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ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

ENVIRONMENT
The environment is the aggregate of all external factors or conditions that influence
the activities and existence of all living beings including man. To grasp the full
significance of how man has degraded his environment, we need to first understand
what this environment is, where man belongs and how this two are related.
The earth we live in is not composed of different isolated components but is the totality
of various units working together and influencing each other. The earth is a complex
system consisting of different components; the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the
atmosphere and the biota inhabiting it. The physical environment encompasses the first
three of these components and the last of these is the biotic community of the earth
including all forms of flora and fauna. Each or these components have their own
characteristics features and their specific functions but these have strong links with
each other so that any change in one may bring about changes in the other. Earth's
living organisms interacting with their physical environment form a giant ecological
system known as the ecosphere or the biosphere. Man is part of this huge ecosystem.
The earth consists of a molten core called the centrosphere. The lithosphere comprises
of the solid crust. The oceans, seas and other water bodies compose the hydrosphere.
The gaseous mantle enveloping the earth is its atmosphere. All of these are
fundamental components of the earth system and each play a vital role in its existence.

Fig 1: Components of the Earth System

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Centrosphere
Earth was once a molten mass and to this date, the temperature and pressure in the
interior of the earth is so high that the molten state still exists there. These are brought
to the surface from time to time as lava, through volcanic eruption or through faults in
the earth's crust.
Lithosphere
The lithosphere consists of the solid crust on which rest the continental masses
comprising of mountains, valleys and plains. This is where human beings and other
terrestrial animals live. The soil covering the solid masses in most cases is fertile
enough to support plant life and in its natural state is covered with vegetation.
The crust is formed of different types of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
and is rich in mineral resources. It consists of rocky plates, constantly on the move.
Major dislocations in the earth's substructure mark the edges of the crustal plates. Most
of the earthquakes occur along and near these. The lithosphere is where most of the
activities of man are located and which he variously exploits.
Hydrosphere
The oceans and the seas cover seven-tenths of the earth’s surface. No wonder it is called
the water planet! The hydrosphere consists of these oceans and seas and the inland
water bodies. Ninety-seven percent of the total supply of water on earth are held in the
oceans and seas whilst the rest is freshwater. Life on earth would not be possible
without water. All the life supporting processes of the earth system are heavily
dependent on water. Living cells themselves consist mainly of water; therefore, water is
vital for our very existence. Aquatic regimes are rich in a variety of biotic and abiotic

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resources, which are exploited by man. Oceans are crucial for the maintenance of
ecological balance through their specific biogeochemical processes. If there is any
increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, this is absorbed by the oceans, thus
maintaining the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere at a constant level. Oceans
also play an important role in determining the climate of a region and are an important
component of the hydrologic cycle.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a gaseous mantle enveloping the earth. The main constituents are
nitrogen (78 percent) and Oxygen (21 percent). The rest 1 percent is mostly argon,
carbon dioxide and some other trace gases. It consists of different strata. The stratum
nearest the surface of the earth is called the troposphere. This is the densest layer.
Climatic conditions affecting the earth occur within this layer. The temperature in the
troposphere falls by 6°C for every kilometre gain in altitude. Most of the clouds also
occur in this layer. The troposphere extends up to 15 km above the earth's surface.
The stratosphere is the stratum above the troposphere. This layer contains the ozone
gas that absorbs the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Temperature rises with altitude
within this layer, which is why it is called an inversion layer. Mesosphere is the layer
occurring in between the stratosphere and the ionosphere. It is characterized by
decrease in temperature as the altitude increases. The ionosphere is the outermost layer
of the atmosphere. The air is highly rarefied within this stratum. It extends more than
600 kilometres into space.
The atmosphere is like a blanket covering the earth. It acts as insulation retaining the
warmth of the sun that reaches the earth. It provides oxygen that plants and animals
need to stay alive. It is the source of carbon dioxide that green plants need for
photosynthesis. This is a vital process without which different species of flora would
die off and so would the animals further out in the food chain. The atmosphere also acts
as a shield protecting the earth from cosmic rays and filters out the tissue damaging
ultraviolet radiation of the sun. Thus, without the atmosphere life would not be
possible on earth.

