature is an ideal
consolidation. For centuries, it shows there is a relationship between
mathematics and art, including literature or writing. This relationship has been
made part of the curriculum of mathematics education since then.
Figure 3.2: William James

Source: http://tashqueedagg.wordpress.com

Smith (2008), for example, has named two books, „How to Use ChildrenÊs
Literature to Teach Mathematics‰ (Welchmann-Tischler, 1992) and „The
Wonderful World of Mathematics‰ (Thiessen, Matthias & Smith, 1998) which
provide examples on how educators can connect Early Mathematics with
writing/literature and critical thinking skills.
Zambo (2005) suggests various activities that can be used based on Chinese folk
tale „A Grain of Rice‰, and how to connect events that can be solved by children.
Children use a variety of strategies such as addition, numbers and many more to
get the answer on „how many grains of rice obtained by Pong Lo on the twenty
fifth day?‰. Other mathematical activities that can be included are:
(a) How much space is needed to accommodate all the rice?
(b) What kind of space that was involved?
(c) Is the evidence in the book realistic?
According to Zambo (2005) again, a good literature is something that can

enhance and enable the curiosity of someone and motivate them to explore
mathematics.
However, not all published books can improve learning of mathematics. Early
Mathematics educators can divert children from their free play to hear a story,
working in groups and performing writing and oral expression activities.
To learn more about the mathematical relationship with childrenÊs literature,

Early Mathematics educators can read and examine examples of children's books
that are used for learning mathematics either directly or indirectly.
According to Whitin and Whitin (2005), there are advantages of learning

mathematics using childrenÊs literature, such as:
(a) Reading and understanding how mathematics is part of their lives;
(b) Learning how mathematical ideas can be represented by the childrenÊs

literature in different circumstances;
(c) Focusing on patterns of numbers and colours to identify how storytelling

are built; and
(d) Ability to use the natural storytelling context to talk about mathematical
ideas.

According to Ward (2005), many of the ideas and concepts of mathematics are
abstract and symbolic, thus, teaching childrenÊs literature provides a unique
advantage in mathematics class. This is because mathematical ideas and concepts
can be presented in the context of storytelling by using images with simple
language. Children can learn problem solving skills by integrating mathematics
and literature using familiar stories and avoiding the use of foreign words.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Refer to a childrenÊs literature book and provide examples of

mathematical activities that can be done.
3.3 STORYTELLING AS A CULTURAL ART

FORM
Smith (2008) mentioned that there is a difference between European and African-
American traditional storytelling techniques. European traditional narration has
a certain structure starting with introduction, body and finish, as well as focus on
a single character. On the other hand, the African-American traditional
storytelling techniques include themed approach with various plots and
numerous main characters.
Storytelling through picture book, a doll or role play can be sensational and
appealing to children. There are many mathematical books that can be used in
storytelling.
According to Egan (1986; 2004; 2008), the story is a way to create meaning. It can
change the perception that mathematics class is boring, mathematics experience
can be a source of embarrassment to someone or mathematics activities can be
meaningless. Many of the topics that are frequently asked can be materials for a
story. However, in this situation, not all stories can be used as a mathematical
activity. Nevertheless, storytelling can change the mathematical experience of a
child.
3.3.1 Story in the Classroom

According to Rina Zazkis and Liljedahl (2009), stories can be used in various
methods and means. Storytelling can increase interest, help to increase memory
and reduce anxiety of children. Storytelling can also create comfort and build a
close relationship between a storyteller and children.

The narrator must be creative in conveying a story. A good storytelling can

increase childrenÊs participation, create excitement and mystery, and motivate
children to think critically. Stories can also provide a variety of methods in
learning such as to act as the main character, create empathy and improve
memory.
According to Egan (2008), in mathematics class, there is no similar ending for

every story. The main goals are to maintain interest, ensure childrenÊs
engagement and not allowing the interest to fade by the end of the story.
3.3.2 Different Stories

The story is different in many aspects. There is a fictional, sad, romance, comedy
and others. Narrations of the following stories can be different: folklore, fairy
tales, bedtime stories, myths, legends and many others. However, what is more
important is teaching and learning mathematics, and how to make mathematics
class more active.
Educators cannot distinguish the type of story solely through the story structure
or even through the mathematical content. For example a story that raises a lot of
questions.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Prepare a suitable story for Mathematics. Present your story in class.
3.4 MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS

Mathematics is rich with symbols. Through symbols, everyone in the world can
read the meaning of the signs displayed. For example, Ali has travelled to Korea
and could not understand Korean very well. When Ali wanted to buy goods in
Korea, he can understand some of the values that must be paid only by using
mathematical symbols.

To complete the communication, the language of mathematics is formed with

symbols which include numbers and specific signs, compared to the use of the
letters. According to Smith (2008), the symbols are divided into four categories,
namely (see Figure 3.3):
Figure 3.3: Four categories of symbols
In writing a perfect sentence, one must ensure the use of at least two of the four
categories as described in Figure 3. 3. For example:
1+3=4
The above sentence is a combination of three categories, namely, ideas,

relationships and operations. If only one category is used, it is a mathematically
perfect sentence. For example:
The number before this is not a mathematical sentence, but only a number.

3.4.1 Using Symbols

Mathematics provides a very comprehensive language for communicating
purposes and ideas. In order to use it, it is important to know how to use the
symbols provided.
There are two kinds of mathematical sentences, namely:
(a) Closed sentence; and
(b) Open sentence.
Closed sentence is a sentence that only has either right or wrong answer. For
example:
1 + 3 = 4 (correct sentence)
2 - 1 = 0 (false sentence)
Open sentence is a sentence that has the same value either right or wrong and is
determined by variables. Variables perhaps more than one. For example:
x+2=9
The above sentence is true if x is 7, if x is not worth 7, then the above sentence is
incorrect.
3.4.2 Learning Mathematical Symbol

For the purpose of teaching mathematical symbols to children, educators should
use interesting approach to increase childrenÊs interest and focus on
mathematics. According to Flansburg (1994), learning mathematics is not to
memorise but it is a creative activity instead (such as painting, writing or
playing).

For example, teachers tell a story using everyday language to explain the
addition operation. Use concrete materials in storytelling to provide information:
Story:
There are three fish in the refrigerator. Mom has bought another five fish and
then kept them in the refrigerator. How many fish are in the refrigerator now?
(see Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Addition operation using a symbol
Another example is the subtraction operation. Teacher provides a small basket

with nine oranges. Children are asked to count and state the amount.
Children are asked to take out three oranges and then requested to count the
remaining oranges available (see Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: Subtraction operation by using symbols

Early Mathematics educators introduce sentences involving the subtraction

operation:
9ă3=6
ACTIVITY 3.5
Give examples of symbols that are easily understood by children.
3.5 READING AND WRITING NUMBERS

Harris and Sipay (1980) stated that the process of reading as a process to obtain a
meaningful interpretation of the printed or written symbols. According to
Kenedy (1981), reading is the ability of a person to recognise visual forms
(graphic symbols that represent the language or word), connect them with the
sound or meaning that is known based on past experience, understand and
translate its meaning.
There are two basic processes of reading skills namely code-breaking skill and
comprehension skill. Code-breaking skill enables someone to mention the word
written correctly. Comprehension skill allows one to understand the meaning of
a word or meaning of words within certain context.
3.5.1 Reading Scores

According to Brewer (1995), the stages of childrenÊs reading development are as
follows:
(a) Magic Stage

Children think that the book is an important tool.
(b) Self-concept Stage

Children pretend to read.
(c) Reading Pictures (Bridging) Stage

Children read the image, even the writing is considered as a picture.

(d) Introduction of Reading (Take-off) Stage

The introduction of reading where children begin to use graphophonics
and semantics. At this stage, children start to read labels, names,
advertisements and others.
(e) Self-reading Stage

Children can read well. Children can understand information that is read.
The best learning is through play. Through play, children can develop the
concept of number corresponding to their cognitive stage. Children will get the
impression that the figures have meaning and understand that the figures used
for summation, measurement, sequence and time. In this case, the lesson process
will encourage them to like numbers and wanting to learn about numbers.
Numeric games must be integrated with reading lesson, for example:
(a) To mention figures from images;
(b) To mention figures from words;
(c) To find and state figures from hidden images;
(d) To match numbers with pictures;
(e) To connect figures in sequence; and
(f) To compare the figures and the words.
3.5.2 Writing Figures

Byrne (1979) mentioned that graphic symbol used during writing is the
combinations of letters related to the symbol of sound made while speaking.
According to Smith (2008), writing numerical figures is the basic skill in Early
Mathematics. Brewer (1995) describes the level of children's writing development
as follows:
(a) Create a Sketching

Children make pictures that are not clearly visible.
(b) Linear Repetition

Children write on a horizontal line comprises long or short words.

(c) Letters are Unorganised

The letters arranged do not form a word (but for children it has been
regarded as a statement).
(d) Write a Name or Sound

Write as in vocal sound, for example, „krokodail‰ as „crocodile‰.
(e) Conventional Spelling

Children write using a standard form.
Examples of numerical games for the purpose of writing lessons are as follows:
(a) Colouring figures;
(b) Connecting dots to form a figure;
(c) Filling a sequence of numbers;
(d) Filling figures based on the number of objects;
(e) Counting and writing numbers; and
(f) Adding objects and writing numbers.
 Storytelling techniques can help children to improve their mastery of the

language of mathematics in terms of problem solving in Early Mathematics.
 Literature books should be appropriate to the children in order to improve

their skills in basic mathematics.
 There are four categories for mathematical symbols namely idea,

relationships, operations and punctuations.
Fiction Numbers
Language of mathematics Symbols
Literature

Brewer, J. A. (1995). Introduction to early childhood education. Boston, MA:

Allyn and Bacon.
Byrne, D. (1979). Teaching writing skills. London, England: Longman.
Church, E. B. (2010). The math in music & movement. Retrieved from http://
www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/math-music-movement.
Egan, K. (1986, 2004, 2008). Teaching as story telling: An alternative approach to

teaching and curriculum in the elementary school. The University of
Western Ontario.
Flansburg, S. (1994). Math magic. New York, NY: Harper Collins.
Gardiner, M. F. (2000). Music, learning and behaviour: A case for mental

stretching. International Foundation For Music Research.
Geist, K., Geist, E. A., & Kuznik, K. (2012). The patterns of music: Young children
learning mathematics through beat, rhythm and melody. National
Association for the Education of Young Children. Retrieved from https://
www.naeyc.org/yc/files/yc/file/201201/Geist_Patterns_of_Music_Jan012.
pdf
Harris, A. J., & Sipay, E. R. (1980). How to increase reading abililty: A guide to
developmental and remedial methods. New York, NY: Longman.
Jasni Ehwan. (2012). Pengajaran matematik pra-sekolah. Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia: Universiti Terbuka Malaysia.
Kenedy, R. C. (1981). Cretan picture postcards, and other poems. Fayetteville,

NC: Dalmas & Ricour.
Smith, S. S. (2008). Early childhood mathematics. Cardinal Stritch University.
Strickland, J. (2002). Music and the brain in child development. Childhood

Education.

