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Trends in Biosciences 10(21), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 4057-4064, 2017
REVIEW PAPER
Natural Pigments as Potential Food Colourants: A Review
MANJUNATH J. SHETTY, P. R. GEETHALEKSHMI AND MINI. C
Department of Processing Technology, College of Agriculture, Vellayani,
Kerala Agricultural University
*email: jshettymanju@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Palatability of food is enhanced by attractive colours.
Colour, more than any other factor, influences the
acceptance of products by consumers. Colour additives
have been used since time immemorial to enhance the
aesthetic value of food. Synthetic food colourants are being
recognized to be carcinogenic and harmful to the
consumers, hence plant pigments are the alternative.
Pigments produce colours that we observe at each step of
our lives and plants are the principal producers. Several
plants are known to yield red pigments, blue pigments,
brown pigments and yellow-orange pigments which can be
used for food colouring. Regulating the use of synthetic
colour and use of natural food colours are promising to
have additional health benefits.
Key words Pigments, Synthetic, Colourants,
Carcinogenic, Natural
Colour of a food substance is important to indicate
its freshness and safety that are also indices of good
aesthetic and sensorial values. In the recent years,
colouring of food with pigments produced from natural
sources is of worldwide interest and is gaining importance.
These pigments are looked upon for their safe use as a
natural food dye in replacement of synthetic ones because
of undesirable market. A well textured food, rich in nutrients
and flavour, cannot be eaten unless it has the right colour.
Colour additives have long been used as a means of
enhancing the aesthetic value of foods, beverages and
cosmetics and for identifying drugs and other products.
The demand for natural source of such compounds is
increasing day by day because of the awareness of positive
health benefits out of natural compounds. It is therefore,
essential to explore various natural sources of food grade
colourants and their potentials. An attractive colour is often
associated with quality and freshness. Consumers have
expectations with regards to the typical colour of certain
foods. A non-attractive colour makes a product look as no
longer fresh and likely to be rejected. Colour has important
psychological implications, particularly true in case of food.
The initial perception of food by consumer is visual.
Therefore colour has a very important role and the
acceptance or rejection of a food often depends on it.
History
The earliest written record of the use of natural dyes
dates back to 2600 BC in China and addition of colourants
to foods is reported in Europe during the Bronze Age. It is
also reported that around 1500 BC in Egyptian cities candy
makers used to add natural extracts and wine to improve
the appearance. The first synthetic colour (mauvine) was
developed by Sir William Henry Perkin way back in 1856.
The beginning of the 19th century was remarked for the
bulk of production and recovery of synthetic colours from
the petroleum derived products like aniline, therefore they
were called ‘coal-tar’ colours because the starting materials
were obtained from coal (Burrows, 2009).
Food colourants
Substances which add or restore colour in
a food, that includes natural/synthetic constituents
which are normally not consumed as foods as such (FSSAI,
2011). Food colours can be classified into three groups;
natural food colourants, which refer to ones that are
synthesized naturally; nature-identical colorants, which
although synthesized in industries, mime the natural ones
and finally the artificial/synthetic colourants (Msagati,
2013). Natural & synthetic food colour market is projected
to reach $2.3 billion by 2019 growing at a rate of 4.6%
annually.
Reasons to use food colourants
Nowadays, people know that foods have their own
natural colours, but most people live in big cities, far from
the places of food production, and processing and
transportation of foods are required. During such events,
foods may lose some of their properties and some additives
must be added to permit such products having desirable
appearance and are safe for consumption. Moreover, it is
possible to enumerate the reasons to use food colourants
(Shamina et al., 2007).
1. To restore the original food appearance
2. To intensify colours that are normally found in food
and the consumer will associate this improved colour
with food quality.
3. To protect the flavour and light susceptible vitamins.
4. To preserve the identity or character by which food
is recognized.
4058 Trends in Biosciences 10 (21), 2017
Classification of food colourants
a) Synthetic colours: These do not occur in nature and
are produced by chemical synthesis. Seven synthetic
colourants, belonging to four distinct chemical
classes, are permitted by the FDA for use in foods
and in orally ingested drugs and cosmetics: FD&C
Red No. 40, FD&C Red No. 3, FD&C Yellow No. 5,