Biota
All living organisms inhabiting the earth form its biotic component. Hundreds of
thousands of species of plant life, both territorial and aquatic comprise the earth's flora.
The fauna consists of all species of animals on land and water. Depending on where
they live, i.e. their habitat, each species of plants and animals have their own
characteristic features and their own functional entity. The flora and fauna of an area
are functionally related. They interact within their own species and with other species,
thus forming a biotic community. The biotic community in turn interacts with its
physical environment. Together they form what is known as the ecosystem. To find
answers to the environmental problem we need to understand how the ecosystem
works in the natural state and what happens when human being intercept this process.

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ECOSYSTEM
The living organisms of the earth interacting with their physical environment form a
giant ecological system known as the biosphere or ecosphere. The biosphere itself
consists of different types of ecosystems. The biotic (living) community of specific area
and its abiotic (non-living) environment are interrelated and interact with each other. A
unit which consists of all living organisms functioning together in a given area and
interacting with the physical environment in a manner, whereby, flow of energy leads
to clearly defined biotic structures an cycling of materials between living and non-
living parts is know as an ecosystem.
An ecosystem has two basic components, the biotic component and the abiotic
component.
 The biotic component consists of different plants and animals each having its
specific functional position with regards to other biological units with which
they interact.
 The abiotic component consists of the non-living environment.
 Two types of flows, energy flow and material flow characterize the ecosystem.
The energy of the sun is the life force of the whole ecosystem and its flow
follows a unidirectional path whilst the material flow is manifest in a cyclical
movement.
 Natural events or human activities may cause disruption in the natural working
of the ecosystem and may bring about substantial change in its structure and its
function leading to its degradation.
Structure of the Ecosystem
Two things may define the structure of the ecosystem:
 the composition of the biotic community within the specific system and
 the abiotic environment encompassing the biotic community which includes the
quantity and distribution of chemical nutrients as well as the climatic, edaphic
and physiographic factors of the area.
Biotic Component
In the diagram, the inner circle depicts the biotic community consisting of different
types of flora and fauna. Man is part of this biotic community. The biota is the living
component of the ecosystem where the living organisms may be distinguished based
on their nutritional relationship. This relationship is given by their trophic structure.
According to the trophic structure, the biotic community may be divided into two
components; the autotrophic component and the heterotrophic component.
The autotrophic component mainly consists of green plants and photosynthetic
bacteria. Their distinguishing feature is that they use the energy of the sun and simple
inorganic materials to build complex substances through the process of photosynthesis.
Representatives of this component are also known as producers as they are the basic
production units on which members of the other component thrive. The heterotrophic
component consists of organisms that consume the matters built up by the autotrophs.
As such, this group is known as consumers. The consumers may be categorized as the
macro-consumers and the micro-consumer. Macro-consumers consist of all types of

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herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Herbivores e.g. rabbits, cattle etc. are primary
consumers directly feeding on the autotrophs. The carnivores and omnivores are the
secondary and tertiary consumers. Micro-consumers are the decomposers, which
include different types of bacteria and fungi. These organisms break down complex
compounds of dead and living cells through the process decomposition and release
them into the environment. The materials make up the nutrient pool.

Fig 2: Structure of Ecosystem

Abiotic Component
The abiotic component consists of various types of environmental factors. These may be
grouped into three categories.
 Climatic factors such as light, temperature, moisture, precipitation, atmospheric
gases and wind.
 Topographic factors such as the altitude and
 Edaphic factors which deal with the composition of soil and its chemical
properties.
Climatic factors
Climatic factors play a very important role in the physiological processes of the
ecosystem. Radiant energy from the sun is transformed into various forms of energy
when it reaches the earth. Various physiological processes of green plants such as
photosynthesis, transpiration and their vegetative growth depend on light energy.
Light affects respiration rates in animals and also pigmentation of the skin.
Temperature affects metabolic processes through regulating the enzymes and the
chemical reactions within the body of the organism. It affects plant growth. Warmer
temperature is conducive to growth whilst cooler temperatures may inhibit growth.
Plant and animal life also vary according to the temperature of the region.
Water is vital to life. All types of flora and fauna depend on water for their life

