CH 5 Macromolecules

Chapter 5
The Structure and Function of

Macromolecules
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Macromolecules are Polymers of Monomers
•Most macromolecules are polymers, built from
monomers.
•A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many
similar building blocks called monomers.
•Three of the classes of life’s organic
molecules are polymers.
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids
Synthesis of Polymers
• Monomers form larger molecules by
condensation reactions called dehydration
reactions.
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water

H2O
molecule, forming a new bond
HO 1 2 3 4 H
Longer polymer
Figure 5.2A (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer

Breakdown of Polymers
• Polymers can disassemble by hydrolysis
reactions.
HO 1 2 3 4 H
Hydrolysis adds a water

H2O
molecule, breaking a bond
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Figure 5.2B (b) Hydrolysis of a polymer

The Diversity of Polymers
• Each class of polymer is formed from a specific
set of monomers.
1 2 3 H HO
• Although organisms share the same limited

number of monomer types, each organism is
unique based on the arrangement of
monomers into polymers.
• An immense variety of polymers can be built
from a small set of monomers.

Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building
material.
• Carbohydrates include both sugars and their
polymers.

Sugars
• Monosaccharides Triose sugars
(C3H6O3)
Pentose sugars
(C5H10O5)
Hexose sugars
(C6H12O6)
are the simplest H O H O H O H O
C
sugars. H C OH H
C
C OH H
C
C OH H
C
C OH
• They can be
Aldoses
H C OH H C OH HO C H HO C H
H H C OH H C OH HO C H
used for fuel. H C OH H C OH H C OH
Glyceraldehyde
• They can be H
Ribose
H C
H
OH H C
H
OH
converted into Glucose Galactose
other organic H
H
C OH H
H
C OH H
H
C OH
molecules. C O C O C O
HO C H
Ketoses
H C OH H C OH
• They can be H H C OH H C OH
combined into Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H

H
C OH
C OH
H
polymers. Ribulose H
Figure 5.3 Fructose

Structure of Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides may be linear or can form
rings in solution.
H O
1C 6
CH2OH 6
CH2OH
2 CH2OH
H C OH 5C O H 5
C O 6
3 H H H H H O
HO C H
5 H
4C H 1 4C H 1 H
4 C C 4 1
OH H OH H OH
H C OH O HO 3 2 OH
OH 2 OH 3 2 OH
5 3 C C C C
H C OH
H OH
6 H OH H OH
H C OH
Figure 5.4 (a) Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the linear and ring
structures greatly favors the formation of rings. To form the glucose ring,
carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen attached to carbon 5.

Disaccharides
• Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides that are
joined by a glycosidic linkage.
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O H O H 1–4 H O H
H
H H H 1 glycosidic 4 H
OH H OH H OH H linkage OH H
HO OH HO OHOH HO O OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH
H2O
Glucose Glucose Maltose
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH
H O O H O H 1–2 O
H H H
H H 1 glycosidic 2
OH H H HO OH H linkage H HO
OH HO
HO CH2OH HO O CH2OH
H OH OH H H OH OH H
H2O
Glucose Fructose Sucrose

Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are polymers of sugars
– Serve many roles in organisms
• Energy storage
• Structure

Storage Polysaccharides
• Starch is a polymer consisting entirely of glucose
monomers and is the major storage form of
Chloroplast Starch
glucose in plants.
1 μm
Amylose Amylopectin
Figure 5.6 (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide

Glycogen
• Glycogen
– Consists of glucose monomers
– Is the major storage form of glucose in animals
Mitochondria Giycogen
granules
0.5 μm
Glycogen
Figure 5.6 (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

Structural Polysaccharides
• Cellulose
– Is a polymer of glucose
– Is a structural polysaccharide found in plant
cell walls.

Cellulose versus Starch
• Cellulose has different glycosidic linkages than
starch. CH2O
H
C
O
CH2O
H H
O H C OH H O OH
H H
H H
4
OH H HO C H 4 1
OH H
HO OH HO H
H C OH
H OH C H OH
H OH
α glucose H C OH β glucose
(a) α and β glucose ring structures
CH2O CH2O CH2O CH2O

H H H H
O O O O
1 4 1 4 1 4 1
OH OH O OH O OH O
HO O
OH OH OH OH
(b) Starch: 1– 4 linkage of α glucose monomers