FD&C Yellow No. 6, FD&C Blue No. 1, FD&C Blue
No. 2 and FD&C Green No. 3. Citrus Red No. 2 is
permitted only for colouring skins of oranges and
Orange B for surfaces of casings of frankfurters and
sausages. They share the common property of water
solubility, being conferred by the presence of one or
more sulphonic or carboxylic acid groups (Parkinson
and Brown, 1981).
b) Nature-identical Colours: These colours are also
manufactured by chemical synthesis, but do not
require FDA certification and are considered
chemically and functionally indistinguishable from
the same colourant found in nature.
c) Natural Colours: Natural food colour is any dye,
pigment or any other substance extracted using
conventional methods, from vegetable, animal, mineral
or other sources capable of colouring food drug,
cosmetics or any part of the human body; colours
come from a variety of sources such as seeds, fruits,
vegetables, algae and insect.
Pigments
Pigments produce the colours that we observe at each
step of our lives, because pigments are present in each one
of the organisms in the world, and plants are the principal
producers. They are in leaves, fruits, vegetables, and
flowers; also, they are present in skin, eyes, and other animal
structures; and in bacteria and fungi. Natural and synthetic
pigments are used in medicines, foods, clothes, furniture,
cosmetics, and in other products. (Frick and Meggos, 1988;
Hari et al., 1994). Foods particularly fruits and vegetables,
are naturally coloured mainly by four groups of pigments:
the green chlorophylls, the yellow-orange-red carotenoids,
the red-blue-purple anthocyanins and the red betanin
(Mittal et al., 2007). Because of the deficiencies of existing
natural food colourants, the demand for natural pigments
is repeatedly raised by the food industry. This demand can
be fuelled by research to offer a more natural-healthy way
of colouring foods.
Natural distribution of pigments
Among the biological sources, many natural dyes/
colourants are obtained from plants, producing various
colours such as red, yellow, blue, black, brown and
combinations of these. The wide range of green colours in
leafy vegetables is produced by different combinations of
chlorophyll and carotenoids. The reddish-purple colour of
most common fruit and berries is produced mainly by
anthocyanin pigments. On a global basis, a few carotenoids,
two phycobilins, the predominant green chlorophylls and
about three seasonally occurring flavonoids are the most
abundant pigments in plants and algae (Hendry, 1996).
Betalains, some less-common carotenoids and flavonoids
as well as all of the other minor pigment classes. It is
estimated that 4000 tonnes of anthocyanin are consumed
each year in the UK, mainly from fruits (Henry, 1996). Several
plants are known to yield red pigments (Bixa orellana,
Beta vulgaris), blue pigments (Vitis vinifera, Vaccinum
mytillus), brown pigments (Camellia sinensis, Lawsonia
inermis) and yellow-orange pigments (Curcuma longa,
Tagetes erecta) which can be used for food colouring
(Lakshmi, 2014).
Animals and microorganisms are also the sources of
natural pigments, but few of them are available in sufficient
quantities for commercial use as food colourant and mostly
are plant origin (Haliwell, 1996).
Major classes of natural pigments
Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are natural colourants belonging to
the flavonoid family of secondary metabolites; they are a
diverse group of intensely coloured pigments synthesized
in plants responsible for the often brilliant purple and blue
colours in fruits, vegetables, flowers, leaves, roots and other
plant storage organs. They are found predominantly in outer
cell layers such as the epidermis and peripheral mesophyll
cells. They are water soluble, facilitating their easy use in
aqueous media as food colourants (Markakis, 1992).
Anthocyanins are allowed as a food additive
(designated E 163). Anthocyanins from tart cherries (Prunus
cerasus L.) have been stabilized with phosphoric acid,
maltodextrin and a- and b-cyclodextrins (Chandra et al.,
1993). The colour is susceptible to temperature, oxygen,
UV light and acidity. At different pH, anthocyanin reveals
several colours. For pH indication, it acts as natural source.
1 ml of the anthocyanin extract (methanol: HCl) of seedless
grape peel was added in test tubes. From the pH of 1to 14,
the extracts was adjusted using the acid as 1N HCl and the
base as 1N NaOH by the help of pH meter. Finally, the
extracts were mixed well to detect the colour. The colour
changes were recorded (Bondre et al., 2012). Colour loss
may be prevented by storing at low temperature in dark
containers or under oxygen free packaging.
The highest-seed coat of black soybean-2,000mg /
100g. Other sources include apple, berries (blackcurrant,
boysenberry, blueberry, strawberry, blackberry, raspberry,
cranberry, elderberry, loganberry, chokeberry etc.), black
carrot, cabbage, cherry, grape, radish, red onions and sweet
 SHETTY et al., Natural Pigments as Potential Food Colourants: A Review 4059

