Distribution of Volcanoes

Volcano
o is a conical mountain or hill where lava, fragments of rocks, hot
vapor and gas erupted from the earth's crust through its crater or
vent.
 

Volcanic Eruption
o Characteristics include
 Emission of gases
 Flowing of lava outside the surface
 Sudden violent explosive bursts
 

Pacific Ring of fire

o A zone within the Pacific Ocean that covers a collection of moving
plate edges forming a "ring" of volcanoes that cause earthquakes.
o A 40 000km, horseshoe-shaped basin that is associated with
oceanic trenches, volcanic arcs, and plate movements.
o The Philippines is an archipelago surrounded by subducting plates
that provide ideal condition for volcanic formation resulting to
highly active seismicity and volcanism in the country.
 

Volcanic Activities
o Buoyant molten rock also known as magma rises toward the
surface and extruded as lava during a volcanic eruption.
o Tectonic activity in the Philippines is one of the most active in the
world characterized by a number of volcanic activities
 

Active Volcanoes
o Active volcanoes are those that erupted within the last 10 000
years.
o As of 2008, PHIVOLCS listed 23 active volcanoes.
 

Mayon Volcano
 It is the most active volcano in the country located in Albay.
 It is famous because of its almost perfect cone shape.
 

Taal Volcano
 It is a volcanic caldera composed of several active volcanic
landforms making it a complex volcano.
 

Kanlaon Volcano
  It is another active stratovolcano located in Negros Oriental.
 Its latest activity was on June 18, 2016 according to PHIVOLCS
 
PHIVOLCS
- Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology.
 

Bulusan Volcano
 It is located in the province of Sorsogon.
 It is a stratovolcano formed inside a caldera.
 Its latest activity was in March 2, 2017.
 
 

Potentially Active Volcanoes

o Volcanoes that do not have any historical record of any eruption
but are considered as morphologically young.
 

Name of Volcano Province

Apo Davao
Corregidor Bataan
Isarog Camarines Sur
Lapac Sulu
Malindig (Marlanga) Marinduque
Mandalagan Negros Occidental
 

Inactive Volcanoes
o Volcanoes have not erupted for at least 10 000 years and are not
expected to erupt again in the future.
o The morphology of these volcanoes was already modified by
weathering and erosion
 
 

Key Points
 

1. The Philippines is in a zone within the Pacific ocean that covers a

collection of moving plate edges forming a "ring" of volcanoes and
earthquakes called Pacific Ring of Fire
2. As of 2008, PHIVOLCS listed 23 active, 26 potentially active, and
281 inactive volcanoes.
Earthquake Epicenters
Earthquake
 
o It can be described as the shaking of the surface of Earth which
releases energy in the lithosphere that produces seismic waves.
o Thousands of earthquakes happen every day, but most of these are
very weak and cannot be felt by people.
o A strong earthquake can generate a large amount of energy in the
form of seismic waves. These waves are the one responsible for the
movements of the crust which in turn impose hazards such as
ground shaking, liquefaction, surface faulting, tsunami, and fire.
 
 
 
What are the types of seismic waves?
o There are two kind of seismic waves. The p-waves (primary) and
s-waves (secondary).
 
A. The first kind of wave is the p-wave or the primary wave. This is
the fastest kind of wave. The p-wave can move through solid rocks
and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of earth.
 
B. The second type of wave is the s-wave or the secondary wave,
which is the second you feel in an earthquake. An s-wave is slower
than a p-wave can only move through solid rock, not through any
liquid medium.
 
 Earthquakes occur when rocks in the lithosphere rupture or move
in order to release accumulated energy and stress.
 
 Faults are breaks in Earth's crust where rocks move or slide past
one another. There should be an apparent displacement for a break
or a fracture for it to be considered as a fault.
 
 
Parts of an Earthquake
 
 Fault Plane
- The surface where the slip occurs.
 Hypocenter
- The location below earth's surface where the earthquake
originate.
 Epicenter
 - The surface directly above the hypocenter. Most of the time
this is the area where
greatest damage takes place during the earthquake.
 
