HBMT3303 PDF

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBMT3303
Teaching of Lower Secondary
Mathematics Part I
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBMT3303
TEACHING
OF LOWER
SECONDARY
MATHEMATICS PART I
Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng
Dr Mohd Nazari Yaakob
Dr Lam Kah Kei

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng

Dr Mohd Nazari Yaakob
Dr Lam Kah Kei
Moderators: Prof Dr Abdul Razak Habib

Prof Dr Lim Tick Ming
Goh Thian Hee

Insitut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Pulau Pinang
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, April 2008

Second Edition, April 2014
Third Edition, April 2016 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2016, HBMT3303

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvii
Topic 1 Whole Numbers 1

1.1 The Basics of Whole Numbers 2
1.1.1 Numeration System and Place Values 2
1.1.2 Rounding Off Whole Numbers 6
1.1.3 Number Operations (Addition and Subtraction) 10
1.1.4 Number Operations (Multiplication) 16
1.1.5 Number Operations (Division) 18
1.1.6 Number Operations (Combined Operations) 19
1.1.7 Solving Problems Involving Number Operations
and Combined Operations 22
1.2 Number Patterns and Sequences 29
1.2.1 Number Patterns 29
1.2.2 Extending Number Sequences 33
1.2.3 Completing Missing Terms in a Number Sequence 35
1.2.4 Odd and Even Numbers 36
1.2.5 Prime Numbers 39
1.2.6 Factors and Prime Factors 45
1.2.7 Multiples 48
1.3 Common Multiples and Common Factors 50
1.3.1 Common Multiples and Lowest Common Multiple
(LCM) 50
1.3.2 Common Factors and Highest Common Factor
(HCF) 53
1.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Whole Numbers 56
Summary 60
Key Terms 61

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 2 Fractions 62
2.1 Concepts of Fractions 63
2.1.1 Fractions as Parts of a Whole 63
2.1.2 Writing Fractions 66
2.1.3 Equivalent Fractions 70
2.1.4 Comparing the Values of Two Fractions 75
2.1.5 Arranging Fractions in Order 78
2.1.6 Simplifying Fractions 80
2.2 The Basics of Whole Numbers 81
2.2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Proper Fractions 81
2.2.2 Multiplication of Proper Fractions 86
2.2.3 Division Involving Proper Fractions 89
2.2.4 Problem Solving Involving Proper Fractions 95
2.3 Mixed Numbers and Improper Fractions 98
2.3.1 Concept of Mixed Numbers and Improper
Fractions 98
2.3.2 Addition and Subtraction Involving Mixed
Numbers and Fractions 102
2.3.3 Multiplication and Division Involving Mixed
Numbers 104
2.3.4 Problem Solving Involving Mixed Numbers and
Improper Fractions 106
Summary 112
Key Terms 113
Topic 3 Decimals 114

3.1 Concept of Decimals 115
3.1.1 Relationship between Fractions and Decimals 115
3.1.2 Place Value and Value of Digit 122
3.2 Operations of Decimals 125
3.2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Decimals 125
3.2.2 Multiplication of Decimals 128
3.2.3 Division of Decimals 131
3.3 Problem Solving Involving Decimals 134
3.3.1 Solving Addition and Subtraction Problems 134
3.3.2 Solving Multiplication and Division Problems 137
Summary 140
Key Terms 140

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 4 Percentages 141

4.1 Comparing Fractions, Decimals and Percentages 141
4.1.1 Convert Fractions to Percentages 145
4.1.2 Convert Percentages to Fractions 147
4.1.3 Convert Decimals to Percentages 147
4.1.4 Convert Percentages to Decimals 148
4.2 To Find the Percentage of a Quantity 151
4.3 Problem Solving: Applications of Percentages 152
4.3.1 Percentage of Increase or Decrease 152
4.3.2 Profit and Loss 153
4.3.3 Discounts 155
4.3.4 Interest, Dividend and Commission 157
Summary 161
Key Terms 161
Topic 5 Algebraic Expressions 162

5.1 The Concept of Unknowns 163
5.1.1 Introducing Unknowns 163
5.1.2 Identifying Unknowns in a Given Situation 168
5.1.3 Algebraic Terms 169
5.1.4 Like and Unlike Terms with One Unknown 172
5.2 Algebraic Expressions 174
5.3 Simplifying Algebraic Expressions 178
5.3.1 Addition and Subtraction of Like Terms 178
5.3.2 Multiplication and Division by a Number 182
5.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Like and Unlike Terms 185
Summary 188
Key Terms 189
References 189
Topic 6 Basic Measurements 190