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processes. The availability and quality of water also determine the kind of flora and
fauna found in an area.
Atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide are vital to the life
processes of plants and animals. Oxygen supports the life of both plants and animals.
The presence of the right amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is necessary to
plant life, as it is vital to the process of photosynthesis. However, too much carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is life threatening to all species of living organisms.
Therefore, it is crucial that a correct balance is maintained. Nitrogen is the basis of
protein and vital to cell development. Nitrogen fixing plants can convert the
atmospheric nitrogen to form protein. Wind is an important climatic factor that helps in
the dispersal of plant seeds and in pollination. It may also cause damages through soil
erosion and strong winds may destroy trees and other forms of vegetation.
Topographic factors
The topography of an area determines the plant and the animal life within that area.
Temperature decreases with altitude, accordingly plant types will also vary. A well-
drained riverine area will have lush vegetation and the wetland flora and fauna will
differ from that of desert areas.
Edaphic Factors
Plant life is dependent on the soil for its supply of nutrients and water. Thus, the
composition of the soil, its mineral and moisture content, its texture and organic
content will determine the type of vegetative growth.
Function of the ecosystem
The living and the non-living components of the ecosystem interacts together in a way,
which makes it difficult to separate each of these factors. They are interwoven through
the flows of energy and materials. This is shown in the schematic below.

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Fig 3: Schematic showing Energy and Material Flow of Ecosystem

The schematic Figure 3 shows the manner in which energy and materials move in the
ecosystem. The source of energy in the ecosystem is the sun. The producers, which are
the green plants, take up minerals such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium,
potassium etc. from the atmosphere and the soil and fix radiant energy from the sun to
build organic matters such as carbohydrates, fats, protein etc. Thus, radiant energy is
transformed into chemical energy. There is a transfer of energy from producers to
consumers through a recurring process of eating and being eaten. This is known as the
food chain. Green plants are eaten by herbivores, the primary consumers. These are in
turn eaten by carnivores, which are the secondary consumers. Omnivores are tertiary
consumers, which eat plants as well as animals and are at the top of the trophic level.
This is the grazing food chain.
There is another type of food chain, the detritus food chain. The two are interlinked.
When plants and animals die their remains are returned to the soil environment.
Detritus food chain begins where the grazing food chain ends. Microorganisms feed on
dead organic matters. These decomposers break down complex organic matters
through biochemical processes and release the minerals into the soil, water and the
atmosphere, which make up the nutrient pool. Green plants take up these minerals and
with the help of photosynthesis produce food. Thus, the circular flow is complete.
However, as will be discussed further on, only the materials flow completes the cycle;
energy flow is unidirectional due to entropy. Food chains are numerous and none of
these occur in isolated sequences. All of these are interlinked and form an interlocking
pattern of organisms known as the food web.

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Energy Flow
In the schematic (Figure 3), it is seen that the ecosystem functions through the flows of
energy and materials. Both these flows may be understood by the laws of
thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics is the law of energy conservation,
which states that energy, may be changed from one form to another but it cannot be
created or destroyed. Thus, all energy entering the ecosystem must balance with the
amount staying in the ecosystem and the amount leaving it. The second law of
thermodynamics is the entropy law, which states that no transformation of energy is
100 percent efficient as some energy is always dispersed into unavailable heat energy.
Thus, the law may be summarized as:
 energy cannot be either created or destroyed;
 it can be transformed from one form to another;
 each time it is transformed some useful energy is lost.
The operation of the laws may be made clear from the following diagram:

Fig 4: Energy Flow in the Food Chain

As shown in figure 4 the radiant energy coming from the sun is utilized by the
autotrophs (green plants) to transform it into chemical energy through the process of
photosynthesis. In this process, leaves of green plants use water, carbon dioxide and
minerals to make carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight. The chlorophyll in the
leaves trap solar energy for photosynthesis. However, not all of the radiant energy is
transformed into energy of usable form as most of it is dissipated. This happens at each
step of the food chain. When energy rich food is consumed by the heterotrophs
(herbivores, carnivores and omnivores), not all of it is transformed into energy for their
metabolic activity, growth or reproduction. There is heat loss through respiration and
decomposition. This happens at each stage. Thus, there is a huge amount of energy loss
from the ecosystem as some energy is always dispersed into unavailable heat energy
during energy transfer in the food web. This loss has to be made up from an external
source such as the sunlight. Energy flow is unidirectional. As energy is lost at each
trophic level, if solar energy is not available to replenish energy in the ecosystem the

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whole system would collapse.