 
What is the difference between Magnitude and
Intensity
 Magnitude
- It is a quantitative measurement that relies on the data from
seismic records along
along with other techniques to estimate the amount of energy
released.
 Intensity
- It is the measure of the degree of the shaking experienced in
an area.
 
 
Faults in the Philippines
 
o Located in the Eastern Part of the country are the East Luzon
Trough and Philippine Trench.
o The Western Region has the Manila Trench, Negros Trench,
Sulu Trench, and Cotabato Trench.
o The Philippine Fault or the Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ), is a
1,200-km fault zone cutting almost the whole archipelago.
 
 
Active Faults in the Philippines
 
 Valley Fault System or Marikina Valley Fault
 Macolod Corridor
 Lubang-Verde Passage Fault System
 Mindoro or Aglubang Fault
 Sibuyan Sea Fault
 Legasbi Lineament
 Tables Lineament
 Mindanao Fault
 Offshore Cebu-Bohol Faults
 
 
Seismic Activity in the Philippines
 
 Historical accounts of earthquakes only started during the Spanish
colonization the late 15th Century.
 The instrumentally-derived parameters for earthquakes started in
1892 onwards.
  Casiguran Aurora, Ragay Gulf, Mindanao, Panay, and Nueva
Ecija are areas in the Philippines where the strongest earthquake
occurred with magnitude < 7.0
 
 
Key Points
 
 An earthquake is the shaking of Earth's surface resulted from the
sudden release of energy due to the movement of tectonic plates.
 The point in the Earth's surface where the earthquake originate is
called Hypocenter. It is also commonly known as Focus.
 Directly above the hypocenter located at the surface is the
Epicenter.

Formation of Landforms
Plate Tectonics Theory
 It states that the lithosphere is a strong rigid layer the uppermost
mantle and crust that were broken into several major and minor
segments called tectonic plates.
 
Major Plates
 North America
 South America
 Pacific
 African
 Eurasian
 Australian-Indian
 Antarctic plates.
 
Plate Boundaries
 There are three main types of plate boundaries, namely: divergent,
convergent, and transform fault.
 
Divergent boundary
 Formed when two plates move away from each other resulting to
upward movement of molten material and formation of new
seafloor.
 As the spreading continues, the oceanic crust becomes wider.
 
Convergent boundary
 Formed when two plates move toward each other. It is also known
as a destructive margin.
 It is where the oceanic crust is destroyed and recycled.
 
Types of Convergent Boundary
  
Oceanic-oceanic
 When two oceanic crusts converge, the denser oceanic block sinks
beneath the other.
 This oceanic-oceanic convergence produces a volcanic island arc
or island arc.
Continental-continental
 When two continental plates converge, it produces spectacular
mountain ranges, also known as orogens, such as the Himalayas.
 
Transform Boundary
 Occurs when two plates simply slide past each other. It is also
known as the transform fault boundary.
 In this type of boundary, there is no formation or destruction of the
new lithosphere.
 
Key Points
 There are three main types of plate boundaries namely divergent,
convergent, and transform plate boundaries.
 Volcanoes and mountain ranges can be formed in convergent
boundaries depending on the type of crust colliding with each other.
 Earthquakes occur when descending plate sinks below the other
plate.

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries
 Are a zone in the Earth’s crust where the plates move away from
each other.
 It is also known as the spreading centers. It is where the
continents split apart and form new continental margins.
 Divergent plate boundaries are considered as constructive
margins because it's where the new ocean floor is generated.
 Elevated areas in the seafloor forms mountain system called the
mid-ocean ridge. These underwater mountains are linked in chains
with valleys known as rift.
 
Seafloor Spreading
 Is the main mechanism operating along divergent margins.
 It is a continuous process occurring in mid-oceanic ridges in which
both sides of the ridge move apart, causing the spreading.
 As new seafloor moves away from both sides of the ridge, more
melts arise from the asthenosphere. This process is repeated in a
conveyer belt-like manner.
  Divergent boundaries may also develop within continents.
Spreading of landmasses into two segments forms continental rifts.
In time, these rifts widen to form new seas.
 