Tadkiroatun Musfiroh. (2003). Memperkenalkan huruf di taman kanak-kanak.

Retrieved from http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/tmp/
memperkenalkan%20huruf%20dan%20angka.pdf
Thiessen, D., Matthias, M., & Smith, J. (1998). The wonderful world of
mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Ward, R. A. (2005). Using childrenÊs literature to inspire k-8 preservice teachersÊ

future mathematics pedagogy. International Reading Association.
Welchmann-Tischler. (1992). How to use childrenÊs literature to teach

mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Whitin, D. J., & Whitin, P. (2004). New visions for linking literature and
mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of English.
Zambo, R. (2005). The power of two: Linking mathematics and literature.

Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School.
Zazkis, R., & Liljedahl, P. (2009). Teaching mathematics as story. Rotterdam, NL:
Sense Publishers.

Topic  Pre-numbers
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the definition of pre-numbers;
2. Describe the concept of matching;
3. Understand the concept of the classification;
4. Apply the concept of the Venn diagram; and
5. Explain the concept of ordering or seriation.
 INTRODUCTION
Basic mathematics for people starts with their experiences related to concrete
objects or objects containing the quantity or quality such as size, colour and
shape. It then develops into pictorial and symbolic levels. Mathematics lesson
focuses to develop childrenÊs ability to scrutinize, predict, draw a logical
reasoning and use various mathematical strategies to solve problems.
4.1 DEFINITIONS OF PRE-NUMBERS

Experience in pre-numbers is an Early Mathematics knowledge gained even
before numbers are formally introduced in the Early Mathematics Preschool
Curriculum. Skills related to pre-numbers at an early age are very important for
children to build positive attitudes towards mathematics and effective learning.

TOPIC 4 PRE-NUMBERS  45
According to Noraini Idris (2010), the mathematical skills are acquired through
projects, games and daily life situations as follows:
(a) Handling Various Shapes

This is a preschool activity to develop awareness of children on variety of
shapes and their names and characteristics.
(b) Organising Multiple Sets of Objects

The experience of sorting is an important experience in mathematics that
relates to similarities and differences.
(c) Comparison between the Members of a Set of Objects

This experience will introduce the concept and the use of phrases, for
example, longer than, contains more than, shorter than and others.
(d) Matching Members of an Object

This will lead to the concept and the use of more than, less than, equal to
and others. The concept brings together many concepts of numbers in the
set.
Pre-numbers represent the earliest skills that need to be introduced to children

before introducing them to the concept of numbers. To ensure effective teaching
of pre-numbers, educators should determine the relationship between concepts
such as matching, classification, comparison, ordering and seriation.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Choose any topics of pre-number skills that have been discussed and
give reasons why it is important towards building mathematical
experiences.
4.2 MATCHING
According to Ambika Bhargava and Kirova (2002), matching is the earliest
mathematics concept and it is also the foundation for critical thinking.
Prerequisite to matching is the understanding of the concept of „equal‰.
Matching is also the prerequisite to the concept of relationship. According to
Charlesworth and Lind (1999), once the children understand the concept of
matching, they can apply the concept in activities that involves equivalence.

46  TOPIC 4 PRE-NUMBERS
Matching process is started by matching an object with another object by colour,

size, shape, number, pair and so on, the objects with numbers and numbers with
another numbers. Matching the number of objects with symbol is also part of the
concept of matching.
Matching skill is a prerequisite for a more difficult skill which is the concept of
immortality. PiagetÊs eternity tests are used to assess the development of children
at a certain age as discussed in Topic 5.
There are four dimensions that are needed when assessing the matching skills:
(a) Are the objects the same or different?
(b) Are there a lot of objects to be matched, or just a certain number only?
(c) Is there the same number in each set?
(d) For each set, are they related or not?
4.2.1 Are They the Same or Different Objects?

In this dimension, it is easier to match different objects, as compared to the same
objects.
(a) Easy Activities

See Figure 4.1 as an example.
Figure 4.1: Matching the same objects

(b) Difficult Activities

See Figure 4.2 as an example.
Figure 4.2: Matching different objects
It is easier for children to match the object in the example described before
because they have the advantage as they recognise the picture and only two
similar objects to match. However, they will have difficulty matching the
different object, because it is hard for the children to make sure every objects
have their own pairs.

4.2.2 Matching More or Less?

In this dimension, it is easier to match objects which have a small number as
compared to the number that is large.
(a) An easy activity to match objects that have small numbers (see Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Matching objects in a small set
(b) A difficult activity to match objects that have large numbers (see Figure
4.4).
Figure 4.4: Matching objects in a large set

4.2.3 Is there a Same Number in Each Set?

In this dimension, it is easier to match objects which have the same number in
each set.
(a) An easy activity to match objects that have the same number (see Figure
4.5).
Figure 4.5: The same number of each set
(b) A difficult activity to match objects that are not sufficient in numbers (see
Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: The numbers of objects are insufficient

4.2.4 Does Each Set Have a Relationship or Not?

In this dimension, it is easier to match related objects in each set.
(a) An easy activity to match objects that are related in each set (see Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7: Matching objects that have a relationship

(b) A difficult activity to match objects that have no relationship (see Figure
4.8).
Figure 4.8: Matching objects that have no relationship
The use of mathematical language can also help to accelerate learning. The ability
of children to interact with each other or with Early Mathematics educators can
help to improve learning. The use of words such as less than, too many and
others show the level of childrenÊs understanding of the matching concept and
relationship to one another.
Matching is one of the earliest mathematical concepts which aims to provide the
foundation for critical thinking and logic.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Define the meaning of matching and provide examples of mathematical

activities to teach the matching concept.

4.3 CLASSIFICATION
Classification is a collection of objects in the class or subclass based on a distinct
characteristic. The purpose of classification is to ensure that students are able to
distinguish and gather objects based the similar or different characteristics.
According to Charlesworth and Lind (1999), children will usually choose the
same objects, whether they are asked to or not. It shows children at an early age
have seen the relationships between objects.
Examples of characteristics are as follows:
(a) Colour (identifying the colour, naming the colour, sorting the colour and
colouring according to the instructions);
(b) Size (comparing the size of an object, identifying the size, naming the size,
sorting objects by size, matching the same size and colouring according to
the same size);
(c) Shape (sorting objects by shape, naming the objects, matching objects by
shapes, colouring the objects according to the same shape); and
(d) Type (naming objects by type, gathering objects according to types,

classifying objects by type and colouring objects according to type).
The childrenÊs classification ability starts with the ability to classify similar
objects based on a characteristic. For example, colour, shape and size. The ability
to classify the same objects is based on two or more characteristics or properties.
Lastly, children for example, would classify according to the number of pairs,
groups of three or four and so on.
Early Mathematics educators will demonstrate how to arrange easily by

gathering objects according to its shape, size, colour, pattern and function. Early
Mathematics educators will mix all items together. Then, the children will be
assigned to sort object into different groups or sets.
Classification activity is an important process in forming number concept to

children. The classification process must go through several stages and they are:
(a) Choosing and comparing;
(b) Gathering;
(c) Reusing;

(d) Sorting by group; and
(e) Selecting objects based on the functionality, usability or concept.
4.3.1 Preparing a Set

Set is the basic learning of mathematics. Set means a group. Group is a set of
objects that shares the same characteristics or properties. For example, „What I
wear includes a shirt, pants, shoes, socks and others‰. This is called a set (see
Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9: A set of objects that I wear
Various activities can be taught to children about the concept of classification

whether at home or school. This will help children understand this concept more
broadly at a higher level.
In conclusion, the set is the objects that are grouped together according to their
similar characteristics or the features.

4.3.2 Mathematical Concepts Based on the Venn

Diagram
A mathematical concept based on a Venn diagram. Venn diagram is an
illustration used in mathematics as a way to solve and present a set. It was
introduced by John Venn (1834 ă 1923) who was from Cambridge, England. He
was an English mathematician and philosopher who did a lot of research on logic
and probability. Venn diagram shows a lot of information.
(a) Sets
For example, you have seven friends: Ali, Daniel, Hakim, Faiz, Alex, Tom
and Muthu. Hakim, Tom and Muthu can play football while Hakim, Faiz,
Tom and Daniel are good at playing badminton. The illustration can be
seen in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10: Indicate sets using a Venn diagram
(b) Union of Sets (see Figure 4.11)

This is called a union of sets and has the symbol , based the following
example:
Football  badminton = {Hakim, Tom, Muthu, Faiz, Daniel}
This means out of seven friends, only five people can play football or
badminton (or both).
Much information can be obtained from the Venn diagram, such as:
(i) Hakim, Tom and Muthu are in the football set;
(ii) Hakim, Tom, Faiz and Daniel are in the badminton set; and
(iii) Hakim and Tom are in both sets.

Figure 4.11: Union of sets
(c) Intersection of Sets

Intersection of sets occurs when you are in both sets. In the previous
example, friends who know how to play football and badminton are Hakim
and Tom.
For intersection of sets, it has a symbol opposite to the symbol used in the
union of sets.
Sets can be accurately described using a Venn diagram. Union are objects
that have both features, while intersection occurs when objects overlap (see
Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.12: Intersection of sets
ACTIVITY 4.3
Define and provide an example of a suitable activity for teaching

classification concept to children.

