Seismic Exploration

Lectures
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References
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-: introduction
- In seismic surveying, seismic waves are created by a controlled source
and propagate through the subsurface.
- Some waves will return to the surface after refraction or reflection at
geological boundaries within the subsurface.
- Instruments distributed along the surface detect the ground motion
caused by these returning waves and hence measure the arrival times of
the waves at different ranges from the source.
- These travel times may be converted into depth values and, hence, the
distribution of subsurface geological interfaces may be systematically
. mapped

Just as doctors use X-rays or audio or sonograms to 'see' into the -

human body indirectly , geophysicist use seismic surveying to obtain a
picture of the structure and nature of the rock layers indirectly.
- There are two main seismic method , refraction and reflection method

The seismic refraction method involves analysis of the travel times of -

the first energy to arrive at the geophones. These arrivals (first breaks)
are from either the direct wave (at geophones close to the source), or
.critically refracted waves (at geophones further from the source)

- The seismic reflection method involves the analysis of reflected waves

which occur later in the seismic record.,

- Seismic exploration has been applied for subsurface investigations of

depths as great as 150km,however it is useful for depths up to 10 km.

- for these depths , the seismic method is capable of detecting features

at scales as small as tens of meters or less.
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- This resolving power is significantly finer than the resolving ability of
other geophysical methods for this depth.

- Because this region of earth's subsurface includes nearly all of its oil
and gas reserves , seismic exploration plays a significant role in the
energy industries.

- Seismic methods have numerous potential applications to a variety of

geological ,environmental ,geotechnical , engineering , hydrogeological
and archeological problems.

- they can be used into assess where coal and minerals are located

- one of the most common uses of seismic data is in exploration ,

development and production of oil and gas in hydrocarbon exploration
to map hydrocarbon bearing formation and geologic structures that
surround them and different petroleum traps .

- seismic methods for oil and gas exploration and production can
conducted in both onshore(land) and offshore (marine).
.
university of Diyala
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 Theory of Elasticity The seismic method utilize the
propagation of waves of the earth, since this propagation
depends upon the elastic properties of the rocks
 The size and shape of a solid body can be changed by
applying forces to the external surface of the body . These
external forces are opposed by internal forces which resist
the changes in size and shape. As a result the body tends to
return to its original condition when the external forces are
removed.
 This property of resisting changes in size or shape and of
returning to the un deformed condition when the external
forces are removed is called elasticity .
Stress, Strain and Elastic Modules

.The stress ( δ ) is defined as the force (F) per unit area (A)

F
δ=
A
-: There are two types of stress are

Normal (dilatational or Vertical ) stress:- In this type the forces ■

acting perpendicularly to the area. The stress is said to be

Compressive if the forces are directed towards each other and

Tensile if they are directed away from each other, (figure

.below)

A compressive stress tends to cause a shortening of the body, and

a tensile stress an elongation .At right angles to the direction of the
stress .The normal stresses preserve the shape of the body but
. .change the size
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Shear stress :- In this type a forces acting parallel or tangential ■
to the surface. Shearing stress change the shape without size of the
.body

Types of stress and strain , ( after ,Dobrin,1960)

Strain
A body subjected to stresses undergoes Strain , which is the
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amount of deformation expressed as the ratio of change in length or
. volume to the original length or volume

strain:- is any change in original shape or size of an object in response

.to stress acting on the object

 There are three types of strain are :-

1. Longitudinal strain ( ε ) i

2. Transversal Strain (εw)

3. Shear Strain
Longitudinal strain■

Defined as the ratio of the elongation or shortening (∆L) that is

result to normal stress to the original length (L) of the body
.

ε =LΔLi

Transversal Strain (εw)■

The ratio of the expansion or contraction (∆W) that is result to

normal stress to the original width (W) of the body

ε wΔ
w= w

Shear Strain ■

This is measured for tangent of deformation angle (tan Ø) that is

result to shearing stress
.