Table 1. Major classes of pigments Latin American cuisine to add a deep red colour as well as
distinctive flavour notes to fish, meat and rice dishes. In
Classes of natural pigments Sources the United States, annatto extracts are primarily used to
impart orange/yellow hues to cheese and other dairy foods.
1. Anthocyanins (Red to Blue) Blue grape, blueberry, The annatto tree, B. orellana, is a large, fast-growing shrub
cherry plum, kokum
fruit, Hibiscus, cherry, of the tropics. The large clusters of brown or crimson
apple and Jamun capsular fruit-containing seeds coated with a thin, highly
coloured resinous coating serves as the raw material for
2.Carotenoids (Orange yellow Annatto seeds, alfalfa,
to Red) carrot, palm oil, saffron the preparation of the colorant annatto, which is prepared
and marigold by leaching the annatto seeds with an extract prepared from
one or more food grade materials including various solvents,
3.Betalains (Red, Purple) Beetroot, cactus,
amaranths edible vegetable oils and fats and alkaline aqueous and
alcoholic solutions. The chief colouring principle found in
4.Flavones Safflower florets
the oil-soluble extracts of annatto is the carotenoid bixin;
5.Chlorophylls (Green) Green plants the major colorant in the alkaline aqueous extracts is
norbixin (Marmion, 1991).
6. Lycopene Tomato, watermelon
Clinical application: Carotenoids are photo-protectants.
7.Miscellaneous: Lee et al. (2000) suggested that supplementation with
ii. Carminic acid (Red) Cochineal insects natural carotenoids may partially protect human skin from
UV-A and UV-B induced erythrema. Astaxanthins, a
iii. Caramel Modified sugars
carotenoid widely used as an intermediary in reproductive
(Fergus and Reuter, 2004) process.
Betalains
potato (Raghavendra et al., 2011).
Khan and Giridhar estimated annual production
Clinical application: Enhancement of sight acuteness potential of plant betalains from edible sources (red
(Timberlake and Henry, 1988), treatment of various blood beetroot, Swiss chard petiole, cactus pear fruit, pitaya fruit
circulation disorders resulting from capillary fragility (Wang and amaranth seed); production of beetroot far exceeded
et al., 1997), radiation protective action (Akhmadieva et al., those of the other sources. Betalains are a group of red and
1993), to examine the anti-cancer effects (Stoner et al., 2007). yellow colour water soluble pigments found in red beet,
Carotenoids cactus fruits and in some flowers. They are stable to pH
range 4-6 but degraded by thermal processing. The
Carotenoids are group of phytochemicals responsible
sensitivity of betalains to different factors suggests that
for yellow, orange and red colours of foods and having an
their application as food colourants is limited. Based on
important role in the prevention of human diseases and
these properties, betalains can be used in foods with a
maintaining good health. In addition to being potent
short shelf-life, produced by a minimum heat treatment, and
antioxidants some carotenoids also contribute to dietary
packaged and marketed in a dry state under reduced levels
vitamin A. Although the chemistry of carotenoids has been
of light, oxygen, and humidity (Rayner, 1993; Von Elbe, 1977)
studied extensively, their bioavailability, metabolism and
biological functions are only now beginning to be Clinical application: antiviral and antimicrobial
investigated (Rao and Rao, 2007). activities, In some places in Mexico, an infusion of
Bougainvillea bracts mixed with honey is used widely for
ß-Carotene, ß-apo-8-carotenal and canthaxanthin:
cough. Reduces cardiovascular disease and diabetes,
These are the most commercially important of carotenoids.
Reduces risk of cancerand signs of aging (Anti-aging) and
Beta-Carotene is the isomer of the naturally occurring
prevents of chronic diseases.
carotenoid, carotene. Carotene is the pigment largely
responsible for the colour of butter, cheese, carrots, alfalfa Chlorophyll
and cereal grains. The colourant is synthetically extracted Chlorophylls have been the least studied of the food
with acetone, which results in the all-trans form. Both the pigments. Chlorophylls (E 140) are vegetable pigments that
synthetic and natural sources of ß-carotene are permitted occur naturally in plants and confer colour. Among the five
colour additives (Marmion, 1991). different chlorophylls that exist, only two (a and b) are used
Annatto in the food industry as colourants. Their complex structure
is difficult to stabilize, being this the main drawback of their
Annatto is a natural food colourant extracted from
use in the industry, which has studied mechanisms of
the seeds of the Bixa orellana L. plant. Annatto is used in
4060 Trends in Biosciences 10 (21), 2017
retaining or replacing the magnesium ion within the
structure. The used commercial colourants of chlorophylls
are extracted from alfalfa, and have been employed in dairy
products, soups, drinks and sugar confections
(MacDougall, 2002).
Clinical applications: Chlorophyll also helps support
