Chapter 11: Cell Communication

Chapter 11: Cell Communication

11.1 Describe how external signals are converted to responses within cells.
11.2 Identify different types of signal receptors and explain how they function.
11.3 Explain the roles of phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, and second messengers in
signal transduction.
11.4 Describe how cells respond to signaling, including fine-tuning of the response.
11.5 Use apoptosis as an example to illustrate how multiple signaling pathways can be
integrated in a cell.

The special challenge in Chapter 11 is not that the material is difficult to understand but that
most of the material may be completely new to you. Cell communication is often not covered
in introductory high school biology courses, yet perhaps no other section of biology has grown
as much as our understanding of cell signaling in the last decade. Take your time with this sec-
tion, and you will be rewarded with a knowledge base that will be most helpful in this course
and courses to come.

Study Tip: Figure 11.1 in your text explains the desperate flight of an impala at the cellular lev-
el. It shows how the signal (sensing a cheetah nearby) leads to the release of more glucose to
power an escape. Although the specific details are unique to the signal, cell signals show three
definite stages. Label and describe the three stages for this example in the boxes below. These
three stages of the cell signal response are consistent across all types of cell signals.

Signal Reception Signal Transduction Cellular response

An epinephrine molecule Relay molecules transmit The enzyme breaks down
binds to a cell receptor on a the signal, ultimately glycogen, releasing glucose
muscle cell. activating an enzyme. that fuels the leg muscles.

Concept 11.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell

LO 11.1: Describe how external signals are converted to responses within cells.

1. Cell signaling in bacteria provides evidence this is an ancient process that first evolved
hundreds of millions of years ago. What is quorum sensing, a signaling mechanism seen in
bacteria today? How is it related to biofilms?
Bacteria cells secrete molecules that can be detected by other bacteria. Quorum sensing allows bacteria
to sense the concentration of these signaling molecules to monitor the local density of cells. Bacteria use
quorum sensing to coordinate certain behaviors, such as biofilm production.

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

2. Biofilms on your teeth could protect bacteria that cause cavities and gum disease. What is
another way quorum sensing can lead to disease?
Through the use of autoinducers, bacteria can regulate their behavior according to population density. The
phenomenon of quorum sensing, or cell-to-cell communication, relies on the principle that when a single
bacterium releases autoinducers (AIs) into the environment, their concentration is too low to be detected.
3. Yeasts find their sexual mates by chemical signals that activate a signal transduction
pathway. What are the three major steps in this pathway?
During reception, the target cell’s detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell, a
chemical signal is “detected” when the signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein located at the cell’s
surface or inside the cell. During transduction, the signal is converted to a form that can bring about a
specific cellular response. The binding of the signaling molecule changes the receptor protein in some way,
initiating the second stage. The specific cellular response triggered by the transduced signal may be almost
any imaginable cellular activity.
4. Study Figure 11.3. The yeast cells are of two mating types, a and ɑ. Like male and female,
they must find each other in order to mate. How does each mating type signal which it is?
How does each type “know” the other type is near?
The cells use chemical signaling to identify cells of the opposite mating type and initiate the mating
process. The two mating types and their corresponding chemical signaling molecules. First, they
exchange mating factors, then they mate, and lastly, they form a new a/ɑ cell.
5. Your answer to question 3 included a signal and its reception. When reception occurs in
cells of different mating types, what occurs next?
When reception occurs in cells of different mating types, signal transduction occurs next.

This is the cellular response. The response is caused by cellular changes that occur as a result of
signal reception and transduction. Logically, the three-stage process is termed a signal transduc-
tion pathway.

6. Chemical signals may pass between adjacent animal cells through gap junctions and
between plant cells via plasmodesmata .

7. What are two additional ways chemical signals may pass between animal cells?
Two additional chemical signals would be direct contact through cell-surface molecule and paracrine
signaling. Both are local signaling. When cells secrete, signaling molecules influent the cells nearby.