Key Points
 Divergent boundaries are a zone in the earth’s crust the plates
move away from each other.
 Seafloor spreading is a continuous process occurring in mid-
oceanic ridges in which both sides of the ridge move apart.
 Movement in the boundaries induces decompression melting
of rocks and form new oceanic lithosphere.

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Convergent Plate
 Are areas where tectonic plates move towards each other.
 Are often associated with subduction zones, where oceanic crust
descends towards the mantle due to differences in density of the
subducting plate, the asthenosphere, and the overriding plate.
 
Movements of the Convergent Boundaries
 
Subduction
o Oceanic lithosphere is destroyed along trenches and is

recycled back into the asthenosphere.

Arcs
o Are long, sublinear chains of volcanoes following the
orientation of ocean trenches.
 
Types of the Convergent Plate Boundaries
 
 In oceanic-continental convergent margins, the denser oceanic
crust subducts under the lighter continental crust. This process
forms continental volcanic arcs.
 In oceanic-oceanic convergent margins, the older and much
denser plate subducts under the younger plate. This process forms
volcanic island arcs.
 Convergent plate boundaries may also develop through the
collision of two continental plates, by continental-continental
convergent margin. This forms mountain ranges with linear
elevated regions.
 
Key Points
 The primary process operating in oceanic convergent margins is
subduction.
 Arcs are long, sublinear chains of volcanoes following the
orientation of ocean trenches.
 There are three main types of convergent plate boundaries
classified according to the type of plates involved and their
associated landforms.

Transform Plate Boundaries

Transform Boundaries
 Along transform plate boundaries or transform faults, plates
slide past one another in a horizontal motion parallel to the plate
boundary separating the two plates.
 Transform boundaries are conservative margins. In these
regions, no production or destruction of crust occurs.
 In this region, there is no upwelling of magma that is why
there is no active volcanism.
 Active transform faults are generally defined by weak and
shallow earthquakes.
 An example of this is the popular San Andreas Fault. This
fault extends to up to 1,300 km in length.
 
o Instead of volcanism, areas near transform faults experience
earthquakes
 
Fault zones
 Are areas where rocks are being broken and weakened by
ongoing fault action.
Fracture zones
 Occur as curvilinear breaks in the seafloor; they are traces of
the transform boundary past the ridges and trenches which no
longer experience movement.
 
Key Points
 Transform boundaries are conservative margins. In these
regions, no production or destruction of crust occurs.
 Active transform faults are generally defined by weak and
shallow earthquakes.
 Instead of volcanism, areas near transform faults experience
earthquakes.

The Crust
 The Solar system exists as a direct consequence of the Sun’s
formation.
 It includes the Sun as the center and the rotating planets around
it. There have been several theories that have tried to explain the
 solar system’s origins, but the most accepted today is a modified
version of the nebular theory.
 The nebular theory states that the solar system started out like a
nebula – a great celestial cloud of gas, dust, ice, and charged
particles.
 In space, dust refers to tiny solid particles which melt at high
temperatures, while ice refers to volatile materials which exist in gas
form at Earth’s surface.
 
Structure of the Sun
A. The Sun is a typical yellow star. It is a giant ball of incandescent gas
1.39 million kilometers in diameter and is 332 946 times more massive
than Earth.
B. The Sun’s component gases include hydrogen and helium, and of
different processes taking place beneath the surface. The gases
comprising the Sun change to plasma, the fourth state of matter, because
of extreme heat.
C. The Sun’s internal structure is composed of the following layers:
 The innermost part of the sun is its core. The core of the sun
functions as a nuclear reactor; it produces the sun’s
enormous energy.
 Surrounding the core is the sun’s radiative zone, a layer of
dense plasma where energy produced at the core is radiated
outward towards the different planets.
 Just beneath the surface is the sun’s convective zone, where the
plasma becomes too cool to carry energy directly. Instead,
energy from the radiative zone “boils” the convective zone
plasma, forming large convection currents.
 The photosphere is defined as the deepest layer that can be
directly observed, and what can be considered as the sun’s
surface.
 The chromosphere is the layer of the sun’s atmosphere above
the surface. The temperature at this layer induces a reddish glow
from the hydrogen plasma, which is drowned out by the sun’s
brightness and is only observable around a total eclipse.
 The upper atmosphere of the sun is called the transition region,
which is invisible since it glows in ultraviolet light.
  The outermost layer of the atmosphere is the corona which
forms a delicate white halo around the sun, and can also be
observed during a total solar eclipse.
 
