1984 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS 253

Flight behavior of Andean Condors Vultur gryphys

and Turkey Vultures Cathartes aura around the
Paracas Peninsula, Peru
& K. D. SCHOLEY
C. J. PENNYCUICK

IBIS 126: 253-256 Received 7 October 1982

T h e Andean Condor Vultur gryphus is still to be found in varying deinsities

throughout most of the western side of South America, in the Andes and along the
coast, although its future status is by no means assured. McGahan (1973a, b) made an
extended study of this species in Colombia and Peru in 1968-70, in which he
described its behaviour and feeding ecology, and made quantitative observations of
both gliding and flapping flight. In the present paper we describe observations of
flight behaviour made during a visit to one of McGahan's study areas, the Paracas
Peninsula, Peru (Fig. 1). This area was made a National Reserve in 1975to protect its
breeding colonies of fur seals Arctocephalus australis and sea lions Otaria byronia.
Dead animals and after-births from these colonies provide a major source of food for
condors and Turkey Vultures Cathartes aura. In addition, condors were observed by
Murphy (1925) preying on Peruvian Diving Petrels Pelecanoidesgarnoti, which were
breeding in large numbers on the nearby island of San Gallan.
T h e maximum number of adult condors that we saw at one time was seven. In
addition, we saw two different immature condors. According to the plumage stages
given by McGahan (unpublished), one of these, a female, would have been between
four and five-and-a-half years old, and the other, a male, four years or less. McGahan
also noted that the condors seen at Paracas were mainly adults, with very few
immatures. This suggests that the area is not a major breeding area, although it is
possible that some nests could be present on the cliffs of the mainland or San Gallan.
The majority of the condors seen along the coast were presumably either non-
breeding adults, or birds with nests in the mountains, making foraging expediti'ons to
the coast. T h e latter possibility raises some interesting problems since condors are
certainly not capable of flapping flight over such large distances.
FLIGHT BEHAVIOUR
Condors were observed on 16 days between 19 December 1980 and 4 January 1981
from the cliff tops of the Paracas peninsula and neighbouring areas. Condors have a
very limited capacity for flapping flight, mainly on account of their large size
(Pennycuick 1975), and their flight behaviour therefore depends on soaring. At
Paracas they were seen using lift caused by three different types of effect. T h e most
important was orographic (or slope) lift, caused by upward deflection of the wind as
it blew against the cliffs. Condors were also seen circling in thermals and climbing in
a small lee wave. T h e routes available to the condors were severely restrictedl, in a
readily understandable way, by the distribution of slope lift and thermal convection.
SLOPE SOARING
T h e coast of Peru is subject to avery predictable, diurnal 'shore-parallel wind', the
mechanism of which is explained by Barry (1981). During our visit it reached a
maximum around midday (local time) and continued until shortly after sunset. The
direction was between 155" and 215" (true), and the strength in the afternoon was

0019-1019/84/020253 +04 $03.00/0 0 1984 The British Ornithologists' Union

254 SHORT COMMUNICATIOYS IBIS 126

about 10 m s - (maximum I3 m s '), when measured on an exposed knoll at a height

~

of about 450 m A S L , just south of Cerro Lechuza. At lower elevations along the cliff
tops the afternoon strength was typically 5-6 m s '. ~