8. What are three examples of animal signaling molecules? A study of Figure 11.5 in your
text may help you answer this.
The three examples of animal signaling molecules would be paracrine signaling, in which a signaling cell
acts on nearby target cells by secreting local molecules of a local regulator, synaptic signaling, in which a
nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, simulating the target cell, such as a muscle
or another nerve cell, and endocrine (hormonal) signaling, which is when specialized hormone cells
secrete hormones into body fluids, often blood. Hormones reach most body cells, but are bound by and
affect only some cells.
9. Chemical signals are received by specific target cells. What is required for reception by a
target cell
They need to recognize and respond to the chemical signals, they do this by having local receptors
bind to the signal molecule.
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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

10. How does a hormone qualify as a long-distance signaling example?

In endocrine signaling (hormonal signaling in animals), hormone molecules are released by specialized
cells, which travel to other parts of the body through the circulatory system to reach target cells that
recognize and respond to the hormones. Plant hormones (plant growth regulators) sometimes travel in
vessels but more often reach their targets by moving through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas.

11. A signal transduction pathway has three stages. Use Figure 11.6 in your text to label the
missing parts of the following figure.

Extracellular Fluid Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane

1) Signal Reception 2) Signal Transduction 3) Cellular Response

Activation of
cellular response,
such as release of
glucose from
Epinephrine glycogen.
3 relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway.

Signaling
Molecule

12. If this were the pathway studied by Earl Sutherland, label epinephrine.

13. Describe each step in the signal transduction pathway.

signal reception
A cell detects a signaling molecule from the outside of the cell. A signal is detected when the chemical signal (also known as a ligand) binds
to a receptor protein on the surface of the cell or inside the cell.

signal transduction
When the signaling molecule binds the receptor it changes the receptor protein in some way. This change initiates the process of
transduction. Signal transduction is usually a pathway of several steps. Each relay molecule in the signal transduction pathway changes the
next molecule in the pathway.
cellular response
The signal triggers a specific cellular response.

Concept 11.2 Signal Reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor, causing it to change
shape

LO 11.2: Identify different types of signal receptors and explain how they function.

14. Explain the term ligand. (This term is not restricted to cell signaling. You will see it in oth-
er situations during the year.)
A ligand is a molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one. Ligand binding
generally causes the receptor protein to undergo a chance in shape.
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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

15. Cell-surface receptors bind to water-soluble signaling molecules and fall into three general
groups. What are these three categories of receptors? (We will look at each in depth.)
The 3 categories of receptors are G Protein-coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and ion channel
receptors.

16. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) are a large family of receptors. Study the GPCR
shown in Figure 11.8 in your text and read the accompanying text. How does a G protein
receive a signal?
The G protein receives a signal when a signaling molecule binds to the extracellular side of the
transmembrane receptor protein which gets activated and changes shape.

17. Here is a ribbon model of a GPCR imbedded in the plasma membrane. GPCR are com-
posed of seven transmembrane α helices and two specific binding sites. Label these ele-
ments.

Signaling molecule binding site

Segment that interacts

with G proteins inside the
cell.

18. What processes in humans depend on GPCRs? What are examples of errors in GPCR
signaling?
In humans, vision, smell, and taste depend on GCPRs. Bacterial pathogens that cause cholera, pertussis,
and botulism produce toxins that interfere with G protein function are errors.

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

19. The text explains the three major types of membrane receptors in Figure 11.8. This materi-
al is of fundamental importance, so we will work through the specific figures for each type
of membrane receptor. The first example is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). In the
first figure, label the components and then describe the role of the three components.