According to Hooke's law , stress and strain are linearly dependent -

.and the body behave elastically until the yield point is reached
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at stresses Below the yield point , removing the stress, the body return -
.to its pre-stressed shape and size

at stresses Beyond the yield point , the body behave in a plastic or -

.ductile manner and permanent damage results

.If further stress is applied , the body is strained until it fractures -

.Figure below illustrate the relation between stress and strain -

.stress-strain curve for a solid body (after Kearey et al,2003)

Elastic Moduli/ Elastic constants/ coefficients

 The elastic constants describe how a material deforms when it's
stressed .
 The strss/ strain relationship for any material is defined by various
elastic moduli or elastic constants as outlined below:
1. Bulk modulus ( K)
2. Young’s modulus (E)
3. Shear Modulus (µ)
4. Poisson’s Ratio σ
Bulk modulus ( K)
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Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of applied pressure to -
emuloV sserts (p )
K=
emuloV niarts vΔ /v volumetric strain
It is a measure of how much force is needed to change -
.the volume of the material without change in shape
The bulk modulus (K) is a measure of the capacity of the -
.material to be compressed

The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the Compressibility (B) -

1
B=
K
Young’s modulus (E) or modulus of elasticity -

Young’s modulus (E) is defined as the ratio of longitudinal -

.stress to longitudinal strain
lanidutignoL sserts F /A
E=
lanidutignoL niarts LΔ /L
it is also called tensile modulus and it is a measure of the stiffness of a -
.given material

- The Young's modulus allows engineers and other scientists to

.calculate the behavior of a material under load

Shear Modulus (µ) -

- Denoted by S or sometimes (μ ), it is defined as the ratio of shear stress
Shear stress F / A
μ=
to the resultant shear strain(tan Ø). Shear strain tan θ
- The Shear modulus or rigidity (μ),is a measure of the material's
resistance to shearing strain.

- Taken as an indication of the strength of a material under shear forces.

- Shear modulus is usually measured in GPa (Gigapascals).

- If a material has a large shear modulus, it will take a large force applied
to deform it.
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- Gases and fluids can not support shear forces, they have shear modulus
of zero.
-

Poisson’s Ratio (σ )
Poisson’s Ratio (σ ) is define as the ratio of the lateral -
to the longitudinal strain )transverse(
esrevsnart niarts DΔ D /
σ=
lanidutignol - It is alsoniarts
defined asLΔ /L of the strain in the direction of the applied
the ratio
load to the strain normal to the load.
- A suggested range for the values of Poisson's ratio is from (0.0) for very
hard material to (0.5) for liquids , and about (0.25) for elastic material
SEISMIC WAVES
 seismic waves are the waves that travels through the Earth,
most often as the result of a tectonic earthquake, sometimes from
an explosion.
 There are two types of seismic waves,namely,'body waves' and
'surface waves'.
Body waves

 Body waves are the seismic waves which propagate through the
interior of the earth.
 velocity of body seismic waves depends on the density and elastic
properties of the rocks and soil through which they pass.
 body waves are non -dispersive because its waves velocity do not
depend on frequency.
 Body waves can be subdivided in to two types:-
1. Compressional Waves(Longitudinal, primary or p-waves)
2. Shear Waves (transverse, secondary or S-waves)

Compressional Waves -1

 Particle motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation

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 travel trough all types of materials including solids, liquids and
gases as well as air .
 P- waves are the fastest kind of seismic waves, and, consequently,
the first to 'arrive' at a seismometer ,therefore named primary
waves .
 As the P waves pass through the medium, they cause
compressions (Shortening ) and dilation (expansion) ( It pushes
and pulls the rocks)like sound waves push and pull the air
,therefore named compressional waves.
 VP ~ 5 – 7 km/s in typical Earth’s crust ; >~ 8 km/s in Earth’s mantle
and core; ~1.5 km/s in water; ~0.3 km/s in air.
 because of their small amplitudes don't do as much damage as the
S waves and surface waves which follow.