the healthy flora in the bowels which also help improve our
immunity function. Chlorophyll has great antioxidant
capacity and therefore it helps neutralise free radicals and
limit oxidative damage within the body. From several animal
and in vitro research studies, chlorophyll and its derivatives
have been shown to possess anti-carcinogenic properties
which mean they have the ability to help prevent or slow
down cancer. Studies have also found that chlorophyll also
improves the health of blood cells by increasing the uptake
of oxygen in the blood. Austrian scientists have found that
chlorophyll and its derivatives successfully slow down the
oxidation of LDL (the ‘bad’ cholesterol) which is a major
contributor to cardiovascular disease.
Anthoxanthins
Anthoxanthin is a pigment and is similar to
anthocyanin, but it exists in less oxidized state as the
oxygen on the central group is uncharged. It is actually a
composite of compounds known as flavones, flavonols and
flavanones. Anthoxanthins are white, pale yellowish, water
soluble pigments found in a plant’s cell sap. They contribute
the cream and white colour of cauliflower, onions, white
potatoes and turnips. Short cooking is desired. With
prolonged heat, the pigment turns into a brownish grey
colour (Clifford and Cuppett, 2000).
Clinical applications: Anthoxanthins are thought to
have health-promoting properties due to their high
antioxidant capacity in both in vivo and in vitro systems.
The functionality in human health is supported by the
ability of the pigments to induce human protective enzyme
systems, and by a number of epidemiological studies
suggesting protective effects against cardiovascular
diseases, cancers, and other age-related diseases (Cook
and Samman, 1996).
Lycopene
Lycopene is the pigment principally responsible for
the characteristic deep red colour of ripe tomato fruits and
tomato products; it is also found in watermelon, papaya,
pink grapefruit and pink guava. Processed tomato products
are more available dietary sources of lycopene than fresh
tomatoes. Lycopene is a member of the carotenoid family; it
is a natural fat-soluble pigment found in certain plants and
microorganisms, where it serves as an accessory light-
gathering pigment and to protect these organisms against
the toxic effects of oxygen and light (Rao and Agarwal,
1999). The average daily intake of lycopene is approximately
25 mg; 50% of this is in the form of processed tomato
products.
Clinical applications: Lycopene has attracted attention
because of its biological and physicochemical properties,
especially related to its effects as a natural antioxidant (Sies
et al., 1998). The consumption of tomato products has
shown promise for the prevention of prostate cancer.
Miscellaneous pigments
Carmine
Carmine, also called Crimson Lake, Cochineal, Natural
Red 4 is a pigment of a bright red colour obtained by aqueous
extraction of cochineal, which is derived from the dried
bodies of the gravid female insect Coccus cacti, and is
used as a general term for a particularly deep red colour
(Lucas et al.,2001). Although principally a red dye, it is
found in many foods that are shades of red, pink and purple.
Since typically it is used in low quantities, the likelihood of
sensitization to carmine ingestion is low and is more likely
to occur through high levels of exposure through
occupational or cosmetic exposure. But it has been known
to cause severe allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock
in some people (Green field, 2005). Food products
containing a carmine-based food dye may prove to be a
concern for people who are allergic to carmine.
Caramel
Caramel colour or caramel colouring is a water soluble
food colouring. It is made by a careful controlled treatment
of carbohydrates, in general in the presence of acids, alkalis
or salts, in a process called caramelization. It has odour of
burnt sugars and somewhat bitter. Its colour ranges from
pale yellow to dark brown. Caramel colour is one of the
oldest and most widely used food colourings, and is found
useful in Beer, Brown bread, Chocolate, Cookies, Spirits
and liquor, Dessert mixes, Doughnuts, Fruit preserves, Ice
creams, Soft drinks (colas), Sweets (EFSA, 2011).
Application of colours in food
Effects of natural colours on food products
Application of Amaranthus betacyanins in jelly, ice
cream, and beverage was evaluated in comparison to
commercial colourants (Cai and Croke, 1999). The
betacyanins in these model foods exhibited brighter colour
characteristics than red radish anthocyanins, with similar
colour stability during 20-week storage. The viability of
acylated anthocyanins from red radish, red cabbage, black
carrot and grape skin extract to colour dairy products such
as yogurt and sour cream having pH levels around 4.2-4.5.
(Giusti and Wrolstad, 2000).
Roselle anthocyanins were evaluated as natural
colourant for hard candy. To determine the more suitable
concentrations of these natural colourants, the
 SHETTY et al., Natural Pigments as Potential Food Colourants: A Review 4061