CH2O CH2O
OH OH
H H
O O
O OH O OH
OH 1 4 O OH
HO OH
O O
CH2O CH2O
OH OH
H H
(c) Cellulose: 1– 4 linkage of β glucose monomers
Figure 5.7 A–C
Cellulose and Plant Cell Walls
• Cellulose is a major component of the tough
walls that enclose plant cells.
About 80 cellulose
Cellulose microfibrils molecules associate
in a plant cell wall Microfibril to form a microfibril, the
Cell walls main architectural unit
∩
of the plant cell wall.
0.5 μm
Plant cells
CH2OH OH CH2OH OH
O O O O
OH OH OH OH
O O O O O
O CH OH OH CH2OH
H
2 Cellulose
CH2OH OH CH2OH OH molecules
O O O O
OH OH OH OH O
Parallel cellulose molecules are O O O O
O CH OH OH CH2OH
held together by hydrogen H
2
bonds between hydroxyl CH2OH OH CH2OH OH

O O O O
groups attached to carbon OH OH
O OH O O
OH O
atoms 3 and 6. O CH OH O A cellulose molecule
OH CH2OH
H
2
is an unbranched β
Figure 5.8 β Glucose glucose polymer.
monomer
Lipids
• Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic
molecules.
• Lipids are the one class of large biological
molecules that do not consist of polymers.
• Lipids share the common trait of being
hydrophobic.

Fats
• Fats
– Are constructed from two types of smaller
molecules, a single glycerol and usually three
fatty acids.
H O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C OH C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
HO H H H H H H
H
H H H H H H H H
H C OH
Fatty acid
H C OH (palmitic acid)
H
Glycerol
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a fat
Ester linkage
H O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
Figure 5.11 (b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol)

Fatty acids
• Fatty acids are made of hydrocarbon chains.
• Fatty acids vary in the length and number of carbons and in
the locations of double bonds they contain.
• Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen
atoms possible and have no double bonds.
• Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
Oleic acid
Stearic acid
(a) Saturated fat and fatty acid cis double bond

(b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid causes bending

Phospholipids
• Phospholipids have only two fatty acids.
• Phospholipids have a phosphate group instead of a third fatty
acid.
• Phospholipid structure consists of a hydrophilic “head” and
hydrophobic “tails”.
CH +
Hydrophilic head
N(CH3)
2 3
Choline
CH2
O
O P O– Phosphate
O
CH C
CH2
2 H Glycerol
O O
C O C O
Hydrophobic tails
Fatty acids
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic
tails
(c) Phospholipid
(a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model
Figure 5.13 symbol
Phospholipids form Cell Membranes
• The structure of phospholipids allows them to
form bilayer arrangements, which are found in
cell membranes.
WATER
Hydrophilic
head
WATER
Hydrophobic
tail
Figure 5.14

Steroids
• Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon
skeleton consisting of four fused rings.
• One steroid, cholesterol, is found in cell
membranes. It is a precursor for some
hormones. H3C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
Figure 5.15 HO

Proteins
•Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide
range of functions.
Enzymatic Acceleration of Chemical Reactions—Digestive

Enzymes
Structural Support—Collagen and Elastin
Storage Storage of Amino Acids--Ovalbumin
Transport Transport of other substances--Hemoglobin
Hormonal Coordination of an Organisms Activities--Insulin
Receptor Response of a cell to chemical stimuli—
Membrane Receptors
Contractile Movement—Actin and Myosin
Defensive Protection against disease--Antibodies

Enzymes
• Enzymes are a type of protein that acts as a
catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions.
1 Active site is available for 2 Substrate binds to
a molecule of substrate, the enzyme.
Substrate
reactant on which the enzyme acts. (sucrose)
Glucose
Enzyme
OH (sucrase)
H2O
Fructose
H O
4 Products are released. 3 Substrate is converted

Figure 5.16 to products.

Amino Acids, Polypeptides, and Proteins
• Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids.
• A protein consists of one or more polypeptides.
• Amino acids are organic molecules possessing
both carboxyl and amino groups.
• Amino acids differ in their properties due to
differing side chains, called R groups.