Material Flow
The prominent feature of material flow is that it is cyclic. Materials flow from living
organisms into the abiotic environment then back into the living organisms of an
ecosystem. Living organisms need large quantities of six elements; carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Some of these, for example, oxygen,
nitrogen and carbon are present in the atmosphere whilst minerals such as phosphorus,
sulphur etc. occurs in rocks and soil. The cyclic movement of these elements through
the biosphere is known as the biogeochemical cycle.

Fig 5: Hydrological Cycle

Hydrologic Cycle
The main component of the body tissue of all living organisms is water. Thus,
availability of water is vital to their existence. The hydrologic cycle consists of three
prominent and continuous events:
 Evaporation and transpiration
 Condensation and rainfall
 Runoff.
Water evaporates from- water bodies such as oceans, rivers, lakes and wetlands. It also
evaporates from the soil. Plants also give off water through transpiration. Huge amount
of water evaporates from the oceans as these cover about seventy percent of the surface
of the earth. As water vapour reaches high altitudes it condenses and eventually comes
back to earth in the form of rain. Some of this percolates through the soil into
underground aquifers but most of it reaches the ocean as surface runoff. Thus, in the
natural state, recycling provides us with a supply of purified water which is so vital to
life (Figure 5).
Human interference in the natural hydrologic cycle is on large scale. Building of
barrages and dams intercept the natural surface runoff creating artificial water bodies
where there was vegetation. Embankments along riverbanks interrupt the natural flow
of water. Destruction of forests and vegetation cover disrupt the natural process of
percolation and increases the volume of surface runoff. Reduction in percolation
decreases the rate of recharge of underground aquifers. There is excessive abstraction of
groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes leading to its depletion. Pollutants

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are being added to different types of water bodies from various sources. Some types of
atmospheric pollutants give rise to acid rain.
Carbon Cycle
Another vital component of organic matters is carbon. The main source of carbon is
atmospheric carbon dioxide. It enters the living system through the process of
photosynthesis by plant, which use atmospheric carbon dioxide and the radiant energy
of the sun to produce carbohydrate. It reenters the atmosphere when it is given off
during the process of respiration by living organism and during the process of
decomposition.
Carbon is found as carbonate in sedimentary rocks. But most of the carbon involved in
the carbon cycle is found in the ocean as carbonates. Any excess carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is also absorbed by the water in the ocean, thus maintaining the balance of
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Human interference has led to imbalance in the carbon cycle. Excessive carbon dioxide
is added to the atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels in homes, industries and
automobiles. The capacity or the environment to absorb carbon dioxide is being
reduced as natural forests are destroyed by man through over harvesting.

Fig 6: Natural Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is a macronutrient which influences the rate at which plants and animals
grow. It is an essential constituent of protein. It is used by living organisms in the form
of nitrates.
Although 78 percent of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, plants and animals
cannot directly use it in this form. Lightning transforms a small amount of atmospheric
nitrogen into nitrates but most of the nitrates arise from nitrogen fixation by a few
species of bacteria. Bacteria living in the nodules of roots of leguminous plants such as
peas, beans lentils etc., are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates. Nitrate is also
formed from the decay of organic matters. Birds and fish add to the nitrate pool. Some
nitrate is lost when it is buried in deep-sea sediments. Certain types of bacteria return

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nitrogen to the atmosphere by de-nitrification of nitrates back to nitrogen. Nitrogen is

also added to the cycle through volcanic action.
Human interference in the nitrogen cycle comes mainly from three sources. Excessive
nitrates are added into the environment by the wide use of chemical fertilizers in the
croplands. Harmful nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere by industries and
motorized vehicles used for transportation.

Fig 7: Nitrogen Cycle in the Nature

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus in the form of phosphate is a plant food. Many animals also need
phosphorus for shell, bone and teeth development. Phosphorus occurs in rocks and is
gradually released through erosion and leaching. Some phosphorus reaches the sea
through surface runoff. Much of it is deposited in the deep sea sediment. Some of it is
recycled back to land through marine fish and birds.