Special characteristics of the Earth that support Life
A. The third terrestrial planet is Earth, named from the Old English
word which means “land”. Of all the discovered space objects in the
universe, only Earth is known to have a life as we know it.
B. Earth’s axis tilts 23.5 degrees – this tilt is responsible for the seasons
experienced throughout a year. One rotation around the axis lasts 24
hours, and one revolution of Earth around the sun lasts 365 days; every
four years, a day is added to the leap year to account for orbital
inaccuracies.
C. A combination of multiple factors has led to the perfect conditions for
life to start, evolve, and thrive on Earth.
 Earth’s atmosphere is a gaseous mixture of 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, and 1% trace gases. It regulates surface
temperatures using winds, provides respiratory gases like
oxygen and carbon dioxide, and blocks harmful ultraviolet light
with the ozone layer. The atmosphere provides a shield against
meteoroids, causing many of them to burn up before they can
impact the surface.
 The most striking visual aspect of Earth is its blue color, due to
oceans of liquid water that cover three-fourths of the surface.
The ability to maintain surface liquid water in large quantities
is unique to Earth and is the single most important factor which
led to the origin of life.
 Earth’s brittle lithosphere is broken into several large “plates”
which can move by sliding on top of the flowing asthenosphere.
Processes along plate boundaries such as volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes; as well as surface weathering and erosion change
Earth’s surface continuously.
 
Earth’s Crust
 The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It is made up
mostly of solid rocks and minerals, and is enriched in silica and
other components.
 The boundary between the crust and the mantle is called the
Mohorovičić discontinuity.
 
Tectonic Plates
  The crust, together with the uppermost part of the mantle, make up
the brittle lithosphere, which is broken up into major sections called
tectonic plates.
 
Type of Crust
 
A. Oceanic Crust
 The crust that is present on the seafloor.
 Oceanic crust hosts feature such as volcanoes and canyons.

B. Continental Crust
 The crust that is present in continental land masses.
 The continental crust has several features including mountain

belts and cratons.

 
Earth’s Crust Composition
 The abundance of elements on the crust was studied using its
rock.
 Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron are the abundant elements
found on Earth’s crust.
 
Earth’s Crust Formation
 Billions of years ago, during the early formation of Earth, the
planet was merely a big sphere of molten rock.
 Upon cooling, lighter materials rose near the surface forming the
crust.
 A newer theory, known as Baker and Sofonio’s theory, states that
some of the material settled onto the Earth’s early surface from the
steamy atmosphere long time ago.
 
Key Points
 The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. It is mainly consist of
iron, aluminum, and silicon are also present.
 It can either be classified as oceanic or continental crust.
 Conventional theories state that Earth’s crust was formed due to
the cooling of molten rocks.

The Mantle
Earth’s Mantle
 The mantle is by far the largest layer which accounts for about
83% of Earth’s volume.
 It is located between the thin crust and the core which extends to
depths of 2 900 km.
 
Mantle Composition
  This layer is rich in magnesium oxide that distinguishes it from
the crust.
 The bulk composition of the upper mantle is believed to be
peridotite igneous rocks.
 The lower mantle is dominated by the mineral, bridgmanite.
 
Mantle’s Layers
 The lithosphere is comprised of the crust and the uppermost part
of the mantle.
 The asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere. Here, rocks have
plasticity and have the ability to flow.
 The mesosphere is also called the lower mantle. This layer is
composed of semi-solid ultrahigh-pressure silicates.
 