Table 2. Natural pigments and their uses in food stuffs

Pigments Foodstuffs References

Annatto Cakes, Biscuits, Dairy products, Flour, Soft drinks, Snacks Hendry and Houghton, 1996,Rao et
al., 2005, Scotter, 2009

Carotenoids Meat products, Sauces, Marmalades, Spice blends, Beverages, Baines and Seal, 2012
Milk products

Anthocyanins Confectionary, Fruit preparations Hendry and Houghton, 1996, Baines

and Seal, 2012

Chlorophylls Dairy products, Soups, Drinks MacDougall, 2002

Curcumin Yoghurt, Baked goods, Dairy products, Ice creams, Salad Hendry and Houghton, 1996,
dressings MacDougall, 2002

Carmine Jams, Gelatins, Baked goods, Dairy products, Non-carbonated MacDougall, 2002
drinks

encapsulated pigment was used at levels ranged between
0.05 to 0.3 %. Control sample was coloured with 0.019%
synthetic colourant (Raspberry red, E124). Candy samples
were sensory evaluated for their quality attributes i. e. colour;
flavour, mouth feel, and overall acceptability. The results
showed that colour of control sample, which coloured with
synthetic dye scored the highest values for colour while
those coloured with low levels of roselle anthocyanins i.e.
0.05 and 0.1% were significantly different. However, adding
roselle anthocyanis at a level of 0.2% was effective to
produce hard candy with colour comparable to that of
control sample. No significant differences could be found
between control sample and samples coloured with different
levels of anthocyanins regarding the flavor and mouth feel
properties. (Selim, 2000)
The studies on impact processing conditions on the
stability of annatto dye incorporated in some baked and
fried snack foods indicates that high loss of colour in fried
items as most of the added annatto leached out into oil
(Prabhakara et al., 2005). The anthocyanin-rich waste (ARW)
in purple corncobs has been characterized to find a suitable
application in a food matrix. ARW provided milk with an
attractive purple hue. ARW shows potential as a natural
colourant for a pH range unusual for anthocyanin
applications (Zing and Giusti, 2005).
The eggs of female quail fed with diets supplemented
with natural carotenoid (alfalfa (or Lucerne) concentrate,
tomato powder and marigold extract) showed an increase
in the yolk concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene
and ß-carotene (Karadas et al., 2006). Purple carrot puree
have a high concentration of acylated anthocyanins made
it more stable and suitable for mixing with strawberry during
jam processing. Adding up to 20% of purple carrot puree
during strawberry jam processing enhanced the colour
stabilization during and after six month of storage at room
temperature without any effects on the other organoleptic
attributes. (Hadyet al., 2014)
The incorporation of astaxanthin oleoresin to milk
with different fat content, simulating the red-orange colour
that can impart apricot colour (Mezquita et al., 2015).
Commercially important natural food grade dyes were
evaluated in terms of their sensitivity against gamma
ionizing radiation. Cochineal, annatto and turmeric dyes
with suitable concentrations were subjected to increasing
doses up to 32 kGy and was analyzed by spectrophotometry
and capillary electrophoresis. The results showed different
pattern of absorbance versus absorbed dose for the three
systems (Helio et al., 2016).
Regulatory aspects
Regulatory aspects of food colouring in India (FSSAI,
2011)
Unauthorized addition of colouring matter prohibited.
Extraneous addition of colouring matter to be