G protein-coupled receptor
GPCR is a cell-surface transmembrane receptor
that works with the help of a G protein
plasma membrane
G protein G protein-coupled
Enzyme
loosely attached to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane, the G protein functions as a molecular receptor
G Protein
switch that is either on or off, depending on which of two guanine nucleotides is attached GDP or
GTP---hence the term G protein (GTP, or guanosine triphosphate is similar to ATP) GDP
GDP
When GDP is bound to the G protein, the G protein is
inactive. The receptor and G protein work together with
another protein, usually an enzyme
20. Label and then describe what happens signaling molecule

in step 2. activated
receptor
When the appropriate signaling molecule plasma membrane
binds to the extracellular side of the inactive
receptor, the receptor is activated and GTP
enzyme
changes shape. Its cytoplasmic side then
binds an inactive G protein, causing a
GTP to displace GDP. This activates the G GDP
protein

21. Label and then describe what happens

in step 3. (The yellow box at the bottom
right is important!)
The activated G protein dissociates from the Activated
receptor, diffuses along the membrane, and then Enzyme
binds to an enzyme, altering the enzyme's shape GTP
and activity. Once activated, the enzyme can
trigger the next step, leading to a cellular response.
(Binding of signaling molecules is reversible: Like
other ligands, they bind and dissociate many times.
The ligand concentration outside the cell Cytoplasm Cellular Response
determines how often a ligand is bound and causes
signaling.)
22. Equally important to starting a signal is Extracellular fluid
stopping a signal. Step 4 stops the sig-
nal. (Failure to do so can lead to serious
problems, like cancer.) Label and then
describe how the signal is halted. GDP
P
The changes in the enzyme and G protein are only
temporary because the G protein also functions as
GTPase enzyme, in other words, it then hydrolyzes
its bound GTP to GDP. Now inactive again, the G
protein leaves the enzyme, which returns to its
original state. The G protein is now available for
reuse. The GTPase function of the G protein allows
the pathway to shut down rapidly when the
signaling molecule is no longer present.

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

23. A G protein is also a GTPase enzyme. Why is this important?

It stops the signal and converts GTP back to GDP. GTPase allows pathways to
shut down rapidly when the signaling molecule is no longer present

24. The second type of receptor, described on p. 219, is the receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs).
Explain what a kinase enzyme does.
A kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules
to specific substrates. This process is known as phosphorylation, where the substrate gains a phosphate group and the
high-energy ATP molecule donates a phosphate group.

25. What is a key difference between the number of pathways RTKs can initiate and GPCRs
can initiate?
GCPR's can only do one cellular response at a time while RTK's can imitate ten or more different cellular responses
at a time. The ability of a single ligand-binding event to trigger so many pathways is a key difference between
receptor tyrosine kinases and G protein-coupled receptors. Abnormal receptor tyrosine kinases that function even in
the absence of signaling molecules are associated with many kinds of cancer.

26. Use Figure 11.8 in your text to provide Signaling Molecules Ligand-binding site
all of the missing labels on the diagram
below; then explain what happens in
a helix in the membrane
step 1.
Before the signaling molecule binds, the receptors exist Tyrosines
as individual units referred to as monomers. Each has
an extracellular ligand-binding site, an α helix
spanning the membrane, and an intracellular tail
containing multiple tyrosines. Cytoplasm
Receptor tyrosine
kinase proteins
(inactive monomers)

27. Label step 2 and then describe what Signaling molecules

Extracellular Fluid
happens to receptor tyrosine kinases
when signaling molecules have at-
tached.
The binding of a signaling molecule (such as a growth
factor) causes two receptor monomers to associate Tyrosine
closely with each other, forming a complex known as
a dimer (dimerization).

DIMER

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

28. Label and explain how the receptors are

activated in step 3.
Dimerization activates the tyrosine kinase
region of each monomer; each tyrosine kinase Tyrosines P P
adds a phosphate from an ATP molecule to a P P
tyrosine on the tail of the other monomer. P P
6 ATP 6ADP
Activated tyrosine
fully activated receptor
kinase regions
tyrosine kinase
(unphosphorylated
(phosphorylated dimer)
dimer)

29. Use step 4 to explain how the activated Extracellular Fluid

receptor can stimulate multiple cellular
activated relay proteins
response pathways. Each activated pro-
tein shown in this step triggers a differ- P Cellular
P Response 1
ent signal transduction pathway, leading P P Cellular
P P
to a different cellular response. Response 2
Now that the receptor is fully activated, it is Tyr
recognized by specific relay proteins inside the
cell. Each such protein binds to a specific
phosphorylated tyrosine, undergoing a resulting
structural change that activates the bound protein.
Each activated protein triggers a transduction inactivated relay proteins
pathway, leading to a cellular response.