4.4 COMPARISON
According to Gibbs and Castadena (1975), comparison is a process that links two
objects with certain characteristics as comparison basis. Comparison will occur
when comparing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of two selected
objects. Children need to use all their senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and
taste to find similarities and differences.
The purpose of comparison is to ensure that children can master the concepts
that are often used in areas such as higher than, more than and bigger than. If
there are some equality, comparative is about the difference. Children will also
learn phrases in language of mathematics in this case.
Children express differences and similarities by using the following concepts:
(a) Size (long, short, high, low, thick, thin);
(b) Size (large, small);
(c) Weight (heavy, light);
(d) Quantity (more, less); and
(e) Type.
Comparison is an important skill before children can advance to the next

concepts such as ordering or seriation.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Define the concept of comparison and provide an example of learning

comparison concept to children in which they acquired through
experience in their lives.
4.5 ORDERING OR SERIATION

The ordering or seriation is the process of arranging objects by ascending or
descending value of attribute of an object. The ordering or seriation can be done
based on weight, size, mass and others.

According to Geist (2002), ordering or seriation is the ability to arrange or group

the objects in a series based on the properties of the object. However, according
Wolfinger, Svrcek-Seiler, Flamm, Hofacker and Stadler (2004), seriation is the
ability to arrange objects in stacks based on its ascending or decending of
properties.
The ordering or seriation is the basis of numerical system as two is greater than
one, three is more than two and so on.
Examples of ordering or seriation:
(a) Sorting according to the order as small to large, thin to thick, low to high,
narrow to wide and short to long; and
(b) Sorting objects according to the characteristics found on the object.
The ordering or seriation is more difficult than comparison because some

conclusions have to be made during the process of arranging.
4.5.1 The Views of Piaget and Montessori

Here are the views of Piaget and Montessori related ordering or seriation.
(a) Piaget
According to Piaget in his book „The Psychology of the Child‰, seriation is
an ordering of objects either increasing or decreasing. Children as early as
one year old can already see the difference easily when playing with a set of
blocks that are stacked vertically. As they grow older, the child will
perform a more challenging ordering or seriation.
In an experiment conducted by Piaget, children demonstrate the ability to

arrange the wooden pegs based on the difference in length from short to
long.
(b) Montessori
Montessori regards seriation and ordering similar to Piaget. Children are
capable of carrying out seriation activities when they focus on significant
differences for the objects for example, longer, shorter, bigger, smaller and
others.

In this case, Montessori has created a very useful learning material for
children. Pink Tower is the most significant MontessoriÊs creation and has
been used until now for the practitioners of Montessori approach.
Apart from being used for seriation activities, these materials may also be
used to create a particular pattern.
4.5.2 Types of Seriation

Here are the different kinds of seriation:
(a) Multiple Seriation

The main difference between single seriation with double seriation is the
number of dimensions used to find differences between objects
simultaneously.
Seriation occurs when multiple objects simultaneously prepared in a series

based on two or more different characteristics.
(b) Reverse Seriation

According to Kostelnik, Howe, Payne, Spalding and Rohde (2008), reverse
seriation is an ordering activity that in done in a backward order.
In the activity, the children are asked to imagine some dinosaur figurines as
„real‰ dinosaurs and the basket provided as a ‰forest‰. Then, they are asked
to arrange the dinosaur from small to large before heading into the woods
(the basket). All dinosaurs in the basket are then mixed again.
Reverse seriation occurs when children are asked to remove the dinosaur
from the forest (baskets filled with dinosaurs) according to backward order,
from large too small.
 Pre-numbers skill learning involves four learning concepts namely matching,

classification, comparison and seriation.
 Pre-numbers experience provides a basis for learning numbers in a higher

level in mathematics.
 The concept of matching means the relationship between two objects.

 Classification activity stimulates the use of logic and language, and build the
basis for mature thinking.
 Using all the senses is important to compare between two or more objects by
looking at the similarities or differences between the objects.
 Seriation provides early experience to children about positioning in a series.
Classification Reverse seriation

Comparison Seriation
Matching Venn diagram
Multiple seriation
Ahmad Zulkifli Manoh. (2013). Kemahiran pranombor. Retrieved from http://

www.scribd.com/doc/131976043/Kemahiran-pranombor
Bhargava, A., & Kirova, A. (2002). Assessing the development of mathematical

concepts in preschool children: Checklists for teachers. Retrieved from
http://ojs.uwindsor.ca/ojs/leddy/index.php/JTL/article/
viewFile/142/166
Charlesworth, R., & Lind, K. K. (1999). Math and science for young children.
Clifton Park, NY: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Geist, E. (2002). Children are born mathematicians: Encouraging and promoting

early mathematical concepts in children under five. McGraw-Hill: Annual
Editions ă Early Childhood Education 02/03.
Gerard Baruch, & S. Pattabi Raman, S. P. (1998). Cognitive competence: Seriation.

Escondido, CA: Anisa.

Gibbs., E. G., & Castaneda, A. M. (1975). Mathematics around us: Skills and
applications; kindergarten. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Kostelnik, M. J., Howe, D., Payne, K., Spalding, G., & Rohde, B. (2008). Teaching
young children using themes. Culver City, CA: Good Year Books.

Pusat Penididkan Berterusan Universiti Malaya.
Ojose, B. (2008). Applying PiagetÊs theory of cognitive development to

mathematics instruction. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Reimer, J. (2012). 40 awesome number activities for preschoolers. Retrieved from

http://handsonaswegrow.com/40-number-activities-for-preschoolers/
Tan, G. K. (2013). Matematik awal. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/

doc/136641581/Matematik-Awal
Wolfinger, M. T., Svrcek-Seiler, W. A., Flamm, C., Hofacker, I. L., & Stadler, P. F.
(2004). Efficient computation of RNA folding dynamics. Journal of Physics A:
Mathematical and General. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/37/17/005.

Topic  Concept of
5 Pre-numbers
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the concept of conservation;
2. Describe the concept of subitising and type of subitising; and
3. Explain the concept of pattern and types of pattern.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we have discussed the basic mathematics concepts such as
matching, classification, comparison and seriation. Subsequently, we will look
into the concept of conservation, recognition of group and patterns that represent
a deeper understanding of Early Mathematics among children.
5.1 PIAGET’S CONSERVATION TASKS

As discussed earlier, the concept of matching is a prerequisite skill needed to
address the more difficult activities. PiagetÊs conservation tasks are used to assess
childrenÊs development at a certain age.
In the previous topic, we discussed that children can only maintain the matching
concept, understand the concept of reversal and reversed a process in abstract at
the stage of Concrete Operations (7 years old to 11 years old) based on PiagetÊs
Cognitive Learning Theory.

62  TOPIC 5 CONCEPT OF PRE-NUMBERS
5.1.1 Piaget’s Conservation Tasks: Mass Experiment

The tasks conducted by Piaget are related to conservation that needs children to
make judgments with regards to two sets of objects (numbers) and two volume
of liquid.
Here is an illustration of PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks, Mass Experiment (see

Figure 5.1).
Teachers should provide a conducive environment before starting this task.

Prepare three containers of water, two of the same size and another is a slightly
narrower and taller container. Prepare coloured water and fill in the containers as
illustrated in Figure 5.1. Use the measuring container to ensure the amount of
water introduced to the two containers are at the same level.
Figure 5.1: PiagetÊs conservation tasks (mass experiment)
Ask the children to assess the situation. Record the childrenÊs information such as
name, age and gender as in Table 5.1. Children have been asked whether the
volume of water in containers B and C are at the same level.

TOPIC 5 CONCEPT OF PRE-NUMBERS  63
Record their responses in Table 5.1:
Table 5.1: PiagetÊs Conservation Test Data (Mass Experiment)
Part 1: Do Part 2:
containers B Which
and C have container
Name Age Gender Observation
the same has more
volume of water, A or
water? C?
Next, the teacher pours water from container B into container A as shown in
Figure 5.1. Change the position of the container A to position beside the container
C. Children are then asked whether the water in container A would be more than
container C. Record their response in Table 5.1.
5.1.2 Piaget’s Conservation Tasks: Number

Experiment
Here is an illustration of PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks, Number Experiment (see
Figure 5.2):
Figure 5.2(a) shows the one-to-one relationship for the object in two rows of
equal length (set). Ten glasses are arranged in two rows with five glasses per
row. The teacher will ask the students:
(a) Does the first row have more glasses?
(b) Does the second row have more glasses?
(c) Do both rows have the same number of glasses?

Figure 5.2: PiagetÊs conservation tasks (number experiment)
The childrenÊs answers are recorded in Table 5.2:
Table 5.2: Record the Answers for PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks (Number Experiment)
Part 1: Are
there the Part 2:
same Which row
Name Age Gender Observation
number of has more
glasses in glasses?
both rows?
Arrangement of glass in the second row are spaced like in Figure 5.2(b). The
teacher then asked the children the same question:
(a) Does the first row have more glasses?
(b) Does the second row have more glasses?
(c) Do both rows have the same number of glasses?
ChildrenÊs responses are recorded in Table 5.2 and they should explain their
answers. Repeat the number experiment and mass experiment with some other
children.

5.1.3 Analysing Data

After completion on both number and mass experiments, teachers can analyse
the data according to the following methods:
(a) Number of children who took part in the experiment based on age groups;
(b) Find the total number of children who understand that A and C are the
same;
(c) Find the percentage of children who understand that A and C are the same;
(d) Total up the number of children who understand that the number of glasses
are equal, even with the glasses are spaced out in the second row;
(e) Provide the percentage of children who understand that the number of
glasses are equal, even with the glasses are spaced out in the second row;
and
(f) Record all this data in Table 5. 3 as follows:
Table 5.3: Analysing Data Records
Number of
children
Number of who
children understood
who that number
understood of glasses
Percentage Percentage
Age group Total that volume are equal,
(D) E
of water in even after
containers A the glasses
and B are are spaced
similar (D) out in the
second row
(E)
Plot the results of these observations in Table 5.3. Teachers can conclude
childrenÊs development based on previous activities. According to Piaget,
classification, ordering and sequencing activities are important and needed to
help children in their basic understanding of mathematics.

The concept of conservation states that a particular number will not change even
if the position or ordering has changed.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Summarise the purpose of PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks.
5.2 SUBITISING
In 1949, the concept of subitising was discovered by Kaufman et al., from a Latin
word that means „immediately‰. It is a skill „to view the numbers of an object in
a group spontaneously‰. This skill is very important for the development of
children at the age of five or six years old. According to Klein and Starkey (1988),
children use this ability to recognise objects spontaneously.
Figure 5.3: Image recognition of dots for babies

Source: http://warungflash.com
Figure 5.3 shows three pictures with different numbers of dots. The first picture
has two dots, the second has one dot and the third has three dots. These images
are shown to infants six months old with the sound of the drum according to the
number of dots. After a few times, when the baby hears the sound of the drum as
much as three times, their eyes immediately move to the three dots.