.Shear Waves -2

 particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave

propagation.
 S-waves cannot travel through fluids, air or water, so do not exist
in earth outer core or molten rock (magma).
 S -waves travel slower than P waves in a solid, therefore, S-waves
arrive next after P-wave at a seismometer and named secondary
waves.
 As the S waves pass through the medium, they cause a structure
to vibrate from side to side or up and down, shaking the ground
surface vertically and horizontally
 VS ~ 3 – 4 km/s in typical Earth’s crust;   >~ 4.5 km/s in Earth’s
mantle; ~ 2.5-3.0 km/s in (solid) inner core
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 S-waves are typically more damaging than the P waves because they
are several times higher in amplitude and produce vertical and
horizontal motion of the ground surface.
 The S-wave motion can be split into (SH) (horizontally polarized
motion ) and (SV) (vertically polarized motion).
 periods of S-waves are longer, at least by a factor of√ 3, than those
of P-waves due to differences in wave propagation velocity.

?why s-waves cannot travel through fluids -

because S waves depend upon a resistance to transverse or "shear"

force which does not exist in a liquid or gas medium, so they can only
.travel in the solid parts of the Earth

SURFACE WAVES

 A surface wave is a seismic wave that is travels near the surface of

the earth. Surface waves -- sometimes called long waves, or simply
L waves -- are responsible for most of the damage associated with
earthquakes, because they cause the most intense vibrations .

 Surface waves are analogous to water waves and travel along the
Earth's surface.

 surface waves velocity depend on frequency and wavelength

(velocity m/s= frequency (cycles/s ) x wavelength (m/cycles)
therefore surface waves are always dispersive

 surface waves travel slower than body waves, therefore they

arrive to seismometer after P and S wave.
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 Because of their low frequency, long duration, and large
amplitude, they can be the most destructive type of seismic wave.

 Their amplitude at the surface of the Earth can be very large,but

decrease quickly with depth.
 Surface waves are mainly a source of noise in seismic exploration

 There are two types of surface waves: Rayleigh waves and Love
waves.

Rayleigh waves

 Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that
travel as ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves on
the surface of water.
 the Rayleigh waves denoted as LR (or R).Rayleigh waves exist at
any free surface
 Particle Motion is more complex, it is a mixture of P and SV; results
in a retrograde elliptical motion(Near the surface the particle
motion is retrograde elliptical).
 The velocity of Rayleigh wave (VR) is about (0.9) of shear wave
(VS) in the same medium; the relation is given as VR < 0.92 VS and
its velocity is also slower than love waves.
 The velocity of a Rayleigh wave does not vary with frequency when
travelling in a uniform medium. In a layered Earth the velocity of a
Rayleigh wave varies with frequency (it is dispersive).
 Depth of penetration of the Rayleigh waves is also dependent on
frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating to greater
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Love waves

 Its motion is same as that of the S-waves that have no vertical

displacement (SH). It moves the ground from side to side in a
horizontal plane parallel to Earth's surface, but at right angle to
the direction of propagation, so the wave motion is horizontal and
transverse.

 Love waves denoted as LQ or G.

 Love waves occur only when the surface layer has a low body
waves velocity with respect to the underlying layer(occur when
there is increase of S wave velocity with depth).

 Love waves travel with a slower velocity than P- or S waves, but

,
faster than Rayleigh waves so love waves arrive before Rayleigh
waves on seismograph.

 Love waves are always dispersive.

 Love waves do not propagate through water, it affect surface

water only.

 Depth of penetration of the Love waves is also dependent on

frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating to greater depth.
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Elastic modules and Seismic waves Velocities

2-7 Factors affecting seismic wave velocity of rocks:

1-Density:

There is a direct correlation between seismic velocity and the density

and ripability of subsurface materials as shown in (fig, 2-9). The bulk
density ρ can be given as (Uyanik 2010):

ρ = 16 + 0.002Vp (2-11)
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Figure (2-9) Relations between P wave velocity (V P), S wave velocity (VS),
and their ratio (VP/VS) and density after (Prskalo, 2004).