As soon as the wind came up, condors and Turkey Vultures would start to slope-
soar along the south-facing cliffs. They were able to soar for long periods all the way
along the south coast of the peninsula, gaining most height over the three headlands.
They also ventured over the top of the southwestern part of the peninsula, making
use of south-facing slopes up to Cerro Lechuza. Condors patrolling the south cliffs
often flew in pairs, and we saw agonistic encounters in the air. This behaviour has
been described at length by McGahan (1972).
T h e west-facing cliffs lay approximately parallel to the prevailing wind direction
but, in spite of this, condors were frequently seen rounding Punta Huacas, and
gliding north in extremely turbulent air. They were usually able to soar on the south
face of Punta del Lagarto, and, less reliably, on the south faces of other buttresses and
gullies. T h e west beach was densely occupied by fur seals from Punta Huacas to
about 1 km north of Cerro Lechuza, and we saw condors along the whole of this area.
T h e unfavourable direction of the west cliffs made soaring somewhat unreliable
there, and the condors often got very low. When above the cliff tops they usually flew
close to the slopes, and occasionally crashed into the sandy hillsides on encountering
turbulence. They appeared to be unharmed by this, and would walk uphill to a
higher point before taking off again. We found numerous condor footprints on thew
upper slopes, all leading directly uphill to a new take-off point.
Condors patrolling the cliffs appeared to be searching for carcasses on the beach,
and we saw them feeding on dead seals. Condors were able to take off directly from
the beach when startled, but would then only fly a short distance, before landing low
down on the cliff. Their preferred method of departing from the beach was to
scramble u p a sloping part of the cliff, or a buttress, flapping their wings, to a height
of 20- 50 m or so above the beach. From this height they could take off by diving, and
then work their way u p the cliff in the slope lift. Roosting sites were high up on the
cliff.
Turkey Vultures landed on the beach more readily than condors, and could take
off withput difficulty. We did not see them crashing when slope soaring, although
they too sometimes flew close to the slopes.

On two occasions we sasv an interesting variant of the usual patrolling behaviour,

in which condors flew westward beyond the tip of Punta del Lagarto, and continued
climbing over the sea, beyond the influence of the slope lift. This occurred when the
wind was from the SSE. There appeared to be a small area of very smooth lift about
1.5 km directly downwind of Punta Huacas. O n one occasion we saw six condors and
12 Turkey Vultures all soaring in this manner, attaining a maximum height of about
450 m AST,.
T h e source of this lift appeared to be a lee wave set off by Punta Huacas. Birds
soaring in it faced into wind, maintaining an approximately stationary position
relative to the shore, apart from tacking to and fro along a short crosswind heat.
Their smooth flight in the wave contrasted strongly with extreme turbulence as soon
as they left it to fly along the cliff. Although this particular wave was of no great
significance in itself, it is interesting that both condors and Turkey Vultures showed
the appropriate behaviour for this difficult method of soaring. Lee waves occur
widely and frequently in the Andes, particularly further south in the zone of westerly
winds, and would provide an important source of energy, if it can be assumed that the
birds are capable of exploiting them.
1984 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS 255

Chincha %
1s 0
B

/.
13’45’

San Gallan 1

6-7
f l 1

Pta
Zaratea
y
Sai,na*
76p15.w

condors patrolling the south cliffs, crossing to San Gallan, and (possibly) leaving the peninsula.
The range of wind directions, observed near Cerro Lechuza, is shown at top centre.

CROSSING ‘ro ISLANDS

Condors and Turkey Vultures were seen occasionally circling in weak thermals,
which they used as a method of crossing from the mainland to Isla San Gallan.
Following modest climbs in thermals over Punta Huacas or Cerro Lechuza, both
species were seen to glide across to the island, where they were able to resume slope
soaring on the south-facing cliffs. T h e maximum height gained before starting these
glides was judged to be about 600 m 4 S L , and the distance was about 8.5 km. This is
consistent with McGahan’s estimate that the condor’s best glide ratio is about 15 : 1
(McGahan 1973a). There was also usually some help from the wind for this crossing.
We did not see condors making the return crossing. Presumably they wait until the
wind veers a little to the SSW, and then cross to the cliffs directly opposite the idand.
Condors are also known to visit the much smaller island of Zarate, which is
situated about 10 km south of the Paracas Peninsula, and supports a breeding colony
of sea lions. We saw two condors, which had been soaring on the low cliffs of I’unta
Las Salinas, flap across the 1.4 km gap to Zarate, and resume slope soaring once they
reached the island.
Much longer crossings are probably beyond the capability of condors in flapping
flight. Visiting islands further out must depend on being able to gain height and glide
across, in both directions, as at San Gallan. T h e Ballesta Islands, which su:pport
large sea bird and sea lion breeding colonies, lie about 8.5 km N N W of the northwest
point of the peninsula. Although condors most probably could glide across to them,
they would not be able to glide back against the wind. The smaller Turkey Vuli:ures,
which are capable of level flapping flight, frequent these islands, but according .to the
local people, the condors do not. The Chincha Islands, about 10 km further north,
represent an even larger potential food supply, but they too appear to be accevsible
only to Turkey Vultures, not to condors.
256 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS IBIS 126