Performance on subitising study is important because it involves visual skills and

provides a clearer understanding of mathematics and its relationship.
There are two types of subitising namely perception subitising and conceptual
subitising.
5.2.1 Perception Subitising

Perception subitising is a skill to recognise numbers without using other
mathematical processes. For example, when a card with three dots are shown to
children, children as young as two years old may „see three‰ without any
knowledge of the mathematics learnt. Figure 5.4 is an example of the perception
subitising:
Figure 5.4: Perception subitising
5.2.2 Conceptual Subitising

Conceptual subitising is a skill of adding two groups spontaneously. For
example, a child sees eight dots and „only knows‰ the sum of the two dices. The
dots on the dices can be seen as two groves and as „one eight‰. Figure 5.5 is an
example of conceptual subitising:

Figure 5.5: Conceptual subitising
Spatial pattern such as on the dice is one of the patterns that can help in detection
activity of a group or a group of small objects. Another example that can be used
include temporal pattern or kinaesthetic patterns such as finger, rhythms and
sound patterns. By using these patterns, they can help children improve their
skills in recognition groups or subitising, as a whole.
According to Baroody (1987), subitising is a basic skill in children development

to understand numbers. Children can use group recognition events to explore the
characteristics of numbers such as the concept of conservation. Overall, the
ability to see relationship as „part or whole‰, contributes to the development of
number to children. They can increase various abilities such as consolidating,
calculating and understanding arithmetics and all these are the key components
in the experience of numbers.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Explain the types of subitising and provide appropriate examples.
5.3 PATTERN
Activities which involve describing, building and creating patterns require skills
in solving problems and it is an important part of learning mathematics. By using
recognition activities, a group of children practise to make immediate visual
recognition on the numbers that are typically seen on dice, dominoes and „ten
frames‰. Pattern activities are also included in the activities of classification and

comparison to provide mathematical experiences to children. Recognition

techniques, labelling and interpreting patterns are examples of challenging
mathematical experiences. There are three types of patterns and they are used to
provide mathematics experience namely repeating pattern, increasing pattern
and relationships pattern.
In patterns activities, children will go through four stages as follows:
(a) Recognising patterns;
(b) Describing pattern;
(c) Connecting pattern; and
(d) Creating pattern.
In order to help children perform these activities, teachers can explain and show
examples of a pattern to them. Patterns can be used in the construction of
mathematical ideas, for example:
(a) Copy the pattern and recite the number without counting;
(b) Search for numbers, shapes or colours after that order;
(c) Connect the pattern; and
(d) Create your own pattern.
Early Mathematics educators can use concrete materials around the school such
as coins, bottle caps or biscuits to help learning. However, children should first
be guided on pattern recognition methods before given more challenging
assignments.
5.3.1 Repeating Pattern

Repeating pattern is a repetition of patterns from the same group and this
repetition does not change. Repeating a pattern can occur in short or long order
and does not require an additional pattern. The pattern can include a variety of
items including numbers, colours and shapes.

Here is an example of a recurring pattern:
(a) Repetition of Forms

Repetition of forms can include one or many forms (see Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6: Repetition of forms
(b) Repetition of Numbers

Repetition of numbers can include one or many numbers (see Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7: Repetition of numbers
(c) Repetition of Colours

Example of repetition is in a sequence of colours using three or four
different types of colour. This activity shall use the same form for each
colour. Then the ordering of these colours is repeated until it creates
various forms (see Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8: Repetition of colours

5.3.2 Increasing Pattern

The increasing pattern is a pattern growing in each sequence, where something is
added to the pattern on each time. It can occur anywhere including in nature, art
and in the class. Since this pattern requires the addition on each sequence, the
sequence will change each time it is repeated.
Examples of increasing pattern:
(a) Number Pattern

In the number pattern, the number is doubled in each sequence and can
start with any number (see Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9: Increase in number
(b) Form Pattern

In the form pattern, a form is added to each order. Form pattern is more
difficult than number pattern (see Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.10: Increase in form
(c) Colour Pattern

In the colour pattern, the colour is added to each order. It can start with one
colour (see Figure 5.11).
Figure 5.11: Increase in colour

5.3.3 Relationship Pattern

The relationship pattern states a relationship between two sets; e.g. one box of
crayons containing eight crayons. Schedules can be made for the data: 1-8, 2-16,
3-24 and others.
Another example is the regulation states: for any numbers selected, the answers
must be doubled with the addition of a number. For example, 3  7, 8  17 and
24  49.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Explain and give examples for the non-numerical patterns like shape,
sound, colour and position.
 The concept of conservation is a situation where things or objects changed.

For example, an understanding of the conservation concept of numbers that
the number of the objects does not change even if the state of them changed.
 Conceptual performance on subitising or immediate recognition is the ability

to identify instantaneously.
 There are three types of patterns namely repeating patterns, increasing

pattern and relationship pattern.
 There are four levels of pattern recognition namely recognising pattern,

describing pattern, connecting pattern and creating pattern.
Conceptual subitising PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks ă Number

Experiment
Increasing pattern
Relationship pattern
Perception subitising
Repeating pattern
PiagetÊs Conservation Tasks ă Mass
Experiment

Baroody, A. J. (1987). ChildrenÊs mathematical thinking: A developmental

framework for preschool, primary and special education teachers. New
York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.
Clements, D. (1999). Subitizing: What is it? Why teach it? National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. A. (2009). Learning and teaching early maths. New
York, NY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Klein, A., & Starkey, P. (1988). Universals in the development of farly arithmetic
cognition. In G. B., Saxe, & M. Gearhart, ChildrenÊs Mathematics, (pp. 27ă
54). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Topic  Calculation
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the definition and concept of calculation;
2. Identify the principles of calculation; and
3. Organise activities according to the stages of calculation.
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation is part of mathematics that has been used as the language of
communication. Calculation is used almost all the time in our daily activities; for
example, measuring while cooking, measuring a personÊs height, measuring
body weight and so on.
6.1 DEFINITION OF CALCULATION

Calculation is a mathematical method used to identify the number of objects or to
subtract numbers of desired object. Calculation is used by children to
demonstrate knowledge of numbersÊ name and systems. In mathematical terms,
calculation is a method to find the number of elements of unlimited set.
Calculation also involves the use of numbers other than one; for example when
counting money such as:
(a) Counting by twos ă 2, 4, 6, 8...; and
(b) Counting by fives ă 5, 10, 15, 20...

TOPIC 6 CALCULATION  75
ACTIVITY 6.1
Define the meaning of calculation according to your understanding.
6.2 PRINCIPLES OF CALCULATION

There are three principles of calculation that need to be mastered before children
can think rationally and not by memorisation, namely, ordering of numbers,
matching of one to one and abstract principle. These principles will be explained
in the next subtopics.
6.2.1 Principle of Ordering of Numbers

This principle is a set of numbers arranged in a stable order such as 1, 2, 3, 4 and
so on. This calculation must be made by memorisation. Children can also learn
various calculations in sequence; for example calculation from top to bottom,
bottom to top, in a circle or in rows. As long as the object is not added or
subtracted, the total will remain the same.
6.2.2 Principle of Matching of One to One

This principle is where children are able to match one object with one number. In
this principle, the emphasis is given to the concept of cardinality or matching
numbers to a set. Cardinal contact involves questions such as „How much?‰.
6.2.3 Abstract Principle

Children know that they can count the objects that are different such as cows,
chickens and ducks. This understanding means the calculation is carried out on
objects that are not the same.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Summarise what is meant by the three principles of calculations.

76  TOPIC 6 CALCULATION
6.3 LEVEL OF CALCULATION

Children usually highlight the different stages of calculation with each other. The
level of calculation also has a close relationship with the principles of calculation
as described previously. For example, some children do not know the sum of
what they have calculated as they do not realise the last number is the total
number of objects that they have been counting.
There are two types of calculation namely rote memorisation and rational
calculation.
6.3.1 Rote Memorisation

Children who use the rote memorisation have to know the names for certain
numbers, but most likely not in the right sequence. This means that for rote
memorisation, someone is likely find out the correct sequence of calculations, but
the calculation object by the numbersÊ name may not always be accurate.
Relationship between them cannot be explained.
6.3.2 Rational Calculation

Children are able to name a number of objects counted correctly. Children use
one to one relationship and are able to answer questions with regards to the
objects being calculated.
The principles of rational calculation include all calculation principles and it is an

essential skill required for children. Continuous training and encouragement
should be given to children for every level they have mastered.
According to Smith (2008), rote memorisation can be switched to rational

calculation when an element of relationship is added. Once children are able to
master rational calculation, more complicated calculations should be introduced
and the children should be encouraged to do them.
ACTIVITY 6.3
What is the difference between rote memorisation and rational

calculation? Discuss.

6.4 COUNTING EXERCISE

Counting exercises are given to children to improve their calculation skills.
According to Smith (2008), oral counting exercises such as singing, rhythm and
competition give pleasure and help to improve the skills of counting among
children. Counting exercises such as counting from forward to backward should
be given to them.
Natural situations or concrete materials provide encouraging counting exercises

either in counting forward or backward. Apart from that, the counting exercises
for skipping or skips of number 1 and number of other starter including 0, could
provide additional computation skills and concepts of numbering to children.
Chart 100 is one example of a good model for the counting exercise for skipping.
Counting exercises are often integrated with activities like searching for pattern
and problem solving.
Research shows the difficulties faced by children when doing counting activities
can be predicted. For example, children become slower or do not want to
continue when they reach number 29. However, as soon as they are able to move
up to number 30, they gain speed in counting and this shows that they can count
to the next level.
One way of counting is by using a calculator. Calculator is a flexible tool and can
help improve childrenÊs ability in calculation. It is also a very exciting tool for
them. Preliminary calculation lessons using a calculator can create a fun physical
relationship between pressing the buttons and seeing the displayed values; thus,
it translates to children that calculation using different numbers is easy. For
example, the calculator can be used to count from zero, count one by one, count
with a different start up number and perform skipping calculations by using a
specific number. Calculator can also be used to count backwards.
Estimation is the calculation that requires children to estimate the time required
to count for one-on-one from 100 to 1,000 using the calculator. Children will find
that the estimated time is equal to the number counted for one-to-one to count
from 1,000, or calculate 1,000 to 1,000,000 or count to 100 in 0.1. This experience
gives children an exciting experience in seeing different patterns in mathematics
while improving their skills in problem solving and critical thinking.