6.1 Concept of Measurement 191
6.2 Length 193
6.2.1 Converting One Metric Unit into Another 195
6.2.2 Solving Problems Using Mathematical Operations 200
6.3 Mass 206
6.3.1 Converting One Metric Unit into Another 208
6.3.2 Solving Problems Using Mathematical Operations 214

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.4 Time 219

6.4.1 Converting One Unit of Time into Another 221
6.4.2 Calculations Involving Time 226
6.4.3 The 12-hour and the 24-hour Systems 232
6.4.4 Problem Solving Involving Time 235
Summary 240
Key Terms 242
References 242
Topic 7 Lines and Angles 243

7.1 Concept of Angles 244
7.1.1 Concepts of Points and Lines 244
7.1.2 Concept of Angles 245
7.1.3 Denoting and Labelling Angles 247
7.1.4 The Protractor 249
7.1.5 Measuring Angles 250
7.1.6 Right, Acute, Obtuse and Reflex Angles 251
7.1.7 Angles on a Straight Line 253
7.1.8 One Whole Rotation 261
7.2 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 269
7.2.1 Parallel Lines 269
7.2.2 Constructing Parallel Lines 271
7.2.3 Perpendicular Lines 274
7.3 Properties of Angles Associated with Intersecting Lines 276
7.3.1 Intersecting Lines 276
7.3.2 Vertically Opposite Angles 278
7.3.3 Complementary Angles 280
7.3.4 Supplementary Angles 283
7.3.5 Adjacent Angles 286
Summary 296
Key Terms 297
References 297
Topic 8 Polygons 298

8.1 Concept of Polygons 300
8.1.1 Regular and Irregular Polygons 305
8.1.2 Van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thinking 308
8.1.3 Constructing Regular Polygons 312
8.1.4 Diagonals in a Polygon 314

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
8.2 Concept of Symmetry 317

8.2.1 Lines of Symmetry in Shapes 319
8.2.2 Completing Symmetrical Shapes 323
8.2.3 Drawing Designs Using the Concept of Symmetry 326
8.3 Triangles and Quadrilaterals 328
8.3.1 Properties of Triangles 328
8.3.2 Sum of Angles of Triangles 330
8.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Triangles 333
8.3.4 Properties of Quadrilaterals 341
8.3.5 Sum of Angles of Quadrilaterals 348
8.3.6 Problem Solving Involving Quadrilaterals 352
Summary 358
Key Terms 358
References 359
Topic 9 Perimeter and Area 360

9.1 Review of Triangle, Rectangle, Parallelogram and
Trapezium 362
9.1.1 Types of Triangles 362
9.1.2 Types of Parallelograms 364
9.1.3 Types of Trapeziums 365
9.1.4 Height and Bases of Triangles, Parallelograms and
Trapeziums 366
9.2 Perimeter 367
9.2.1 Concept of Perimeter 367
9.2.2 Perimeter of a Rectangle, Square and Parallelogram 369
9.2.3 Perimeter of a Triangle 373
9.2.4 Perimeter of a Trapezium 374
9.2.5 Perimeter of a Region or Enclosed Region 375
9.3 Area 386
9.3.1 Area of Rectangle 386
9.3.2 Area of Square 389
9.3.3 Area of Triangle 390
9.3.4 Area of Parallelogram 398
9.3.5 Area of Trapezium 404
9.3.6 Area of Combined Shapes 410
Summary 417
Key Terms 418
References 418

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10 Solid Geometry 419

10.1 Geometric Solids 422
10.2 Cubes and Cuboids 424
10.2.1 Properties of Cubes and Cuboids 425
10.2.2 Constructing a Model of a Cube and Cuboid 427
10.2.3 Making a Frame Model of a Cube and Cuboid 428
10.2.4 Making a Surface Model of a Cube and Cuboid 431
10.3 Surface Area of Cubes and Cuboids 436
10.3.1 Concept of Surface Area 436
10.3.2 Surface Area of a Cube 438
10.3.3 Surface Area of a Cuboid 441
10.4 Volume of Cubes and Cuboids 449
10.4.1 Concept of Volume of Solids 449
10.4.2 Volume of Cubes 454
10.4.3 Volume of Cuboids 456
Summary 462
Key Terms 463
References 463

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBMT3303 Teaching of Lower Secondary Mathematics Part I is one of the
courses offered by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to learners undertaking Bachelor of Teaching, majoring in
Mathematics (with Honours) programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concepts, definitions, rules and principles related to operations

of whole numbers, fractions, decimals, percentages, algebraic expressions,
basic measurements, lines and angles, polygons, area and perimeter as well
as solid geometry;
2. Apply mathematical concepts involving whole numbers, fractions,

decimals, percentages, algebraic expressions, basic measurements, lines and
angles, polygons, area and perimeter as well as solid geometry in solving
real life problems;
3. Use the mathematical processes involving representing, connecting,

communicating, reasoning and problem solving in teaching mathematical
concepts effectively;
4. Discuss the importance and beauty of mathematics; and
5. Acquire skills and knowledge to teach mathematics constructively for Form