30. Look next at ion channel receptors (p. 220). This figure shows the flow of ions into the
cell. Ion channel receptors can also stop the flow of ions. These comparatively simple
membrane receptors are explained in three steps. Label this diagram of the first step and
then explain the role of the labeled molecules.

ligand Signaling
the signal molecule (ligand) bind to the receptor molecule Channel Ions
(ligand) closed
ligand-gated ion channel receptor
type of membrane receptor containing a region that can
act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape
ions Plasma membrane
when a signaling molecule binds as a ligand to the receptor protein, the
gate opens or closes, allowing/blocking the flow of specific ions, such
as Na+ or Ca2+, through a channel in the receptor Ligand-gated ion channel receptor

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

31. Step 2 shows what has happened with the Channel Open
binding of the ligand to the receptor. La-
bel and explain what occurs.
When the ligand binds to the receptor and the gate opens,
specific ions can flow through the channel and rapidly
change the concentration of that particular ion inside the
cell. This change may directly affect the activity of the cell
in some way.
Cellular
Response

32. The ligand attachment to the receptor is

brief. In step 3, the ligand dissociates.
Label and explain what occurs. Channel Closed

When the ligand dissociates from this

receptor, the gate closes and ions no longer
enter the cell.

33. Read the final paragraph below the Ion Channel Receptors figure in your text carefully. In
what body system are ligand-gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels of par-
ticular importance?
The ligand-gated ion channels and voltage-gated ion channels are important in the nervous system.

34. To bind intracellular receptors, the signaling molecules must be able to pass through the
plasma membrane. What types of molecules can serve as signals? Give three examples.
Hydrophobic molecules can serve as signals. 3 examples would be steroid hormones, thyroid
hormones and nitric hormones.

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

35. The figure below shows how aldosterone, a hydrophobic steroid hormone, triggers a cell-
signaling pathway. It is important as an example of how intracellular receptors work. At
each bullet, add an explanation of what is happening in the cell.

Extracellular fluid
Hormone
(aldosterone)

The steroid hormone aldosterone passes

through the plasma membrane.

Plasma
Membrane
Receptor Protein Aldosterone binds to a receptor protein in
the cytoplasm, activating it.
Hormone-receptor
complex

The hormone-receptor complex enters the

nucleus and binds to specific genes.

DNA

mRNA
The bound protein acts as a transcription
factor, stimulating the transcription of the
New Protein gene into mRNA.
Nucleus

The mRNA is translated into a specific

Cytoplasm
protein.

36. Why do only kidney cells respond to aldosterone?

Because kidney cells are the only cells that contain the receptors for aldosterone.

37. The important concept of gene regulation by activation of transcription factors is intro-
duced in the paragraph below Figure 11.9 of your text. Explain the function of transcrip-
tion factors in the cell.
Transcription factors control which genes are turned on (which genes are transcribed into mRNA) in a
particular cell at a particular time

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

Concept 11.3 Signal Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions transmit signals from
receptors to relay molecules in the cell

LO 11.3: Explain the roles of phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, and second messengers in

signal transduction.

38. What are two benefits of multistep pathways like the one in Figure 11.10 in your text?
2 benefits are that the signal can be greatly amplified and that they provide more opportunities for
coordination and control than simpler systems.

39. Explain the role in transduction of these two categories of enzymes:

protein kinases
an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein
protein phosphatases
an enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse
the effect of a protein kinase
40. Refer to Figure 11.10 to label this image. Explain what is occurring in the cell at each
numbered step.