2-Porosity:

The elastic moduli are inversely proportional to porosity, where seismic

velocity increase with decreasing porosity, and the porosity decrease
with depth. Therefore density and velocity increase with depth,
(Sharma, 1986).

3-Depth:

At large depths, compaction results in a reduction of porosity, increasing

of seismic velocities. In addition, the elastic moduli tend to increase at
higher pressures. Thus, seismic velocities in sedimentary rocks tend to be
higher at greater depths.
Variation of seismic velocity with depth
With increasing depth, compaction increase the density of a rock through reduction of pore
space. The rigidity of the rock also increases with depth. The net effect is that velocity will
increase with depth, even if the lithology does not change.
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4-Age:

Velocities tend to increase with age of sedimentary rocks, owing to

cementation. As a rock becomes more cemented, its rigidity (strength)
increases.
5-Fluid content:

The seismic velocity is affected by amount and type of fluid in rocks

(Dobrin, 1976).

6-Lithology:

The seismic velocity in igneous and metamorphic rocks is more than

sedimentary rocks. By virtue of their various compositions, texture (e.g.
grain shape and degree of sorting), and other properties, rocks differ in
their elastic moduli and densities and, hence, in their seismic velocities
(kearey, et al., 2002).

7- Fracture and cracks effect:

Fractures and cracks lead to increasing ratio of secondary porosity in

rocks, and lead to decreasing of seismic velocity in these rocks
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Table 1:  Seismic Waves

Wave Type Particle Motion Typical Velocity Other Characteristics
)and names(
P,      Alternating VP ~ 5 – 7 km/s P motion travels fastest in
Compressional, compressions in typical Earth’s materials, so the P-wave is
crust; >~ 8 km/s
Primary, (“pushes”) and the first-arriving energy on a
in Earth’s mantle
Longitudinal dilations (“pulls”) and core; ~1.5 seismogram.  Generally
which are directed in km/s in water; smaller and higher frequency
the same direction as ~0.3 km/s in air. than the S and Surface-
the wave is waves.  P waves in a liquid or
propagating (along gas are pressure waves,
the ray path); and .including sound waves
therefore,
perpendicular to the
.wavefront

S,                   Alternating VS ~ 3 – 4 km/s S-waves do not travel

Shear, transverse motions in typical Earth’s through fluids, so do not
crust;
Secondary, (perpendicular to the exist in Earth’s outer core
Transverse direction of km/s 4.5 ~>     (inferred to be primarily
propagation, and the in Earth’s liquid iron) or in air or water
ray path); commonly or molten rock (magma).  S
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approximately  ;mantle waves travel slower than P
polarized such that waves in a solid and,
km/s 2.5-3.0 ~
particle motion is in therefore, arrive after the P
vertical or horizontal in (solid) inner .wave
.core
.planes

L,                  Transverse horizontal VL ~ 2.0 - 4.4 Love waves exist because of

Love, Surface motion, km/s in the Earth the Earth’s surface.  They are
waves, Long perpendicular to the depending on largest at the surface and
waves direction of frequency of the decrease in amplitude with
propagation and propagating depth.  Love waves are
generally parallel to wave, and dispersive, that is, the wave
.the Earth’s surface therefore the velocity is dependent on
depth of frequency, generally with low
penetration of fr
the waves. In
general, the Love equencies propagating at
higher velocity.  Depth of
waves travel
slightly faster penetration of the Love
waves is also dependent on
than the
.Rayleigh waves frequency, with lower
frequencies penetrating to
.greater depth

R,            Motion is both in the VR ~ 2.0 - 4.2 Rayleigh waves are also
Rayleigh, direction of km/s in the Earth dispersive and the
Surface waves, propagation and depending on amplitudes generally
Long waves, perpendicular (in a frequency of the decrease with depth in the
Ground roll vertical plane), and  propagating Earth.  Appearance and
“phased” so that the wave, and particle motion are similar to
motion is generally therefore the water waves. Depth of
elliptical – either depth of penetration of the Rayleigh
prograde or penetration of waves is also dependent on
.retrograde .the waves frequency, with lower
frequencies penetrating to
.greater depth
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