One level.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the basics of whole numbers and place value including
rounding off of numbers and a comprehensive cover of mathematical operations
involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and combined
operations. In addition, this topic provides coverage on number patterns and
sequences, common multiples and lower common multiple (LCM) as well as
common factors and higher common factor (HCF). Learners are provided step-
by-step guide as well as teaching activities for easy understanding and
references. Lastly, at the end of the topic, learners will apply whole number
concepts throughout the topic in real life situations.
Topic 2 covers the topic on fractions beginning with an understanding of the

concept of fraction as parts of a whole. This basic understanding of fraction is
further extended to understand equivalent fractions, comparing values of
fractions, simplifying fractions, and concepts of mixed numbers, proper fractions
and improper fractions. The topic also covers the conceptual and procedural
understanding involving the mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions. Overall, learners should be
able to understand fractions as well as applying teaching techniques learned
from this topic to students.
Topic 3 provides learners with thorough explanation on the concept of decimal

and its relationship to fractions. Emphasis is also given to mastering
mathematical operations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of decimals. It also covers problem solving related to decimals in real life
situations. By the end of this topic, learners should be able to transfer lessons
learned from this topic to students effectively.
Topic 4 explains percentage starting with its concept and relationship with
fractions and decimals. In addition, learners will be provided learning support
for understanding mathematical operations on percentage as well as the
applications of percentage in problem solving relating to real life situations.
In particular, applications of percentage involving profits, losses, interest,
dividends, commission and discounts are provided. At the end of the topic,
learners are expected to be familiar with some teaching and learning activities
related to the concept of percentage and its applications.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 5 introduces the concept of unknowns as the basis to understand algebraic

terms and algebraic expressions. Learners will learn to identify and recognise like
and unlike terms in an algebraic expression. In addition, explanation on how to
simplify algebraic expression using mathematical operations on like and unlike
terms in linear equations will be provided. Learners are expected to understand
the conceptual as well as the procedural knowledge involved in simplifying
algebraic expressions. Finally, at the end of the topic, the learners are able to
apply its applications in solving problems in real life situations.
Topic 6 covers the basic concept of measurements involving length, mass

and time. Conceptual understanding of the measuring process is first presented.
A clear understanding of this concept is subsequently used to understand
measurements involving length, mass and time. Learners are expected to
construct knowledge and skills of conversion between standard units of
measures. Explanations will include activities of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of each units of measurement. Finally, the topic also
covers the problem solving applications of measurements involving length, mass
and time in real life situations.
Topic 7 covers the concepts of points, lines and angles. Specifically, parallel lines,
perpendicular lines, as well as properties of angles associated with intersecting
lines will be presented. In this topic, learners will be equipped with skills and
knowledge on how to teach students ways to measure angles, and construct
parallel and perpendicular lines using protractor and dynamic software. In
addition, angle properties associated with parallel and intersecting lines
involving vertically opposite, adjacent, and complementary and supplementary
angles are presented. Emphasis is given to understanding the terms as well as the
application of angle properties in solving problems involving lines and angles.
Topic 8 covers the concepts of polygons and symmetry of shapes. The van Hiele
model is presented as a basis for development of geometric thinking when
learning about polygonal shapes. Understanding of the concept of line symmetry
is further developed in this topic by applying it in designing geometric patterns.
In addition, the properties of triangles and quadrilaterals are also presented. In
this topic, learners will be equipped with knowledge on how to teach students
about the concept of polygons, lines of symmetry, and properties of triangles and
quadrilaterals using constructive activities, including skills to use protractor and
dynamic software as teaching tools. Finally, learners are provided examples of
using knowledge of angle properties of triangles and quadrilaterals in solving
problems.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Topic 9 covers the concept of perimeter and area of triangle, rectangle,

parallelogram and trapezium. Emphasis is given to the conceptual
understanding of perimeter and area as well as the procedural knowledge of
calculation involving perimeter and area. Learners are expected to learn how to
teach these concepts using constructive activities including understanding
formulae through inductive reasoning. Finally, learners are provided examples of
using knowledge of perimeter and area in solving problems. Skills, knowledge
and experiences provided in this topic will allow both teachers and students to
develop a concrete understanding on perimeter and area as important concepts
of two dimensional objects.
Topic 10 will guide understanding about geometrical solids as three dimensional

objects. In particular, cubes and cuboids and their properties are investigated
with guidance on how to utilise frame and surface models as teaching aids. The
concept of surface area and formulae are explained with suggested constructive
activities. The concept of volume of geometric solids using cubes and cuboids is
emphasised through investigative activities using concrete manipulatives.
Learners are given examples on using properties of cubes and cuboids to solve
problems involving surface area and volume. Finally, learners are provided
examples of using knowledge of geometrical solids in solving non-routine
problems.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