Signaling Molecule

Activated relay molecule

Receptor
A relay molecule activates
protein kinase 1.
Inactive
protein
kinase 1

Active
protein
Active protein kinase 1
kinase 1 activates protein kinase 2.
Inactive
protein
kinase 2

P
Active Active protein kinase 2
protein phosphorylates a protein
P kinase 2
Protein phosphatases (purple) that brings about the
(PP) catalyze the Inactive cell's response to the signal.
removal of the
phosphate groups from Protein
the proteins, making P
the proteins inactive
again. Active Cellular
protein Response
P

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

41. A phosphorylation cascade can be turned “on” and turned “off,” as shown in the figure
you just labeled.

a. How does an inactive protein kinase become activated?

When signaling molecules activate the G proteins which then leads to the formation of cAMP. The
elevation of cAMP leads to the activation of the protein kinase.
b. How does an inactive protein become activated?
When the signaling molecule like epinephrine binds to GPCR.
c. How does an active protein kinase become deactivated?
When an inhibitory G protein blocks the activation of adenylyl cyclase.

42. What is the difference between a first messenger and a second messenger?
First messenger is the ligand (extracellular signaling molecule), second messenger is any small, non-
protein components of a signal transduction pathway.

43. Two common second messengers are cyclic AMP (cAMP) and calcium ions (Ca2+).
Explain the role of the second messenger cAMP in Figure 11.12 in the text.
The role of the second messenger cAMP is to activate another protein, leading to cellular response.

44. Consider again the discussion of how epinephrine triggers the breakdown of glycogen in
the liver, begun in Concept 11.1. For this pathway,

a. What is the first messenger?

Epinephrine
b. What is the second messenger?
cAMP
c. Why could glycogen phosphorylase be activated only when epinephrine was added to
intact cells?
Because when the epinephrine bind to the receptor which then activates the G protein necessary for
the glycogen phosphorylase be activated.
45. What is the important relationship between the second messenger and protein kinase A?
The second messenger (cAMP) activates the protein kinase A. Then, the activated protein kinase A
triggers the certain cellular response.

46. Figure 11.12 in the text explains how a cellular response is initiated; how might that
response be inhibited?
The response might be inhibited with a different signaling molecule activating a different receptor
which then activates an inhibitory G protein needed to inhibit that certain response.

47. Use your new knowledge of cell signaling to explain the mechanism of disease in cholera.
Bacteria produce a toxin. Toxin is an enzyme that modifies a F protein involved in regulating salt and
water secretion. modified F protein is unable to hydrolyze GTP to GDP, meaning it is stuck in its active
form, continuously stimulating the production of cAMP. High concentration of cAMP causes intestinal
cells to secrete a lot of salt and water. Develops diarrrea and dies b/c of loss of water and salt.

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

48. List three types of cellular responses often induced by calcium ions. Be sure to include a
plant example!
Three types of cellular responses often induced by calcium ions are muscle cell contractions, exocytosis of
molecules (secretion), and cell division.

49. What happens to the cytoplasmic concentration of calcium when it is used as a second
messenger?
The cytoplasmic concentration of calcium when it is used as a second messenger lowers due to the fact that the
calcium ions are pumped outside of the cell and the concentration becomes much lower than the concentration
outside of the cell.

Concept 11.4 Cellular Response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or

cytoplasmic activities

LO 11.4: Describe how cells respond to signaling, including fine-tuning of the response.

50. The response to a cell signal can occur either in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm. Read the
text on p. 226, and study Figure 11.15. What normally happens in a nuclear response?
Normally, the gene activity in the cell nucleus is regulated, involving the activation of the transcription of
mRNA due to a transcription factor.

51. Figure 11.16 in your text shows a cytoplasmic response to a signal. How is this different
from a nuclear response in terms of both the signal molecule and its effect?
This is different from a nuclear response because the cytoplasmic response has the ability to amplify its
signal which is an advantage. As the signal transductions go through each step, the number of products
produced is growing, producing a higher quantity than the last step. This can lead to the production of up to
a million or more of a product; in this case, glycogen.