Common Amino Acids
• 20 different amino acids make up proteins
CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3 CH CH2

H CH3 CH3 CH2 H3C CH
O O O O O
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O– O– O–
H H H H H
Glycine (Gly) Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val) Leucine (Leu) Isoleucine (Ile)
Nonpolar
CH3
CH2
S
H2C CH2 O
NH
CH2
H2N C C
CH2 O CH2 CH2 O–
O O H
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O–
H H H
Methionine (Met) Phenylalanine (Phe) Tryptophan (Trp) Proline (Pro)
Figure 5.17

Common Amino Acids
OH NH2 O
NH2 O C
OH SH C CH2
Polar OH CH3
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 O CH2
O O O O O
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O– O– O– O–
H H H H H H
Cysteine Tyrosine Asparagine Glutamine
Serine (Ser) Threonine (Thr) (Gln)
(Cys) (Tyr) (Asn)
Acidic Basic
NH3+ NH2 NH+

–O O O– O
C C CH2 C NH2+
NH
Electrically CH2
CH2 O CH2 CH2 CH2
charged O
H3N+ C C CH2 CH2 CH2 H3N+ C C
O
O– CH2 O–
H3N+ C C O CH2 H
H
O–
H H3N+ C C CH2 O
O–
H H3N+ C C
O–
H
Aspartic acid Glutamic acid Lysine (Lys) Arginine (Arg) Histidine (His)
(Asp) (Glu)

Polypeptides: Amino Acid Polymers
• Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to
form polypeptides.
OH
Peptide
bond
OH SH
CH2 CH2 CH2
H H H
N
H C C N C C OH H N C C OH
H O H O H O DESMOSOMES
(a) H2O
OH
DESMOSOMES
DESMOSOMES Side
OH SH
Peptide chains
CH2 CH2 bond CH2
H H H
H N C C N C C N C C OH Backbone
H O H O H O
Amino end Carboxyl end

Figure 5.18 (b) (N-terminus) (C-terminus)

Protein Conformation and Function
• A protein’s specific conformation determines
how it functions.
Groove
• Primary
• Secondary
(a) A ribbon model
• Tertiary
• Quaternary
Groove
Figure 5.19 (b) A space-filling model

Primary Structure
• Primary structure is the unique sequence of
amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Gly ProThr Gly
+H N Thr
3 Gly Amino acid
Amino LeuPro
CysLysSeu
Glu
subunits
end Met
Val
Lys
Val
Leu
Asp
AlaVal Arg Gly
Ser
Pro
Ala
Glu Lle
Asp
Thr
Lys
Ser
Lys Trp Tyr
Leu Ala
Gly
lle
Ser
ProPhe
His Glu
His
Ala
Glu
Val
Ala Thr PheVal
Asn
lle
Asp Thr Ala
Tyr
Arg
Ser Arg Ala
GlyPro
Leu
Leu
Ser
Pro
SerTyr
Tyr
ThrSer
Thr
Ala
Val o
Val
ThrAsnProLys
Glu c
o–
Figure 5.20 Carboxyl end

Secondary Structure
• Secondary structure is the folding or coiling of
the polypeptide into a repeating configuration.
• Secondary structures include the α helix and
the β pleated sheet.
β pleated sheet
O H H O H H O H H O H H
R
Amino acid C C N R C C N R C C N C C N
C N C C N C C N
R C C
N
R C C
subunits R R
H O H H OH H OH H O
R R R R
O O C O C O H
C H H H C
H C N H H
C N HC N HC N C NH C N C N HC N
H H C H O C H
C O C O O C
R R R
R H R H
C C
N H O C N H O C
N H
O C O C
N H
α helix
H C R H C H C R H C R
R
N H O C N H
O C
O C N H O C N H
C C
R H R H
Figure 5.20
Tertiary structure
• Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional
shape of a polypeptide.
• Tertiary structure results from interactions
between amino acids and R groups.
Hydrophobic
interactions and
CH
van der Waals
CH2
CH 2
H3C CH3 interactions
O
Hyrdogen H H3C CH3 Polypeptide
bond O CH backbone
HO C
CH2 CH2 S S CH2
Disulfide bridge
O
CH2 NH3+ -O C CH2
Ionic bond

Quaternary Structure
• Quaternary structure is the overall protein
structure that results from the aggregation of
two or more polypeptide subunits
Hemoglobin

Summary of the four levels of protein structure.
• The four levels of protein structure
+
H3N
Amino end
Amino acid
subunits
α helix