COURSE GUIDE  xvii
REFERENCES
Cho, S. M., Mangai, R., Suhana, S., & Tiew, E. K. (2005). Glossary for
mathematics: Form 1 to form 3. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Sasbadi.
Chua, M. K., Teh, E. K., & Ooi, S. H. (2002). Mathematics form 1 volume 2.
Johor Bahru, Malaysia: Pelangi.
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. (2002). Integrated curriculum specifications:

Mathematics form 1. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ministry of Education
Malaysia.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24×7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xviii  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Whole
1 Numbers
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the principles of the Hindu-Arabic numeration system;
2. Describe the concept of place values in a whole number;
3. Evaluate studentsÊ ability to round off whole numbers;
4. Discuss how to recognise and construct number patterns;
5. Discuss how to extend number sequences, and how to find the
characteristics of odd, even and prime numbers;
6. Illustrate how to find multiple and lowest common multiples
(LCM); and
7. Illustrate how to find factors and highest common factors (HCF).
 INTRODUCTION
Whole number concepts and skills are the basis of most mathematical ideas. Even
though students have been exposed to the basics of whole numbers during their
primary school days, we should not assume that they have already mastered
these concepts and skills. Furthermore, the mastery of these fundamental
numeracy skills will help the students in the learning of other topics of
mathematics. Thus, it is important for us to plan our lessons well to achieve the
above learning outcomes.

2  TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS
1.1 THE BASICS OF WHOLE NUMBERS

In this subtopic, we will focus on the following areas:
(a) Numeration system, place values and the rounding off of whole numbers;
(b) Number operations and combined operations; and
(c) Solving problems involving number operations and combined operations.
1.1.1 Numeration System and Place Values

Before guiding our students to understand the concept of place values, we need
to be clear about the numeration system used in writing and operating numbers.
The symbols or numerals and the system used to represent numbers currently
have a history dating back to Hindu and Arabic mathematicians. Today, this
system is commonly called the Hindu-Arabic numeration system and hasfive
important characteristics which are base-ten, positional or place value,
multiplicative principle, additive principle and zero as a place holder.
(a) Base-ten
There are 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, ⁄9) used to represent all whole numbers. It
uses the base power of 10 as the structure of the numbers.
(b) Positional or Place Value

The value of the digit in a number takes on a value determined by the
position or place it occupies in the number. The position uses the base
power of 10 which gives place values of „ones‰ (100 = 1), „tens‰ (101 = 10),
„hundreds‰ (102 = 100) and so on.
Let us take a look at a simple example. We shall use the number 573 to
illustrate the meaning of place values (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: An example of place values

TOPIC 1 WHOLE NUMBERS  3
As shown in Figure 1.1, the number, 573, has three digits. Every digit has a
different value depending on the position where it is placed. Thus, we say
every digit has a different place value.
The digit 3 has a place value of „ones‰, the digit 7 has a place value of
„tens‰ and the digit 5 has a place value of „hundreds‰.
(c) Multiplicative Principle

This principle is used to determine the value of each digit in a number. For
example, the number 573.
The position of the digit 3 tells you that there are 3 „ones‰ and thus has the
value of 3 (i.e., 3 × 100 = 3 × 1 = 3).
The position of the digit 7 tells you that there are 7 „tens‰ and thus has the
value of 70 (i.e., 7 × 101 = 7 × 10 = 70).
The position of digit 5 tells you that there are 5 „hundreds‰ and thus has the
value of 500 (i.e., 5 × 102 = 5 × 100 = 500).
(d) Additive Principle

This means the value of a number is the sum of the products of each digit
and its place value. Therefore, the number 573 is actually the sum of 500, 70
and 3. This can be written in the mathematical form as shown in the
following Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Mathematical form of the number 573
The number 573 is read as „five hundred and seventy three‰.
(e) Zero as a Place Holder

The symbol „0‰ is an important representation of a number. As a digit, it
functions as a place holder in the numeration system which can change the
value of numbers by its presence and position. For example, the placement
of 0 to the right of 35 changes its value from 35 to 350.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
To check your understanding about place values, take the number

647801 as an example and answer the following questions:
(a) What is the place value of 4 in the number 647801?
(b) What is the value of the digit 6 in the number 647801?
(c) If zero is omitted, what is the value of the number now?
(d) Fill in the following missing parts:
One of the ways to explain the concept of place values is to break down a given
number into the sum of its parts. The following teaching activity will illustrate
this.
Teaching Sample Activity 1.1: How to illustrate the concept of place values in a
whole number.
• Begin the lesson by asking your students the following question:
„Do you know how many students are there in our school?‰
Write the answer on the board (let us say the answer is 1,427).
Write the following expression on the board and ask the students to tell you
the answer.
The correct answer is 1,427. With the answer shown, explain to the students
that 1,427 is actually equivalent to 1 „thousands„+ 4 „hundreds‰ + 2 „tens‰ +
7 „ones‰.