52. Figure 11.16 in your text shows how a signal can be amplified in a phosphorylation cas-
cade. A single molecule of epinephrine results in the formation of approximately how
many molecules of glucose 1-phosphate?
There are 100,000,000 molecules of glucose 1-phosphate. (10^8)

53. How is it that some cells do not respond to specific signaling molecules, and for the cells
that do respond, it is often in different ways?
This is because cells have many different proteins depending on the kind of cell. Each protein is built
for a certain function and in this case the transcription factor of the cell are built only to activate
certain parts of the genes within the cell b/c that part of the genes is used for the purpose of the cell.
The cell also has special extracellular proteins for the purpose of the cell.

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 Chapter 11: Cell Communication

54. Figure 11.17 in your text shows five different cellular results from a single signaling mole-
cule. Briefly describe each response.

Cell A
The pathway leads to a single response w/ 2 relay molecules.
Cell B
The pathway branches, leading to 2 responses.
Cell C
Cross-talk occurs between the 2 pathways.
Cell D
Different receptor leads to a different response.
55. How do scaffolding proteins enhance a cellular response?
Scaffolding proteins are large relay proteins w/ other relay proteins simultaneously attached that
enhance the response by permanently building together networks of signaling path proteins at gaps. This
will enhance the speed and accuracy of the signal transfer between cells b/c the rate of protein-protein
interaction is not limited by diffusion.

56. In cell signaling, termination is an essential aspect of the pathway. Describe two ways the
signal may be terminated. What is one way relay molecules are inactivated?
Two ways in which the signal may be terminated or when the external concentration of signaling
molecules Falls which causes there to be less receptors bound to any given moment and the Unbound
receptors revert to their inactive form and when the number of active receptor Falls below a certain
threshold the cellular response ceases. One way relay molecules are inactivated or when the G protein
hydrolyzes the bound GTP; the enzyme phosphodiesterase converts cAMP to AMP and the protein
phosphate inactivates phosphorylated kinases and other proteins.
Concept 11.5 Apoptosis requires integration of multiple cell-signaling pathways

LO 11.5: Use apoptosis as an example to illustrate how multiple signaling pathways can be
integrated in a cell.

57. What specifically happens to a cell during the process of apoptosis?

In apoptosis cellular agents chop up the DNA and fragments of the organelles and othercytoplasmic
components. The cell then shrinks and becomes lobed and the cells parts are packed up in vesicles that
are engulfed and digested by specialized scavenger cells, leaving no traces.

58. Describe three examples of apoptosis, including normal as well as abnormal functions.
In Vertebrates, apoptosis is essential for normal development of the nervous system, for normal operation of
the immune system, and for the normal morphogenesis of hands and feet in humans and paws in other
mammals. In terms of morphogenesis of hands and feet, the level of apoptosis is lower in the webbed feet of
ducks and other water birds. Failure of appropriate apoptosis un humans can result in webbed fingers and
toes. Apoptosis is also involved in certain degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's
disease due to the accumulation of aggregated protein in neuronal cells which activates an enzyme that
triggers apoptosis, resulting in the loss of brain function.

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59. The signal for apoptosis can come from outside or inside the cell. Give one example when
the signal comes from outside the cell and two examples of cellular occurrences that would
prompt an apoptosis signal from inside the cell.
A death-signaling molecule can trigger apoptosis that originates outside the cell, usually the neighboring
cells release it. Two examples of when cellular occurrences that are from inside of the cell include from the
nucleus, which is generated when the DNA has suffered irreparable damage, and from the endoplasmic
reticulum when excessive protein misfolding occurs. Mammal cells make life-or-death decisions by
integrating the death signals and life signals they receive from their external and internal sources.

Test Your Understanding, p. 233

Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:

1. D 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. C 6. C 7. C

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