Counting skills can be developed using a variety of methods including direct

model, calculation strategy and factual derivative. The calculation strategies such
as counting forward and backward promote deeper calculation skills among
children.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What calculation strategies could be taught to pre-school children?
6.5 FORWARD CALCULATION ACTIVITIES

In this activity, children provide the name of the correct numbers while counting
and they can start with any numbers to count. Many activities can be made using
such calculations like bag game, hand game and movement game.
6.5.1 Bag Game

In this activity, the teacher and children calculate the number of objects placed in
a specific bag. For example, three apples are placed in the bag. Children will say
„3‰ and so they will calculate according to the number of apples that are putting
in the bag after number three (see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Bag game

6.5.2 Hand Game

In this activity, the teacher will say two and point out two fingers and then
continue counting until five (see Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Hand game
6.5.3 Movement Game

The teacher provides a few numbered stickers pasted to the floor. The numbers
are from one to ten. The children will jump on the number each time it is
mentioned by the teacher.
By using forward calculations activities, children will find plenty of meaningful

patterns and it is the best strategy to enhance the development of mathematical
addition which will be discussed in the next topic.
ACTIVITY 6.4
Design three forward calculation activities that could help in childrenÊs

learning. Give reasons why these experiences are required by the
children.
6.6 BACKWARD CALCULATION ACTIVITIES

Backward calculation activity is a forward calculation in reverse. Backward
calculation activity is more complicated as the usual sequence of numbers is
reversed. Backward counting is a skill that is often used to solve the problem of
subtraction. However, many children do not use this skill properly.

Children who have advanced mathematical thinking can perform backward

calculation activities as a challenge. Examples of counting backward are shown
in Figure 6.3:
Figure 6.3: Activities of backwards calculation
The overall ability to master the skill of counting is important to build a good
numerical concept and as a prerequisite to the efficient mathematical
development among children. Furthermore, the forward or backward calculation
activities using a calendar are also helpful. The ability to calculate from numbers
0 to 10 and the concept of pre-numbers will help children understand larger
numbers and their values. This topic will be discussed in the next topic.
ACTIVITY 6.5
Give three appropriate examples of forward calculation activities and

explain importance of the activities in Early Mathematics curriculum.

 Calculation is a mathematical method used to find out the sum or to subtract

the number of the desired objects.
 There are three principles of calculation to be mastered by children before

they can calculate through understanding.
 The two levels of calculation which are rote memorisation and rational
calculation have close ties with the three principles of calculations.
 Many activities can be taught using the method of forward or backward

calculation.
Backwards calculation Forward calculation

Cardinality Rational calculation
Estimation Rote memorisation
Marmasse, N., Bletsas, A., & Marti, S. (2000). Numerical mechanisms and
ChildrenÊs concept on numbers. Cambridge, MA: The Media Laboratory
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.


Topic  Understanding
7 the Early
Numbers
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the history of base-ten;
2. Describe the unique features of the base-ten system;
3. Explain the concept of building benchmark numbers;
4. Describe the early number concept; and
5. Discuss numbers, figures and name of numbers.
 INTRODUCTION
Calculation has been used as the language of communication because it is easily
understood and it is part of mathematics. Calculation is used in daily activities to
measure cooking ingredients, a person's height and weight, and so on.
Examples of topics of numbers for children are calculation, indication of

numbers, meaning of numbers, comparing sets, place value, fractions and
estimation. According to Reys, Suydam and Lindquist (1995), the use of one to
one comparison allows children to reason and solve problems with respect to
each set of object relationship.
Counting is an important ability needed to acquire other proficiency in numbers.

TOPIC 7 UNDERSTANDING THE EARLY NUMBERS  83
7.1 HISTORY OF BASE-TEN

Calculation is a mathematical method used to find the number of objects or to
subtract number of the desired object. Calculation is used by children to
demonstrate knowledge of the name of numbers and number systems. In
mathematical terms, calculation is the means to find the number of elements of
the set that is infinite.
Calculation also involves the use of numbers other than one; for instance when
counting money and exchange such as:
(a) Counting by twos ă 2, 4, 6, 8...; and
(b) Counting by fives ă 5, 10, 15, 20...
Base-ten refers to the numbering system used. For example, number 475, base-ten
states the position 5 is in the ones, 7 is in position the tens and four is in the
hundreds.
According to Smith (2008), base-ten was used in ancient times to help in

mathematics proficiency. The following subtopic describes examples of base-ten
application in the past.
7.1.1 Egyptian Civilisation

Hieroglyphics is a formal writing used by the ancient Egyptians which includes a
combination of logogram and alphabetic elements. Egyptian civilisation has used
a numerical system called hieroglyphics to represent numbers.
Egyptians used hieroglyphics to compose religious literature in papyrus and

wood materials.

84  TOPIC 7 UNDERSTANDING THE EARLY NUMBERS
Examples of numbers used by the Egyptian civilisation written in hieroglyphics

can be seen in Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.1: The numbers in hieroglyphs

Source: www. r2iclubforums.com

7.1.2 Roman Civilisation

The Roman system was found to have similarities with the Hindu-Arabic system,
but it was replaced by the Hindu-Arabic system in the 16th century (see Figure
7.2).
Figure 7.2: Roman numerical system

Source: http://iabhopal.wordpress.com

7.1.3 Hindu-Arabic System

Hindu-Arabic numbering system was developed by the Hindus, but was
subsequently spread by the Arabs to Europe. This system has entered a zero
symbol and has been known as a base-ten system of classification, given in a
scale of 10 (see Figure 7.3).
Figure 7.3: Development of Hindu-Arabic numerical system

Source: http://global.britannica.com
7.1.4 Others
Basic numbering has been conventionally used in our community including base-
twelve used in measuring length (inches), quantity (dozen) time (twelve hours a
day as shown in Figure 7.4) and base-two (binary) which is used in computer
language.
Figure 7.4: Sample base-12

ACTIVITY 7.1
According to hieroglyphs, the appropriate numbering to represent the

following numbers:
(a) 65;
(b) 388; and
(c) 29,405.
7.2 UNIQUE FEATURES OF BASE-TEN

SYSTEMS
There are four unique characteristics of the base-ten system, as described in the
next subtopics.
7.2.1 Numeric Number Application

Base-ten system uses numerical numbers like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0 with zero
being a substantial amount. Empty represents the quantity or the empty set.
7.2.2 Positioning System

Base-ten system is a positioning system. The „ones‰ is placed on the rightmost
position. The next position is the position of „tens‰ while „hundreds‰ is the next
position. Where b = 10:
b4 + b3 + b2 + b + 1s
7.2.3 Number Values

Base-ten system states the value of the overall number is the sum of its parts or
the value represented by each digit.

7.2.4 Algorithms
Base-ten system is used to perform basic calculations using algorithmic methods.
This includes basic operations like addition, multiplication, subtraction and
division. Base-ten system is also used for decimal numbers and measurement in
the matrix system.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Explain what is meant by base-ten with its unique characteristics.
7.3 ESTABLISHING THE BENCHMARK

NUMBERS
Many situations need us to guess or estimate. „The journey from Kuala Lumpur
to Putrajaya is in the range of 35 kilometres‰. Children may say, „By walking, I
need 10 minutes to get to school‰. Usually, it is difficult to estimate and
determine its accuracy.
Benchmark number is a number which can help us to estimate the number of

objects without counting; for example, 25, 50, 100, 1000 and more. Normally the
numbers 5 and 10 are often used as the benchmark numbers. For example,
children can recognise four fingers as one less than five.
Five-frame (5  1 array) and ten-frame (5  2 array) are as illustrated in Figure 7.5

often used as a benchmark to build an understanding of the numbers concept in
details.
Figure 7.5: Benchmark numbers

Ten-frame is an effective example to help in learning about pattern, develop the

concept of numbers recognition and build understanding of place value. On the
other hand, experience using ten-frame helps students in learning addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
According to Shigematsu and Daigaku (1994), Japanese people often use number
5 and 10 as a benchmark, together with the ten-frame and soroban
(a device resembling abacus) to enhance learning of counting, recognition
quantities quickly and mental computation.
A good way to estimate is to illustrate in the form of a line. For example, where
should number 76 be suitably placed is illustrated as follows (see Figure 7.6):
Figure 7.6: Benchmark activity ă Where is the number 76 situated?
For example, give a bottle of marbles and ask children to estimate how many
marbles are there in the bottle (see Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7: Estimation activities of the number of marbles

ACTIVITY 7.2
Describe examples of suitable activities for estimation and

benchmarking techniques.
7.4 LESSON USING BEANSTICKS OR BASE-TEN

BLOCK
A lesson using beansticks or base-ten blocks can help Early Mathematics
educators to teach mathematics on methods of operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and others. An example can be seen in the following
illustration (see Figure 7.8):
Figure 7.8: Example of basic beansticks

7.4.1 Addition
Children add each number which is represented by 10 and 1 that is imported
separately (see Figure 7.9).
Figure 7.9: Addition operation using beansticks
7.4.2 Subtraction
Children write numbers based on the beansticks given. Numbered cards are
placed underneath the beanstick. Teachers will tell you the problem.
For example:
There are 37 sweets in a box. My friend and I ate 15 of them. How many more
sweets are left (see Figure 7.10)?
Figure 7.10: Subtraction operation using beansticks

7.4.3 Addition in Groups

After adding all the sticks and beans, children will see there are 10 more beans.
They trade 10 beans for 1 stick (see Figure 7.11).
Figure 7.11: Addition operation in groups
7.4.4 Subtraction in Group

Children find their beans are not sufficient when they are trying to sort the beans
in the stick. They trade one stick for 10 beans separately.
For example:
There are 32 sweets in a box. My friend and I have eaten 15 of them. How many
sweets are left (see Figure 7.12)?
Figure 7.12: Subtraction operation in group

7.4.5 Multiplication
Early Mathematics multiplication is equivalent to repeated additions. For
example, the teacher writes: 3 sets of 12. Children will put 3 sets of sticks and
beans and connect them (see Figure 7.13).
Figure 7.13: Multiplication operation using beansticks
7.4.6 Using Beansticks and Paper/Pencil

Connect materials with paper and pencil. Teacher asks children to get in pairs.
One child will hold a chalk or markers and another child will hold beansticks.
After a series of activities, the responsibilities are then switched.
Children are using base-ten blocks as in the same method with using beansticks,
with the addition of a small mat that has three sections: 100, 10 and 1. This mat
usually has the materials with it.
Teachers can use words and phrases such as „square for 100, and stick for 10 and
beans for ones.‰ This will provide the needs of children to think in order to
describe the position. For example, number 87, 8 means tens and 7 means ones or
8 sticks and 7 beans (see Figure 7.14).
Figure 7.14: Base-ten block

Some teachers may not use beansticks, but continue using base-ten blocks.
However, the use of cheaper beansticks can improve fine motor skills of children.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Give examples of activities for each of the uses of beansticks.
7.5 TEACHING USING ABACUS AND MONEY

Abacus and money are all examples of materials that are not proportional.
Abacus can show numbers up to billions and serves to show zero relationship
and their actual value. Money also indicates relationship to value.
Abacus is a teaching aid in the form of a square made of wood and has ten
strings and nine balls on each wire. Abacus is used for counting and an
arithmetic model that is concrete and dynamic. The features of an abacus are as
shown in Figure 7.15:
Figure 7.15: Abacus

Source: www.mastermindabacus.com
Children can try to distinguish how the numbers appear on the abacus:
(a) Travel distance from Kuala Lumpur to Kota Bharu is 497 kilometers.
(b) Height of Mount Kinabalu is 4,095 meters above sea level.