Guide the students to fill-in the digits of the number in the columns as
shown below, according to their respective place values.
Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones

1 4 2 7
Guide the students to read the value as „one thousand four hundred and
twenty seven‰.
It is a good idea to enhance your studentsÊ understanding by giving more

examples. However, if a second example is given, the amount of guidance given
to the students should be less than that in the first example. This is in line with
the theory of constructivism which promotes students to be active independent
learners who explore, discover and build their own knowledge.
Another way to illustrate the concept of place values is by using concrete objects
as teaching aids to model place values. This is shown in Teaching Sample
Activity 1.2. In this case, different Dienes blocks representing units of hundreds,
tens and ones are used.
Teaching Sample Activity 1.2: Illustrating the concept of place values in a whole
number using Dienes or base-10 blocks.
Arrange the different combinations of the Dienes blocks to represent the number
246 (two units of hundred, four units of ten and six units of one) as shown in
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Dienes blocks

Explain to the students the meaning of each digit by referring to the displayed
Dienes blocks. For instance, the digit 2 in the number 246 means that there are
2 units of hundred (or 2 „hundreds‰), the digit 4 in the number 246 indicates
that there are 4 units of ten (or 4 „tens‰) and the digit 6 in the number 246 refers
to 6 units of one (or 6 „ones‰).
You may continue the activity by displaying various combinations of Dienes

blocks and asking the students to write down the values represented by the
different sets of combinations.
You may also write down numbers and then ask the students to arrange
different combinations of Dienes blocks to represent the given numbers. Ask
students to use the Dienes blocks to compare and contrast between two numbers
with similar digits, e.g. 246 and 462.
Students should be encouraged to communicate their understanding using the

representations.
1.1.2 Rounding Off Whole Numbers

Estimation is a very important skill in mathematics. We often need to make
estimations regarding values in our everyday life. This includes the estimation of
money, time, distance, weight and so on.
Rounding off is a kind of estimation. To round off a whole number, your students
need to be taught the following three steps:
(a) Step 1
Find out what is the place value to be rounded off or, in short, the rounding
digit.
For example, if we want to round off the number 236,489 to the nearest
1,000, then the rounding digit is „6‰, since „6‰ has the place value of
„thousands‰.
(b) Step 2
If the digit just to the right of the rounding digit is less than 5, keep that
rounding digit and change all the digits to the right of the rounding digit to
zeroes.

In this case, the digit just to the right of the rounding digit is 4, which is less
than 5, so the number 236,489 rounding off to the nearest 1,000 will become
236,000.
(c) Step 3
If the digit just to the right of the rounding digit is greater than or equal to 5,
then add one to the rounding digit and change all other digits to the right of
the rounding digit to zeroes.
For example, the number 138,527 rounding off to the nearest 1,000 will
become 139,000. You can also write as follows:
(i) 138,527 = 139,000 (to the nearest 1,000);
(ii) 138,527 = 140,000 (to the nearest 10,000);
(iii) 138,527 = 100,000 (to the nearest 100,000);
(iv) 138,527 = 138,500 (to the nearest 100); and
(v) 138,527 = 138,530 (to the nearest 10).
Teaching Sample Activity 1.3: How to illustrate the

rounding off of whole numbers.
Ask your students the following question:
„Do you know what the price of a Proton Waja is?‰
Encourage your students to give various responses. For example:
Student 1: „I am not sure. I think it is about RM70,000.‰
Student 2: „My father bought it at RM62,000.‰
Praise your students for their responses. Tell them that they are actually doing
estimation. Guide them in finding out the concept of estimation by asking the
following question:
„If you are not sure of the exact price, look at this brochure. The cost of a new
Proton Waja is RM64,580.‰
Then put away the brochure and ask the students again.
Teacher: „Lina, can you tell me the price again?‰

Lina: „Sir, I cannot remember, but I know it is around RM60,000.‰
Teacher: „Very good. You have given us a very good estimation.