Mantle Convection
 It refers to the transfer of heat from the mantle to the crust through
the movement of mantle materials.
 The temperature from the crust to the lower part of the mantle is
generally increasing.
 This temperature gradient increases slowly through the mantle and
forms core-mantle boundary known as Gutenberg discontinuity.
 
Key Points
 The mantle is the largest layer of Earth, and is subdivided into
three layers: lithosphere, asthenosphere and mesosphere.
 Mantle convection is the transfer of heat from the mantle to the
crust.
 The core-mantle boundary is known as Gutenberg discontinuity.

The Core
Earth’s Core
 The core is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is 3480 km thick
and its depth starts from 2900 to 6380 km.
 The boundary between the inner and outer core is called the
Lehmann discontinuity.
 
Layers of Earth’s Core
a. Outer Core
 Is a liquid layer, 2260 km thick. The temperature in this region

is very high allowing the melting of materials.

b. Inner Core
 It is the innermost layer of Earth. It is also composed of iron

and nickel and light elements. Unlike outer core, this layer is
in solid phase.
 
Core Composition
 In general, the core is composed mainly of iron, nickel, and
lighter elements: sulfur, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.
 Turbulent flow of iron in the outer core is believed to be
responsible for the generation of Earth’s magnetic field.
 
Core Formation
 Researchers believed that the core was already formed when the
Solar System was very young.
 Data showed that the core was formed around 1 to 1.5 billion
years ago when the solid inner core was just beginning to solidify.
 This accounts for the increasing magnetic field strength of Earth
compared to the beginning fluid core.
 
Key Points
 The core is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is 3480 km thick
and its depth starts from 2900 to 6380 km.
 The core is divided into two parts: the outer and inner core.
 The outer core is in liquid phase, whereas the inner core is in solid
phase.

Earth's Layers and Other Terrestrial Planets

Earth’s Layers
 The Earth has three distinguished layers: the crust, the mantle,
and the core.
 
Terrestrial Planets
 Terrestrial planets share similar structure by having the three
distinct internal layers.
 This makes Mercury, Venus, and Mars to have similar layers
with Earth.
 
Mercury
 Is the smallest terrestrial planet. Although small, it is one of the
densest planets second to Earth.
 The planet’s core makes up around 85% of the planet’s radius. The
radius of this core is about 1 800 to 1 900 km.
 
Venus
 Is the second planet from the Sun.
 The crust is 10 to 30 km thick . The planet’s mantle is believed to
be rocky. It extends to depths of 3 000 km. Venus’ core is believed
to be composed of iron-nickel alloy.
 
Mars
 It popularly known as the red planet, is also composed of outer
crust, mantle, and core.
 The crust of is 50 km thick. The mantle is 5 400 to 7 200 km thick,
while the core is believed to be solid and composed of iron, nickel,
and sulfur.
 
Key Points
 Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth are terrestrial planets or inner
planets.
 All terrestrial planets have similar layers: a crust, a mantle, and a
core.

Tectonic Plates
Tectonic Plates
 Blocks that are primarily sturdy, with margins that trace
earthquake zones lying along the network of ridges and trenches.
 
Models for Plate Movement
a. Kinematics
 Structures are examined and compared to the movements of

blocks of Earth’s surface, ignoring underlying forces.

b. Dynamics
 Forces and processes resulting in material movement throughout

Earth.
 
Plate Tectonic Theory
 It is the continental drift hypothesis and seafloor spreading
hypothesis combined.
 
Continental Drift Theory
 Argues close kinship among sets of continents, as well as their
geological characteristics.
 
Pangaea
 The Earth’s ancient supercontinent, and divided into Gondwana
and Laurasia.
 
Seafloor Spreading
 Explains the formation of new oceanic crust which leads to the
movement of plates.
 
Major Plates
  There are only seven major plates which include North America,
South American, Pacific, African, Eurasian, Australian-Indian,
and Antarctic plates.
 
Key Points
 Tectonic plate refers to blocks that are primarily sturdy, with
margins that trace earthquake zones lying along the network of
ridges and trenches.
 Kinematics involves movement and is the much-preferred means
to analyze crustal movements.
 Plate tectonics theory states that the lithosphere behaves as a
strong, rigid layer which is broken into segments.