Sickle-Cell Disease: A Simple Change in a Protein’s
Primary Structure
Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Primary Val His Leu Thr Pro Glul Glu . . . Primary Val His Leu Thr Pro ... Exposed
Val Glu
structure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 structure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 hydrophobic
region
Secondary Secondary
and tertiary β subunit and tertiary β subunit
structures structures
α β
Quaternary Hemoglobin A Quaternary α β
structure structure α Hemoglobin S
β α β
Function Molecules
interact with
Function Molecules do one another to
not associate crystallize into a
with one fiber, capacity to
another, each carry oxygen is
carries oxygen. 10 μm 10 μm greatly reduced.
Red blood Normal cells are
cell shape full of individual Red blood Fibers of abnormal
hemoglobin cell shape hemoglobin
molecules, each deform cell into
carrying oxygen sickle shape.
Figure 5.21

Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary
information
• Genes
– Are the units of inheritance
– Program the amino acid sequence of
polypeptides
– Are made of nucleic acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids
– Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
– Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
DNA and Gene Expression
DNA
– DNA stores information
for the synthesis of 1 Synthesis of
mRNA in the nucleus mRNA
specific proteins.
– Directs RNA synthesis NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
– Directs protein mRNA

synthesis through RNA 2 Movement of
mRNA into cytoplasm Ribosome
via nuclear pore
3 Synthesis
of protein
Amino
Figure 5.25 Polypeptide acids

The Structure of Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids exist •Each polynucleotide
as polymers called consists of monomers
polynucleotides. called nucleotides.
5’ end
5’C Nucleoside
O
3’C Nitrogenous
base
O
O 5’C
−
O P O CH2
O
O
−
O
Phosphate
3’C
group Pentose
5’C O sugar
3’C
(b) Nucleotide
3’ end
OH

Nucleotide Monomers
• Nucleotide monomers are made up of
nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar and
phosphates. Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
NH2 O O
C C CH3 C
N CH HN C HN CH
C CH C CH C CH
O N O N O N
H H H
Cytosine Thymine (in DNA) Uracil (in RNA)
Uracil (in RNA)
C T UU
Purines
NH2 O
N CC N C C
N NH
HC HC
N C CH N C
N N NH2
H H
Adenine Guanine
A G
Pentose sugars
5” 5”
HOCH2 O OH HOCH2 O OH
4’ H H 1’ 4’ H H 1’
H 3’ 2’ H H H
3’ 2’
OH H OH OH
Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)
Figure 5.26 (c) Nucleoside components

Nucleotide Polymers
• Nucleotide polymers are made up 5’ end
of nucleotides linked by the–OH 5’C O

group on the 3´ carbon of one 3’C
nucleotide and the phosphate on
O
the 5´ carbon on the next.
• The sequence of bases along a O
nucleotide polymer is unique for
each gene.
5’C O
• Cellular DNA molecules have two 3’C
polynucleotides that spiral around OH

3’ end
an imaginary axis to form a

double helix.

DNA Double Helix
• The DNA double helix
consists of two 5’ end 3’ end
antiparallel nucleotide Sugar-phosphate
backbone
strands.
Base pair (joined by
hydrogen bonding)
• The nitrogenous bases in Old strands
DNA form hydrogen Nucleotide

about to be
bonds in a added to a
new strand
complementary fashion A 3’ end
(A with T only, and C 5’ end

with G only).
3’ end New
strands
Figure 5.27 5’ end 3’ end

CH 5 Macromolecules

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CH 5 Macromolecules

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Chapter 5

The Structure and Function of

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes a water

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Hydrolysis adds a water

Figure 5.2B (b) Hydrolysis of a polymer

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Although organisms share the same limited

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

converted into Glucose Galactose

combined into Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 5.6 (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide

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Figure 5.6 (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

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(a) α and β glucose ring structures

CH2O CH2O CH2O CH2O

(b) Starch: 1– 4 linkage of α glucose monomers

bonds between hydroxyl CH2OH OH CH2OH OH

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Figure 5.11 (b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol)

(a) Saturated fat and fatty acid cis double bond

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Enzymatic Acceleration of Chemical Reactions—Digestive

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4 Products are released. 3 Substrate is converted

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CH3 CH3 CH CH2

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NH3+ NH2 NH+

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Amino end Carboxyl end

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Figure 5.19 (b) A space-filling model

Figure 5.20 Carboxyl end

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– Directs protein mRNA

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Figure 5.26 (c) Nucleoside components

• Nucleotide polymers are made up 5’ end

of nucleotides linked by the–OH 5’C O

polynucleotides that spiral around OH

an imaginary axis to form a

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

DNA form hydrogen Nucleotide

(A with T only, and C 5’ end