Playing with money can help children recognise the concept of value. Games like
Monopoly that uses banknotes seems real. Some children already know about
money as it is usually used in their daily life.
During free time, teachers can introduce the money game to children. For
example, the date represented by RM10 such as 1 January RM10, 2 January
RM20 onwards. Children can aim to collect a certain amount of money and can
exchange it for something they desire.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Design a lesson plan using money.
 Base-ten activities help children knowing the place value and the numerical
system which is often used.
 Benchmark number is the number used as estimation and its value is difficult
to determine accurately.
 Manipulative activities such as beansticks and base-ten blocks have various

methods of activities that can be used.
 Learning to use the abacus and money not only provides early teaching of
mathematics, it even trains hand-eye coordination and improves fine motor
skills of children.
Abacus Beansticks
Algorithm Hieroglyphs
Base-ten Place value
Benchmark



Reys, R. E., Suydam, M. N., & Lindquist, M. M. (1995). Helping children learn
mathematics. New York, NY: Allyn & Bacon.
Shigematsu, T., & Nihon Daigaku (1994). Factors contributing to the

improvement and predominance of the longevity of the Japanese
population. Tokyo, Japan: Nihon University, Population Research Institute.

Topic  Concepts and
8 Operational
Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the prerequisite of numbers;
2. Describe a model for addition and subtraction operations; and
3. Discuss the approach of ELPS.
 INTRODUCTION
Understanding the ground rules of mathematics, namely operations such as
addition and subtraction are the basic skills needed to succeed in mathematics.
Basic operations such as addition and subtraction are often used in our daily
lives.
8.1 PREREQUISITE (CALCULATION, CONCRETE

EXPERIENCE, PROBLEM SOLVING AND
LANGUAGE)
There are four prerequisites for operational skills that have been identified as
follows (see Figure 8.1):

98  TOPIC 8 CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL SKILLS
Figure 8.1: Four prerequisites for operational skills
Now, let us discuss the four prerequisites one by one.
8.1.1 Calculation Aids

According Baroody and Standifer (1993), children with skills of counting solve
problems using basic operations even before they go to school.
Counting skills such as counting forward, backward and skip count counting are
basic skills that should exist in children. However, in order to solve mathematical
problems, it requires sufficient time in addition to operating procedures and
algorithms that can help them deal with complex problems.
8.1.2 Experiences Using Concrete Situations

Experience in everyday lives is critical in helping childrenÊs understanding of
mathematical operations. According to Sowell (1989), the use of concrete tools
provides tremendous advantages to children. Many concepts can be understood
properly if they can be linked with daily-life situations.

TOPIC 8 CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL SKILLS  99
Manipulative methods can help as a guide on how to deal with real-life

situations based on a manipulative game played earlier.
Overall, actual experience can help children in their mathematical operations

lesson.
8.1.3 Solving Problems Using Sentence Statements

Problem solving using sentence statement is used to build conceptual
understanding, higher thinking learning and problem solving skills, as well as to
implement a variety of mathematical ideas.
Children need to correlate mathematics as a solution of issues where they can

find answers and implement them as well to find out whether they are rational
or not. Examples of solving mathematical problems are matching, classification,
ordering, pattern and think about the numbers.
Children must understand that mathematics can be used in their daily activities.
One example of mathematical problems using sentence statement is shown as
follows:
I have four apples. I ate two apples. How many apples are left?
8.1.4 Experiences Using a Language

Children should be given the opportunity to communicate mathematically using
manipulative and appropriate sentence statement. They should be encouraged to
talk and write about their mathematical experience using meaningful learning.
Therefore, the experience of using the language can help children in learning the
operation. The use of concrete material before the symbol is being introduced.
According to Carey (1992), language can be used to explain the situation or
context to help children see the relationship between the situations or to
manipulate materials as well as problems.
The use of language will help children understand symbols used in mathematical
operations. The childrenÊs idea should first be drawn on a piece of paper before
they can write the statement of number.

ACTIVITY 8.1
By using an appropriate statement, explain how you can teach

mathematics using basic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
8.2 MODELS FOR ADDITION AND

SUBTRACTION OPERATIONS
Many methods can be used to display the addition and subtraction operations,
for example using counters, connected cubes, balanced scale and number line.
The following subtopics explain how the four methods can be used for addition.
Each method is to „find the sum of all objects‰.
The sample prepared is: 5 + 3 = 8
8.2.1 Disk or Counters

Disk or counters are circular or rectangular-shape objects approximately 1cm in
length with various colours.
Disk can be used as cubic. However it is not related and remains as a separate
object, and is more suitable for various types of learning.
If you use it as material for addition and subtraction operations, children can use
some red and some yellow colour discs to indicate the differences (see Figure
8.2).
Figure 8.2: Addition operation using counters

8.2.2 Connecting Cubes

Connected cubes are cubics of 1 or 2cm, interconnected between one part with
the other. Most come with different colours.
Children can use the cubes for learning cubic patterns, in addition to learning
addition and subtraction operations.
For operation learning, children can use different colours to reflect the addition
or subtraction. Colours are attractive to children in their play and learning (see
Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3: Addition operation using connecting cubes
8.2.3 Number Line

Number line is usually used for teaching integer addition or subtraction. It uses
positive and negative numbers in a row such as -20 to 20.
For example, children are asked to „find the number 0 and take 5 steps to the
right and then three steps onwards‰. This means starting from 0, children must
make a movement of 5 steps to the right, followed by 3 steps subsequently (see
Figure 8.4).
By using this method, the answer is 8.
Figure 8.4: Addition operation using a number line

8.2.4 Balanced Scale

The method of balanced scale can be applied to subtraction operations.
Subtraction means to take, losing part of or reduction. Each method can be
applied in different situations, the example is as follows (see Figure 8.5):
Example: 8 ă 5 = 3
Figure 8.5: Subtraction operation using balanced scale
8.2.5 Take (Isolation)

Take certain numbers of objects in a certain quantity, count the numbers of
objects left.
8.2.6 Comparisons
For example, children have two quantities of objects, compare them and identify
the difference in the two.
8.2.7 Divisions: Overall

Children have a set of objects that have been separated into two sections, where
children learn the total numbers available in the set. They know how many are in
the first section and how many are in the second section set to get the total.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Give examples of addition and subtraction based on the four methods.

Draw appropriate representation.
8.3 THE EXPERIENCE, LANGUAGE, PICTURE

AND SYMBOLIC (ELPS) APPROACH FOR
TEACHING OPERATIONS
Many approaches to the teaching of mathematics can be applied in teaching
mathematical operations to children. Normally, children will use the four
methods of operation naturally in learning mathematical operations.
In order to be effective, children must build a stronger concept; for example, with
regards to mathematical operations using a variety of methods in facing different
problems such as using a physical model, drawing pictures and others. This will
give the children a better understanding of the operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
The experience, language and symbolic representation are approaches in

teaching mathematical operations that are more meaningful. In the ELPS, there
are several steps that must be followed to help children build experience for
mathematical operations (refer to Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6: Steps in establishing mathematical experience
These steps will be explained in further detail in the next subtopics.

8.3.1 Concrete
As the name implies, this method uses concrete materials for mathematical
operations. The experience of using concrete materials helps children recognise
mathematical operations and can be used in many different situations.
8.3.2 Semi-concrete
This means a mathematical operation is using pictures such as diagram,
illustration, drawing and others. This is a symbolic method (representation).
8.3.3 Abstract
An abstract is a representation of symbol. A symbol is used (for example, the
statement of number or numeric expression) to describe the operation done.
Children can use their experience in concrete and semi-concrete methods to
connect the numbers with each other.
8.3.4 Language
Language is used to describe a situation that has occurred. This can encourage
children to use language to communicate about their ideas. Children should be
allowed to speak and write about mathematics in order to build meaningful
mathematical operations using manipulative materials and real-life problems.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Explain ELPS approach in teaching mathematical operations to

children. Use appropriate examples and explain how you teach
mathematical operations.

 These prerequisites help children to learn mathematical operations more

effectively.
 For addition and subtraction operations, using models such as counters,

cubes connected, the balanced scale and number line help children
understand the concept of operations and the relationship between all types
of operations.
 The step by step in ELPS approach helps children to be more advanced in

terms of mathematical operations.
Addition Multiplication
Balanced scale Number line
Connected cubes Operation
Counters Subtraction
Distribution
Baroody, A. J., & Standifer, K. J. (1993). ChildrenÊs mathematical thinking. New

York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Carey, J. (1992). The intellectuals and the masses: Pride and prejudice among the
literary intelligentsia, 1880ă939. London, England: Faber and Faber.
evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National council

Sowell, E. (1989). Effects of manipulative materials in mathematics instruction.

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20, 498ă505.

Topic  Geometry:
9 Shape and
Space
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the van Hiele geometric thinking in learning geometry;
2. Explain the meaning of space in the architecture block:
3. Describe the shape in learning at home and school; and
4. Discuss the geometry activities in the world.
 INTRODUCTION
Nature around us is made up of geometrical elements. People depend on the
perception of space, shape and pattern. Knowledge of geometry also allows
people to understand images and graphics. Learning geometry is something
active, fun and uses a variety of senses.
9.1 VAN HIELE GEOMETRIC THINKING

Pierre Marie van Hiele and Dina van Hiele developed a geometric thinking
model which helped the students in the geometry lesson.
According to Hoffer (1993), van HieleÊs model consists of three main components
namely the existence of levels, the properties of the levels and the progress from
one level to the next level. Hoffer believes existence of levels exist more when a
person acts in a new situation, with intent. To get an existence of level of
geometry, a student needs to understand the structure.