Fig 8: Phosphorus Cycle in the Nature

Human interference in this cycle is in various forms. A substantial amount of

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phosphate is added to the environment through widespread use of fertilizers in

agriculture. Phosphates in sewage eventually find its way into the water bodies.
Phosphates in mining wastes are also discharged into the environment.
Sulphur Cycle
Plants and animals need this nutrient in the form of sulphate. Most of the sulphate
occurs in the soil and some of it comes from the atmosphere.
Various types of microorganisms present in the soil change one form of sulphur into
another form.
Human interference mostly comes from burning of fossil fuels, which results in the
emission of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide reacting with
atmospheric moisture precipitates into acid rain.
Water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur are the major components of the
material cycle. Their importance also lies in the fact that human interference in these
natural cycles has led to disruptions, which have far fetched adverse impacts leading to
environmental degradation.

Fig 9: The Natural Sulphur Cycle

Carrying Capacity of the Ecosystem

Each type of population in the ecosystem has its own reproductive potential. This is the
rate at which the population will grow given its habitat had unlimited resources.
Different species have different reproductive potential. Under ideal conditions the
population of organisms grows exponentially (Figure 10a).This suggests more and
more individuals are added to the population over time.
An exponential growth would be possible if there was no limiting factor in the
ecosystem. In reality, population cannot grow exponentially indefinitely. At first, it may
grow very fast, as there is abundant food and other resources. Eventually, there are too
many individuals competing for food and other resources and the ecosystem cannot
support this large number. The carrying capacity of the ecosystem for a particular
species is the maximum size of its population that the ecosystem can provide for over

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an indefinite period. The population may overshoot the maximum carrying capacity.
However, growth cannot continue due to the limitation of resources and it crashes. The
population grows at a slower rate over time as its size increases. This type of growth is
represented by a logistic curve (Figure 10b). If a population exceeds the carrying
capacity, one consequence will be environmental degradation as resources will be
consumed faster than the ecosystem can produce them.

Fig 10: Growth Curves of Population

What is carrying capacity of environment and ecosystem?

Carrying capacity of environment or an ecosystem is the threshold limit of use of that
system without damaging the system.
Every ecosystem has its resources that are used for economic development, for survival
and for habitat creation. Environment and ecosystems have got the abilities to recover
the loss of its resources by regenerating them over the period of time that are
temporary and not exceeding the threshold damage limit.

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Can we do anything to increase the carrying capacity?

• maximum population size a certain environment can support for an extended

period of time, for a population of a particular species. 
• Under ideal conditions, a population naturally increases until it overshoots the
carrying capacity. 
• maximum population size a certain environment can support for an extended
period of time, for a population of a particular species. 
• Under ideal conditions, a population naturally increases until it overshoots the
carrying capacity. 
• At this point, the environment can no longer provide for the species, due to a
number of different environmental resistances, including food, crowding,
competition, etc. 
• The population, due to lack of resources, will begin to die out, allowing
the environment to recover. As the environment recovers,
the species population is able to flourish once more. This leads to a fluctuation
between the prosperity of the species and the prosperity of the
environment (hence the fluctuations in the graph). This type of growth is
called logistic growth.
•

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Relation of technology society and environment

Instruction: Students need to explain the following diagrams (1, 2 and 3) in their own language

Fig 1: Relation of technology society and environment

Supremacy of nature on man in prehistoric age

Agricultural innovation
Break through of civilization

man learned to grow crops

domesticate animals
innovation
science and technology

Ensure food security

Search for comfort, health, safety, convenience

Technological boom in all disciplines

over exploitation of resources

misuse of resources

Resulted environmental degradation

Health hazards
Loss of biodiversity

An environmentally fragile society

Need sustainable development, sound science, environmental

legislation for the protection of degradation

Fig 2: Human activities and environment

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Natural environment Resource depletion &

Fragile environment environmental
degradation

Over
Incremental exploitation
Population Negative impacts on health, and misuse
Increase of
income and production
resources

Supplies of natural Population & socio-

resources to meet the economic activities
demand

Fig 3: Relation of environmental science with the other disciplines

Biology
Physics
Chemistry
Nature
Mathematics
Engineering

Human Environment
Law
Religion Culture

Society
Sociology
Art

Literature
Political Science
History

Natural world, cultural world and social world -- all together always interacts each other and
create a human environment. Many disciplines contribute to understand our environment. A
multi-disciplinary approach is needed to explain the human environment and environmental
degradations. It is the duty of all professionals to learn the environment processes and work in
a way that it will cause environmental degradation.

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