Lina has actually rounded off the price to the nearest RM10,000.‰
Show your students how to apply the rule to round off the number 64,580 to the
nearest 10,000.
Therefore, 64,580 = 60,000 (to the nearest 10,000).
You may repeat the activity by asking them to round off to the nearest 1,000.
Therefore, 64,580 = 65,000 (to the nearest 1,000)
It would be good if you call another student to round off the same number
64,580 to the nearest 100. In this case, the correct answer is 64,600.
Repeat using other numbers such as 2,583 and so on. Make sure you give a good
variety of numbers.

Assessment activities should not be confined to just finding out what students do
not know. More importantly, such activities should be able to help students to
understand the topic better. Good assessment activities also help to motivate
students in their learning. One of the ways is to help students find meaning in
their learning by making connections between what they have learned and its
applications in real-life situations. The following activity will illustrate this.
Teaching Sample Activity 1.4: Assessing studentsÊ ability to round off whole
numbers through data collection activity for the classroom.
Guide your students in collecting some data for the class. You can guide them
to obtain these data from the Internet. These data can then be used to help them
practice the rounding off of whole numbers.
Table 1.1 shows an example using data on the population of Malaysia.
Table 1.1: Example of Malaysian Population Using Data
Round Off Round Off Round Off

Actual Round Off to
Data to Nearest to Nearest to Nearest
Value Nearest 1,000
1,000,000 100,000 10,000
Population of
Malaysia
Population of
males in
Malaysia
Population of
females in
Malaysia
Population of
your state
Population of
your town

1.1.3 Number Operations (Addition and Subtraction)

Next, we will learn the operations of addition and subtraction.
(a) Addition
Adding two numbers means finding the sum of the two numbers or
addends. For example, adding 3 (addend) and 5 (addend) gives the sum of 8.
To illustrate the addition concept, you may have to explain the following:
10 „ones‰ is equal to 1 ten; 10 „tens‰ is equal to 1 hundred;

10 „hundreds‰ is equal to 1 thousand; and so on.
Even though students have learned basic number operations in primary

schools, it is still a good idea to carry out instructional activities that will
enhance their understanding of the concepts as well as the procedural skill.
Concrete representations are useful to help explain such concepts and skills.
This can be illustrated in the following example using Dienes blocks.
(i) Example 1.1

Find the sum of 134 and 247.
• By using Dienes blocks, we are able to show how to regroup 10

„ones‰ to become a „ten‰.

Figure 1.4 illustrates the grouping concept.
Figure 1.4: The grouping concept of Dienes blocks
The use of proportional models like Dienes blocks may be useful to explain
the addition concept when the numbers involved are small. The same idea
on grouping and regrouping however can be used in a different way when
explaining the addition of bigger numbers. In this case, non-proportional
models such as the abacus are useful to represent the addition process.
(ii) Example 1.2

Find the sum of 32,936 and 5,478.
For example, to show how to find the sum of 32,936 and 5,478, we may
use the following illustrations.
• Represent 32936 using the abacus.
3 2 9 3 6

• Adding 6 „ones‰ to 8 „ones‰ involves regrouping 1 „tens‰ and

leaving 4 „ones‰.
3 2 9 13 6
+ 5 4 7 8
___________________________
4
___________________________
• Adding 1 „tens‰ and 3 „tens‰ to 7 „tens‰ involves regrouping

1 „hundreds‰ leaving 1 „tens‰.
3 2 19 13 6
+ 5 4 7 8
___________________________
1 4
___________________________
• Adding 1 „hundreds‰ and 9 „hundreds‰ to 4 „hundreds‰ involves

regrouping 1 „thousands‰ leaving 4 „hundreds‰.
3 12 19 13 6
+ 5 4 7 8
___________________________
4 1 4
___________________________

• Adding 1 „thousands‰ and 2 „thousands‰ to 5 „thousands‰ gets

8 „thousands‰ and involves no regrouping.
3 12 19 13 6
+ 5 4 7 8
___________________________
8 4 1 4
___________________________
• Finally, 3 „ten-thousands‰ is added with no regrouping.
3 12 19 13 6
+ 5 4 7 8
___________________________
3 8 4 1 4
___________________________
• When using models, it is important that students are guided

to make the connection between the concrete representations
of the addition procedure with the symbolic standard written
representations to ensure meaningful learning of algorithm.