Causes of Plate Movements

Factors Affecting Plate Movements
 
a. Solid-state flow model
 Relies on temperature and phase changes.

b. Hotspots
 Areas with abnormally high volcanic activity.

 
Solid-State Flow Model
 Radioactivity causes magma to rise where it expands to produce
the plates above Earth’s surface.
 The older, denser plates descend, replacing the hotter material
below.
 Can be likened to a kettle.
 
Gravitational Factors
 Ridge push
 This is a force that causes hotter, less dense material to force
itself up through a ridge.
 Slab pull
 This is the pulling of oceanic lithosphere downward at
subduction zones.
 
Hotspots
 These are areas with abnormally high volcanic activity that have
remained stationary for a very long time.
 
Mantle Convection
 It is affected by 3 main processes.
a. heating at the bottom caused by the heat loss from Earth’s
core.
b. heating due to radioactive decay
 c. cooling on the surface creating thick, cold lithospheric slabs
denser than the mantle.
 
2 major models for mantle convection
a. Layer Cake
 Where the mantle is divided into two zones of convection.
b. Whole Mantle
 Where denser oceanic lithosphere sinks.
 
Key Points
 Solid-state flow model explains the convection cells in the mantle
circulating heat cause plate motion.
 Hotspots are areas with high volcanic activity that have remained
stationary for a very long time.
 Mantle plumes are rising columns of hot rocks from the mantle
and cause melting as they reach the surface.

Evidence That Supports Plate Movement

Pangaea
 Pangaea is the supercontinent of ancient Earth.
 The northern landmass was Laurasia, and the southern landmass
was Gondwana.
 
Continental Fit
 Some continents’ shapes fit each other.
 Scientists believe, with evidence, that these continents were once
connected to each other.
 
Fossil Evidence
 Fossils of animals and plants can be found in separate continents
even though they are from the same species.
 Specific deposits also provide evidences of similarities in
conditions across continents.
 The Gondwana Rock Succession is a series of rock deposits that
provides evidence for these assemblages.
 
Paleomagnetic Data
 The Earth’s magnetic pole has an influence of patterns in rocks,
which coincide with shifts in the Earth’s magnetic pole.
 This serves as evidence because their magnetic north was found
to be discordant.
 This shows a sample of rock patterns found in the Reykjanes
Ridge.
 
Key Points
 Fossil assemblages among the continents possess differences,
indicating that the fossilized organisms had to have crossed the
continents via land bridges.
 Curie point is a specific temperature at which materials change or
lose their magnetism
 Earth’s magnetic field is not static, rather, it frequently switches
polarities. These changes are referred to as magnetic reversals.

Applications in Technology
Application of Plate Tectonics
 Plate tectonics has many implications in the world today
 Examples are the rate of plate movements, geologic history of
localities, mineral explorations, hazard predictions, and urban
planning.
 
Geologic History
 Plate tectonics elucidates the geologic history of localities by
providing an explanation for the regional settings and processes
of an area, painting a more vivid picture of the geologic record.
 
Mineral Explorations
 As a result of tracing an area’s geologic history, mineral explorers
can more easily trace and quantify deposits.
 Geologic maps show these features.
 
Hazard Prediction
 Most of the seismicity can be found along plate boundaries.
 Studying these boundaries can allow humans to predict any
hazards within the area.
 
Palawan
 Only Palawan was connected to other landmasses in the past.
 The rest of the Philippines emerged from the ocean.
 
Aseismic Activity
 Other crustal movements that are not related to seismic
activities.
 These are usually less intense compared to seismic activity.
 
Urban Planning
 As a result of hazard predictions, humans can also properly plan
the arrangement of urban settlements.
 
Institutes in the Philippines (that study seismology)
 DOST (The Department of Science and Technology)
 PHIVOLCS (The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology, an arm of DOST.)
 
Key Points
 Plates move extremely slowly most of the time for extended
periods of time. This slow movement is referred to as creep.
 Crustal movements having less intensity than those related to
tectonic belts are classified as aseismic.
 The Philippine I