TOPIC 9 GEOMETRY: SHAPE AND SPACE  107
The second component is the properties of the level, a stage that indicates the
progress of students to obtain a higher level of thinking. The final component of
the third stage is the progress from one level to the next level. This is based on
van HieleÊs experience when geometry students have problems with parts
related to these subjects, even after being given description and explanation.
Van Hiele has categorised five levels of geometric thinking. The stages are
visualisation, analysis, ordering, deduction and rigour.
Figure 9.1: Five levels of geometric thinking
The stages will be discussed in the next subtopics.
9.1.1 Step 1: Visualisation – Identification and

Naming
At this stage, children will focus on individual shapes and see geometry figures
as a whole. Children recognise and name of the geometric figures based on their
shapes and not because of their attributes. The description of shapes is mostly
visual. Children are also able to sort these shapes to specific sets of criteria in
general, for example, „Everything is round‰.

108  TOPIC 9 GEOMETRY: SHAPE AND SPACE
9.1.2 Step 2: Analysis – Stating Attributes

Children are able to recognise the attributes of figures and also evaluate the type
of figures based on the attributes available on these figures. Children can list
attributes of any shapes, but not associate the shapes with each other. For
example, children may not be able to recognise a rectangle as a type of square, or
a square as a type of parallelogram.
9.1.3 Step 3: Informal Deduction – Classification and

Attributes
Children are able to define the attributes of the shape on its logical categories. For
example, „If an object has four corners, it is a square. A rectangular has four
corners, so it is also a square‰. The key to the level of thinking is the rational
reasoning that states the attributes of three-dimensional objects such as the face,
the corners and edges of an airplane.
9.1.4 Step 4: Deduction – Recognise and Using

Axiom
Children understand the functions of postulation, theorems and proofs. They can
write evidence and state the reasons. At this stage, children state the unique
attributes of a shape.
9.1.5 Step 5: Rigour – Geometry System

At this stage, children can connect the discipline of geometry as an abstract
system by using a concrete model. They can make deductive and non-Euclidean
geometry study.
Each steps of development that have been disclosed will assist students in the
comprehension of geometry curriculum. According to van Hiele (1999), geometry
begins with adults playing and recognising figures. Playing with shapes of loose
puzzle and triangular grid paper enable them to experience geometric thinking
before transferring this knowledge to children. Refer to Table 9.1 for explanation
of the van HielesÊ stages.

Table 9.1: Van HielesÊ Five Level of Geometric Thinking Processes
Stages Explanation
Step 1: Visualisation Children can identify geometric shapes through the appearance
alone, but the geometrical attributes are not known.
Step 2: Analysis Children analyse shapes through natureÊs geometry with

activities such as observation, measuring, cutting and folding.
Step 3: Informal Children can arrange the shapes logically and understand the
deduction relationship between the attributes of the shape.
Step 4: Deduction Children can understand the roles of postulations and theories.
Step 5: Rigour Children will understand the needs of axioms, definition, theory
and evidence.
Children recognise and master the shapes through mouldings, matching and
creating book shape, including finding and labelling the shapes in books and
objects in their environment.
According to Smith (2008), childrenÊs first understanding about geometry is their

physical knowledge about space. Learning about the concept of space is a natural
part of learning since the children are small. Space awareness is an important
method in development of geometric thinking among children.
Spatial awareness is an intuitive feeling for the environment and the objects in it.
In order to develop spatial awareness, children must have a lot of experience that
focuses on geometric relationships such as the direction and orientation of objects
in the perspective of space, relative space and the size of the figures and objects,
as well as how shape changes in connection with a change in size.
Develop spatial awareness requires a lot of training. Visual imagination and

spatial ability can be improved through training. Game blocks represent
meaningful tool for a single lesson.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Explain the stages of van Hieles along with suitable examples.

9.2 SPACE: BLOCK ARCHITECTURE

Blocks and blocks corners are available in most kindergartens since 1914.
Children who play with blocks are able to create their own world and this gives a
lot of advantages to their lives.
According to Smith (2008), there are several techniques used in blocks learning.
First, there is a need to provide adequate blocks for children to play and interact.
Many shapes are needed for children aged four or five years old, including a
gate, ramp, cylinder, switch Y and wooden nail. Teachers are encouraged to keep
this block in the low rack so they can be reached easily by children. If placed on a
high shelf, it will be difficult for children and they might not want to play with it.
For children aged two to three years old, a technique that can be used is like lead,
organise and changing block. After the age of three, children can solve problems
such as connecting or making a roof between two walls and connecting walls and
shaping a cage. The next technique is for children aged four to five years old to
perform a drama, name the whole structure and develop a stairs. Children can
certainly build various designs if given enough time and the variety of blocks.
Since building blocks can be used for learning the concept of geometry, it must
be seen as part of the curriculum. Thus, preparation of block collection is highly
recommended on a regular basis.
Besides building blocks, topic of topology is part of geometric thinking. Children

start learning about geometry. Topology is the study of relationships between
objects, places or event. Children need the experience of topology in many sizes
of space to build spatial awareness.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe the advantages of using blocks in learning geometry. Present

your views.

9.3 SHAPES: LEARNING AT HOME AND

SCHOOL
Children learn about shapes while handling objects. Space (shape of 3-D) is
taught in advance as it is available in daily life. Terms commonly used such as
spherical shape, a box shape and others used to describe an object that can be
found all around.
An informal learning about space can be found at home and school when the
environment contains many objects to fill, nest and put back. In the kitchen as an
example, there is a measuring cup used as a nest, a pot that is matched with pans
and sinks and plastic jars used for pouring. At school, sandbox will certainly
have bucket, spade and various tools for filling.
Shapes are a lesson about figure, its properties and relationships with each other.
Normally, a figure (a 3-D shape) is available in many classes such as spheres,
cylinders, cones, cubes and prisms. Meanwhile, a plane figure (shape of 2-D) also
includes circles, triangles, rectangles, triangles square, rhombus and ellipses.
Plane shape or 2-D shape can be found in books. Children often bring variety of
operating shapes experience with them such as spheres, boxes, cards, Legos and
Duplo. Building experience in handling shapes is an important experience.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Give an example of geometry that can be held in the school using the
concept of 3-D and 2-D.
9.4 SHAPE AND SPACE ACTIVITIES

Children learn about shape in a variety of ways. There are four phases in
studying shapes (see Figure 9.2):

Figure 9.2: Four stages in study of shape
The stages will be described in the following subtopics.
9.4.1 Phase 1: Matching a Shape to the Same Shape

Children are able to match a shape with the same shape. For example, Early
Mathematics educators provide a card which has shapes in addition to provide
concrete materials describing certain shapes.
Children can pass the Phase 1 if they can successfully match these concrete
materials to the correct shape.
9.4.2 Phase 2: Grouping Shapes that are Similar

Children are able to draw the attributes of the shape to a logical category. For
example, „If an object has four corners, it is a square. A rectangle has four
corners, so it is also a square‰. The key to thinking this is the deductive reasoning
that states the properties of three-dimensional objects such as the face, the
corners and edges of an airplane.

9.4.3 Phase 3: Naming Shapes

At this stage, children are able to name the shapes based on Phase 1 and Phase 2.
This skill will help children to recognise the name of the shape. For example,
children have recognised an object which has four corners and it is a square.
Thus, children can identify an object that has four corners as a square. For
example, a table and a book. The game of naming shapes can use available
objects in the childrenÊs environment.
9.4.4 Phase 4: Drawing Shapes

At this stage, children are able to remember and draw shapes which are shown to
them. After recognising the shape and able to name the shapes, the children are
now ready to express their thoughts in the shape of drawings.
Early childhood educators can ask children to draw shapes that they know by
asking them to draw the objects in the classroom that have shapes, for example,
square or round. This will help the children to relate to the natural surroundings
with the names and shapes that have been studied previously.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Study and relate geometric ideas to number and measurement.
 The study of van Hieles shows that children need to be given more physical
shape experience so that they can investigate the attributes of shape before
switching to proofs and formulas.
 Learning about geometry and space concepts can improve childrenÊs

imagination.
 Learning geometry are not subjected only in the classroom, it can also be
learnt at home because geometry is all around us.

Architecture Deduction
Attribute Visualisation
Berger, W. F., & Shauhnessy, J. M. (1986). Characterizing the van Hiele levels of
development in geometry. Journal for Research Mathematics Education.
Oregon State University.
Crowley, M. L. (1987). The van Hiele of the development of the geometric

thought. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Hoffer, A. R. (1993). I can!: Math activity program. New York, NY: Macmillan/
McGraw-Hill School.


Van Hiele, P. (1999) Developing geometric thinking through activities that begin
with play. Teaching Children Mathematics. February, 310ă316.

Topic  Measurement
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the definition of measurement;
2. Describe the principles of measurement;
3. Explain the properties of measurement such as length, weight and
time; and
4. Discuss the appropriate measurement activities.
 INTRODUCTION
Measurement is a process of using information to measure and compare. At first,
children build measurement concept using the aspect ratio of size (weight, length
etc.). Measurement is a topic that is related closely with the application in our
daily lives.
In preschool, the mathematics curriculum should include aspects of

measurement in order for children to understand the properties of measurement
(length, weight, time and temperature) and further develop the measurement
skills among them.
10.1 DEFINITIONS
Measurement is a process used to determine the value or quantitative thing,
things or situation. The quantitative value usually specified in a fixed unit
number by using tools related to measurements. Unit numbers can be divided
into physical quantities such as length, width, weight and number. On the other
hand, the quantity of non-physical including time, temperature or money.