Symbolic representation of the addition algorithm can alternatively be shown in

the following way:
• Write 32,936 in the form 30,000 + 2,000 + 900 + 30 + 6;
• Write 5,478 in the form 5,000 + 400 + 70 + 8; and
• Use the following illustration to explain.
3 2 9 3 6
+ 5 4 7 8
_______________________________
_______________________________
10
30,000 2,000 900 30 6
+ 5,000 400 70 8
_______________________________
4
_______________________________
100 10
30,000 2,000 900 30 6
+ 5,000 400 70 8
_______________________________
10 4
_______________________________

1,000 100 10
30,000 2,000 900 30 6
+ 5,000 400 70 8
_______________________________
30,000 8,000 400 10 4
_______________________________
1 1 1
3 2 9 3 6
+ 5 4 7 8
_______________________________
3 8 4 1 4
_______________________________
(b) Subtraction
Subtracting one number from another is to find the difference between the
two numbers. For example, subtracting 17 (minuend) from 4 (subtrahend)
gives the difference of 13. Subtraction can also be viewed as the inverse of
addition. Hence, the same grouping and regrouping principles used in
finding the sum of two numbers can be applied to finding the difference
between two numbers. The following example explains this.
Example 1.3
Find the difference between 2,936 and 478.
2 9 3 6
ă 4 7 8

20 10
2,000 900 30 6
îă 400 70 8
800 120 10
2,000 900 30 6
ă 400 70 8
2,000 400 50 8 2,458
8 12 10
2 9 3 6
ă 4 7 8
2 4 5 8
1.1.4 Number Operations (Multiplication)

Multiplication sentences describe equal set situations. Thus, a common view of
multiplication involves seeing the operation as the repeated addition of equal sets
or groups of a certain quantity. For example, the multiplication sentence
18 × 9 = 162 gives the following meaning:
18 + 18 + 18 + 18 + 18 + 18 + 18 + 18 + 18 = 162
Addition of 18 repeated 9 times equals 162

When viewed as repeated addition, 18 is called multiplicand and 9 is called

multiplier while 162 is called product.
Another way of looking at the multiplication of n × m (n and m are both whole

numbers) is that there are n groups of objects and in each group, there are
m items.
Hence, the expression of 18 × 9 can be interpreted as 18 groups of 9 as shown in

Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: The expression of 18 × 9
The multiplications of 18 × 9 and 9 × 18 can be shown symbolically as follows:
(a) Hundreds Tens Ones

1 8
ï × 9
7 2 9 × 8 = 72
+ 9 0 9 × 10 = 90
1 6 2

(b) Hundreds Tens Ones

9
ï × 1 8
7 2 9 × 8 = 72
+ 9 0 10 × 9 = 90
1 6 2
Therefore, 18 × 9 = 9 × 18.
It is clear that the product of 18 × 9 is the same as the product of 9 × 18. Thus,
multiplication has the commutative property, that is, m × n = n × m. This
commutative property of multiplication is useful to guide students to represent
in standard algorithm the multiplication of large numbers. For example,
345 × 125,678 can be written as 125,678 × 345.
1.1.5 Number Operations (Division)

Division involving whole numbers can be defined as an action of separating
certain number of objects into a number of groups with equal number of objects
in each group. This is called partitive division. For example, 72 ÷ 9 can mean 72
separated equally into nine groups of eight.
Figure 1.6 shows clearly that there are nine groups. Each group has eight objects.
Therefore, 72 ÷ 9 = 8.
Figure 1.6: Nine groups of eight

Division can also be viewed as repeated subtraction. For example, 72 ÷ 9 is

viewed as 72 subtracting 9 for a total of 8 times. This is called quotitive division.
Division and multiplication are inverse operations. For example,
If 15 × 6 = 90, then
90 ÷ 6 = 15 or 90 ÷ 15 = 6.
Please note the following terms:
If aÁ÷b = c
then
a is called the dividend
b is the divisor and
c is the quotient.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Think of a word problem situation for each of these:
(a) Partitive division
(b) Quotitive division
1.1.6 Number Operations (Combined Operations)

Let us look at the following question:
4 + 3 ×ï2 = ?
Most students when asked to calculate the answer for the above question will
give 1 of the 2 possible answers, as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Two Possible Answers by Students
Group 1 Group 2
4 + 3 × 2 = 14 4 + 3 × 2 = 10

Obviously, the students in Group 1 carried out the operations from left to right
leading to a wrong answer. The students in Group 2 performed multiplication
first and then followed by addition, which is the correct method. So, to correct the
mistake and to enhance the understanding of all students on the order of
operations, you may list out the rules for calculations involving combined
operations. These rules are:
(a) Rule 1: Carry out operations involving multiplications or divisions first,

starting from left to right; and
(b) Rule 2: Then carry out additions or subtractions, also from left to right.
You may show the application of these rules using a few examples as shown in
Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Example of Application of Rules for Calculations
No. Operations Solution