LEAVING T H E PENINSULA
Condors would be able to travel between the coast and the Andes if they were able
to rely on thermal convection. It is impossible to assess thermal soaring conditions
without direct observation in the air, but the appearance of the sky did not suggest
that thermals would be adequate for regular foraging movements. On some days we
did see cumulus clouds over the peninsula, and neighbouring parts of the coastal
desert, but we did not see condors or Turkey Vultures climbing under them. Dust
devils seemed to be virtually absent, and the only thermal soaring we saw was to
heights of the order of 500 m ASL, with very slow rates of climb.
However, we did see condors apparently leaving the peninsula on several
occasions. T h e method was to gain the maximum possible height in the slope lift at
the southeast corner of the peninsula, then leave in a long northeasterly glide past
Lagunilla, where we lost sight of them. If these birds were indeed leaving the
peninsula, it is possible that they were returning to nests in the mountains, after
foraging expeditions to the coast, in a manner reminiscent of the ‘commuting’
behaviour of Griffon Vultures (Gyps spp.) in Africa (Pennycuick 1972). This would
entail crossing 30-40 km of coastal desert, before better soaring conditions could be
anticipated in the foothills of the Andes. Whether this is feasible, and, if so, how it
can be done, are questions which will have to await the development of air-to-air
methods of observation.
CONCLUSIONS
Both condors and Turkey Vultures made extensive use of slope lift, and the
condors were almost entirely dependent on it. Because of the dependable southerly
wind, this in effect confined them to routes along which they could take advantage of
south-facing slopes. They were obliged to wait until the wind came up in the late
morning or afternoon before undertaking any but very short flights. Turkey
Vultures used the same methods, but were less dependent on soaring. Their ability
to fly under power when necessary gave them access to some islands which the
condors could not reach.
It is likely that both species make more extensive use of thermals and the waves
inland in the Andes, and that condors there too are strictly confined to flight routes
and schedules which take advantage of one or other method of soaring. This must
place severe limitations on their foraging behaviour, but air-to-air observation
would be needed to determine exactly what these limitations are.

It is a pleasure to thank Sr Felipe Benavides for providing us with facilities, including accommodation
at the Paracas Institute, and his secretary Sra Teresa Huck, for her invaluable help with our arrangements.

REFERENCES
BARRY,R. G. 1981. Mountain weather and climate. London: Methuen.
MCGAHAN, J. 1972. Behavior and ecology of the Andean Condor. Ph.D Thesis, University of Wisconsin.
MCGAHAN, J. 1973a. Gliding flight of the Andean condor in nature. J. exp. Biol. 58: 225-237.
MCGAHAN, J. 1973b. Flapping flight of the Andean condor in nature. J. exp. Biol. 58: 239-253.
MURPHY, R. C. 1925. Bird islands of Peru. New York: Putnam.
PENNYCUICK, C. J. 1972. Gliding behaviour and performance of some East African birds, observed from a
motor-glider. Ibis 114: 178-218.
PENNYCUICK, C. J. 1975. Mechanics of flight. I n Farner, D. S. & King, J. R. (eds), Avian biology, Vol. 5 :
1-75. New York: Academic Press.

Department of Biology, University of Florida, Coral Gables, Fla 33124’ and

Department of Zoology, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol B S 8 I UG,
UK2
1. Present address of C. J. Pennycuick.
2. Present address of K. D. Scholey.