116  TOPIC 10 MEASUREMENT
Physical quantities such as the length of a table for example can be measured
using measurement tools such as a paper clip used repeatedly on the object to be
measured. This process is called iterative technique (iteration).
Non-physical quantities, for example, time, is measured using another indirect

methods. Clock or calendar is a method used to measure timing, while the
thermometer is used to measure temperature. Money is measured using a value
such as coins or banknotes, using currency which varies by country.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
State the difference between physical and non-physical quantity.
10.2 MEASUREMENT USING ARBITRARY

UNIT
According to Dodge and Colker (1992), children are able to make measurements
and collecting data in their daily routine activities. Charlesworth (2005) also said,
children aged two to seven years old are able to master the concepts of
measurement, even informally. For example, in a situation requiring children to
queue up according to their heights, from short to tall. Children are able to
understand their positions by their own height.
In this case, the children learn the measurement using informal equipment for
example fingertips and limbs. Other objects that can be used are paper clips (see
example in Figure 10.1), blocks, nuts or animal footprints. Children also learn
using measuring equipment such as arms, legs, spoons, containers or small bags
containing rice.
The most important activity is the selection of appropriate measurement tools to

measure specific objects. For example, it is inappropriate to measure the length of
a class using a fingertip!
Figure 10.1: Measuring a ruler with a paper clip

TOPIC 10 MEASUREMENT  117
ACTIVITY 10.1
Explain the standard and non-standard units used to measure length.

Plan appropriate activities to measure the width and length of a book
using a standard unit and preferred non-standard unit.
10.3 EXPLORING MEASUREMENT

The standard unit is a system of units that is accepted by the whole world. There
are two types of systems that are used as set out in Figure 10.2:
Figure 10.2: Two types of system units
(a) Imperial System

Imperial system uses natural units such as inches, feet, yards, chain, miles,
ounces and pounds. For example, one inch is equal to three grains of barley,
one foot is equal to the length of a human foot and one yard equals the
distance between the nose and arms wide open.
Yard usually used to measure fabric while an acre is an area that can be
ploughed by a horse in one day.
(b) Metric System

The metric system uses units such as meter, kilometre, gram, kilogram and
second. Scientists use the metric system of units as standard for
measurement. The metric system is called the system international unit or
SI unit.

Features that are commonly used are (see Figure 10.3):
Figure 10.3: Features of the metric system
Such features will be explained in the following subtopics.
10.3.1 Length
The length is the distance between two points on a straight line. Children in an
early age measure the length of an object such as books, pencil boxes by using
informal tools such as a paper clip and thumb. Children use these objects before
moving on to larger objects such as tables and chairs. Activities that can be
planned would be drawing, colouring and talking about their exploration.
Moreover, activities such as to seek object with the same or different length may
also be performed inside or outside the home or school. According to Smith
(2008), some activities can be made to provide exploration experience to children
using characteristic of length of an object by using the imperial system or the
metric system.
10.3.2 Weight
Weight measurement is a term used in the imperial system refers to the mass that
is added to the effect of gravity. A personÊs weight is lighter on the moon as
compared to his or her weight on earth. This is because of the strong
gravitational pull on earth compared to on the moon. In the metric system,
weight is the term used to determine the amount of mass in an object.

Children normally use the term „weight‰ because they often heard it in their
everyday life. Weight measuring tools such as the weighing scales vary
according to the object to be weighed. For example, body weight scales are
different from kitchen weight scale.
10.3.3 Time
Time is the measurement of period, or how long it takes to perform something
and sequence of events. A sequence of events is a concept of the age of certain
things.
The concept of time is closely related to order or seriation. Sequence of events

like the last, first, after, before and in between, shows an idea of ranked as the
first, second and third. Time can be measured by two methods:
(a) The length of time (events that take into account how much time has
passed); and
(b) The time of incident (when it happened).
Features of unit used to measure time are like the pendulum swing, water
droplets, heartbeat and hourglass. The formal units used in the metric system
include hour, day, week, month and year.
Four main experiences related to time are as shown in Table 10.1:
Table 10.1: Four Main Experiences Related to Time
Experience Description
Experience one Starting and stopping something through gestures. For example,
when the music is played and stopped.
Experience two Starting to talk about their experience related to movement. For
example, jogging.
Experience three Making a comparison according to a time interval. Example is

pulse rate within one minute.
Experience four Assuming, remembering and describing the particular sequence

of events. For example, how to make a sandwich or life cycle of a
butterfly.

10.3.4 Temperature
Temperature is a measurement of heat or coldness of an object. Hot objects have
a high temperature, while cold objects have low temperature.
Our senses are able to distinguish objects that are hot and cold, but inaccurately.
The tool for measuring temperature of an object or situation is called a
thermometer. Thermometer usually comes in the form of a narrow glass pipe
filled with mercury.
Temperature changes over time as the seasonÊs change or change from day to
night, depends on the local weather. Normally activities are carried out
according to the calendar and the particular weather on that day. Reading
temperature skill should be given to children like reading thermometer in
Celsius and Fahrenheit.
In measurements, there must be a number and unit. Measurement format varies

according to its unit and concepts to be measured.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Compare two measurement systems used in the world which are the
metric system and imperial system.
10.4 MEASUREMENT ACTIVITIES

Activities that are in line with childrenÊs development will help them learn to be
more relaxed, active and cheerful. Measurement activities often use objects or
events that are practical and easy for children.
Measurement activities will provide advantages to children in terms of

communication, ability to use measurement tools, the ability to presume and the
ability to record the results. As mentioned before, measurement involves several
features such as numbers and units, appropriate unit and presumption of
answers. Among the equipment which can be used are rulers, containers, scales,
thermometers and others appropriate tools.

When planning a lesson involving the measurement of different characteristics,

the following methods should be emphasised. Four measurement steps have
been identified as follows:
(a) Select the appropriate unit;
(b) Use the unit to measure without any space or gap between the units;
(c) Calculate the units; and
(d) Decide what to do with the balance (rounded, not calculated or use other
units).
For example:
Children are asked to measure the length of a table. They have chosen pencils
as a unit of measurement. They put the pencils along the table and without
gaps along the table.
The children count the number of pencils used. There is a total of six pencils
used, while one pencil is over the length of the table.
Here, children have to decide whether to round the length of the seven pencils;
or disregard the seventh pencil meaning measuring the table length to only six
pencils; or use another unit, for example a paper clip. If using paper clips, the
table length is round up to six pencils and three paper clips.
In this case, the children may also apply the concept of estimation, as adults
do. In the example above, the children can declare the length of the table as
approximately seven pencils. Estimation needs a more logical thinking.
Planning a lesson in classroom is very important. This provides an opportunity

for a greater exploration in terms of understanding of measurement. These
measurements include length, weight, capacity, time, area, volume, temperature
and money. Planning lesson on measurement should include activities in order
for children to understand measurement and control concepts as described in the
following subtopics.

10.4.1 Introduction to Appropriate Word for

Measurement
Words that are appropriate for measurement shall be introduced to children
before other activities are planned. Examples of word used to measure length are
long, short, thin, thick and wide.
10.4.2 Comparing Two Objects

After studying the appropriate word for measurement, children can be taught to
compare between two objects. Comparative example are heavier, lighter, longer
and others. The following illustration shows examples of activities that can be
done (see Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.4: Comparison between two objects
10.4.3 Arranging of Three or More Objects

This activity begins by measuring each object individually. Results shall be
recorded as neatly as possible. Based on the records, the children can sort objects
according to all the features. For example, from long to short, from thick to thin
and others.

10.4.4 Using Informal Unit for Measurement

As described earlier, the children begin with informal units for measurement
activities. Examples of informal measuring tools are as thumb, armÊs length,
straws, paper clips, bottle caps and others.
10.4.5 Standard Unit of Measurement

After children have mastered the use of informal measurement, the learning
could be proceeded to the introduction and activities of standard unit.
Measurements are widely used in our daily lives in various conditions; using
standard, non-standard and metric system and the imperial system. Children
will master the basic skills of measurements gradually and it will be different
from one child to another. Thus, when planning activities of measurement,
educators must consider many Early Mathematics factors to ensure the desired
learning objectives are achieved.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Plan an outdoor game based on measurement and describe how do you

explain the concept of time to children.
 Measurement includes features such as numbers and units with the use of
units that are appropriate and precise.
 Tools used for measurement is different according to the concept of

measurement to be made for example, rulers, containers, weighing scales and
thermometers.
 A stage of childrenÊs understanding of the measurement concept varies from

one child to another.
 Time allocated for measurements activities will help the children to

understand and thrive in the concept of measurement.

Arbitrary units Metric system

Imperial system Quantitative value
Measurement
Charlesworth, R. (2005). Experiences in math for young children. Clifton Park,

NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Dodge, D. T., & Colker, L. J. (1992). The creative curriculum for early childhood.
Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies.



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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Raihanah Ahmad

Moderator: Mahani Abdul Malik

Translators: Luqman Prof Datuk Dr A. Hamid

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2016

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Early Mathematics Curriculum in Malaysia 1

Topic 2 Implications of Learning Theories in Early Mathematics 12

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2.5 Implications of Early Learning Theory of Early Mathematics 26

Topic 3 Language of Mathematics 29

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Topic 5 Concept of Pre-numbers 61

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Topic 7 Understanding the Early Numbers 82

Topic 8 Concepts and Operational Skills 97

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8.3 The Experience, Language, Picture and Symbolic (ELPS) 103

Topic 9 Geometry: Shape and Space 106

Topic 10 Measurement 115

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Correlate the implications of theories of Early Mathematics education;

2. Describe the assessment and examination requirements to the Early

Topic 1 discusses the objectives and vision of Early Mathematics Education in

Topic 2 describes the implications of the learning theory in Early Mathematics,

Topic 3 discusses the language of mathematics to children in terms of literature,

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Topic 4 describes the concept as a pre-numbers, matching classification,

Topic 5 describes to the concepts pre-numbers in terms of patterns, conservation

Topic 7 explains the history of early number concepts.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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Angela Anthonysamy. (1998). Perkembangan pemikiran matematik pada

Crowley, M. L. (1987). The Van Hiele of the development of the geometric

Gerard Baruch, & S. Pattabi Raman. (1998). Cognitive competence: Seriation.

Jasni Ehwan. (2012). Pengajaran matematik pra-sekolah. Kuala Lumpur,

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National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (1989). Curriculum and

Noraini Idris. (2010). Matematik untuk kanak-kanak. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:

Ojose, B. (2008). Applying piagetÊs theory of cognitive development to

Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan. (2008). Pembelajaran

Tadkiroatun Musfiroh. (2003). Memperkenalkan huruf di taman kanak-kanak.

Tan G. K. (2013). Matematik awal. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/

Zainal Abidin Zainuddin, & Afrinaleni Suardi. (2008). Keberkesanan kaedah

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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Mathematics is the practice and exploration of patterns related to quantity, space

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