mentioned on the label.
Natural colouring matters which may be used are
– Beta-carotene
– Chlorophyll
– Riboflavin
– Caramel
– Annatto
– Saffron
– Curcumin or turmeric
Addition of inorganic colouring matters and pigments
prohibited.
Use of permitted synthetic food colours in or upon
any food other than those enumerated is prohibited.
Maximum limit of permitted synthetic food colours
4062 Trends in Biosciences 10 (21), 2017
should not > 100ppm.
Colours used should be pure and free from any
harmful impurities.
Authorities which are regulating food colours in
different countries
Canada : Health Canada
Mexico : Norma Official Mexicana (Official Mexican
Standard), abbreviated as NOM
Australia : Food Standards Australia and New
Zealand
China : National Food Safety Standard
Japan : Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO)
Korea : Food regulation is under the Ministry of
Food and Drug Safety (MFDS)
Middle East and Northern Africa: EU regulations in
general
Advantages of natural food colours
Improves the health condition of the consumer
Non allergic and eco friendly
Better bio degradability and higher compatibility with
the environment
They have high medicinal value
It saves the energy
Application process is less costly
Disadvantages of natural food colours
Seasonal production
Variation in quality and purity from source to source
Availability in limited shades
Low concentration in source material
Difficulties in the extraction from sources
Most of them are sensitive to pH, heat and sunlight
(Hallagen et al., 1995)
CONCLUSION
Nature is rich in colour and the majority of plant
pigments can be widely exploited for the colouring of food.
As the awareness among people towards natural dyes and
their therapeutic uses are increasing because of their
nontoxic or less toxic properties, fewer side effects. New
sources of plant pigments need to be available in sufficient
quantities for industrial extraction. To meet the need and
demand of growing population, emerging technologies
such as high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric fields,
sonication and membrane technologies could be potential
methods for the enhanced extraction of pigments and
bioactive compounds from plant or animal materials in future.
Synthetic food colourants are being recognized to be
carcinogenic and harmful to the consumers, hence plant
pigments are the alternative.
Future prospects
Consumer demands and their preferences for
naturally-derived colourants have increased exponentially,
widely associated with the image of healthy, safe and good
quality products, which constitutes a great challenge to
food industries and related food science research
institutions (Carocho et al., 2014; Dias et al., 2015; Shahid
et al., 2013). Global trend towards the use of natural
products in daily life opens new avenues for the increasing
use of natural dyes and colours. Despite centuries of
interest in natural pigments, our knowledge of their
distribution, availability and properties is limited.
Worldwide, 70% of all plants have not been investigated.
Therefore, novel plant pigments must be searched for
unprosecuted land or in the sea. Detailed study and
scientific investigation are needed to assess the real
potential and ability of natural dye yielding
plants.Standardization of extraction methods for higher
colour yielding plants. Need based use of colours in
different food preparation should be evaluated.
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Received on 27-04-2017 Accepted on 17-05-2017