= 19 ă 12
1 19 ă 3 × 4
=7
= 24 ă 10
2 8×3ă5×2
= 14
=8ă2
3 8ă6÷3
=6
=5+4×3
4 5+8÷2×3 = 5 + 12
= 17
=7ă5+9×2
= 7 ă 5 + 18
5 14 ÷ 2 ă 5 + 9 × 2
= 2 + 18
= 20
= 14 + 10 ă 8 ÷ 8
= 14 + 10 ă 1
6 2 × 7 + 10 ă 8 ÷ 8
= 24 ă 1
= 23

If the operations include the use of parenthesis or brackets, then the rules should
be as follows:
(a) Rule 1: Carry out operations within the brackets first, starting from left to
right;
(b) Rule 2: Then carry out operations involving multiplications or divisions,

starting from left to right; and
(c) Rule 3: Finally carry out additions or subtractions, also from left to right.
You may again give a few examples to illustrate these rules as shown in
Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Example of Application of Rules for Calculations Using Brackets
No. Operations Solution

= 16 × 4
1 (19 ă 3) × 4
= 64
=5×4×2
2 5 × (3 + 1) × 2 = 20 × 2
= 40
=8ă2
3 8 ă (6 ÷ 3)
=6
= 12 ÷ 2 × 3
4 (4 + 8) ÷ 2 × 3 =6×3
= 18
= 38 ÷ 2 ă 6 × 3
= 19 ă 6 × 3
5 38 ÷ 2 ă (5 + 1) × 3
= 19 ă 18
=1
= (14 + 10 ă 8) ÷ 8
= (24 ă 8) ÷ 8
6 (2 × 7 + 10 ă 8) ÷ 8
= 16 ÷ 8
=2

Note that if brackets are used for operations involving multiplication or division
together with addition or subtraction, then the brackets become insignificant (see
Table 1.4, example no. 3: 8 ă (6 ÷ 3) = 8 ă 6 ÷ 3).
The rules for carrying out combined operations can be summarised as:
B Bracket
M Multiplication
D Division
A Addition
S Subtraction
However, you must be careful not to lead the students to the misconception
that multiplications must always be carried out before divisions and additions
must always precede subtractions. When dealing with calculations involving
multiplications and divisions, the „left-to-right‰ rule applies. Likewise, we add or
subtract depending on which comes first.
1.1.7 Solving Problems Involving Number Operations

and Combined Operations
Problem solving together with making mathematical connection, representation,
reasoning and communication are important mathematical processes that help
students learn mathematics meaningfully and develop mathematical thinking.
Word problems are real-life representations of mathematical ideas. Thus, it is
important that students are guided to make the connections between the various
representations (e.g., concrete, pictorial, symbolic, real-life) of mathematical ideas
in order to learn mathematics meaningfully.
Thus, it is good to start your lessons on whole numbers and the various
mathematical operations by using simple examples which are related closely to
everyday situations. In solving these problems, students should be encouraged to
represent the situations using appropriate representations to understand the
mathematical operations involved before proceeding to solve them. Additionally,
students should be encouraged to communicate their understanding, reasoning
and solution strategies through class discussions and presentations. The 4-step
PolyaÊs model can be used to guide problem solving.

Example 1.4
Mrs Bala bought 200 apples from the supermarket. She gave 150 apples to the
children from the welfare home and 33 to her neighbour. She keeps the rest for
her son Jimmy. How many apples does Jimmy have?
Understand the problem: Mrs Bala bought 200 apples ă gave away 150 to
children from the welfare home and another 33
to a neighbour. Find how many apples are left for
Jimmy.
Pictorial representation:
200
150 33 ?
Devise a strategy: Use subtraction
Carry out the strategy: 200 ă 150 ă 33 = 17
Check your answer: 17 + 33 + 150 = 200
Therefore, Jimmy has 17 apples.
Remember that the students need to understand the problem completely before
attempting to solve it. So, the teacher must make sure that appropriate and
sufficient guidance is given. We suggest you follow the four steps in PolyaÊs
problem solving model. This is already illustrated in Example 1.4.
Example 1.5
Mr Tan sent his daughter to report to Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) last
Saturday. He left Kuala Lumpur and drove 205km to Ipoh. After that, he
travelled another 190km to the university. He returned to Kuala Lumpur the
following morning by the same road. What is the total distance he has travelled?
Understand the problem: KL to Ipoh= 205km;
Ipoh to USM = 190km; and
USM to KL = ?
Total distance?

KL 205km Ipoh 190km USM
205km 190km
Devise a strategy: Find total distance from KL to USM
To and from: Distance × 2
Carry out the strategy: 205 + 190 = 395

395 × 2 = 790
or
2 × (205 + 190) = 2 × 395 = 790
Check your answer: 205 + 190 + 190 + 205 = 790
Therefore, Mr Tan has travelled a total of 790km.
Example 1.6
Fatin wants to save her money to buy a birthday present for her mother. She
saved RM6 the first week and RM5 the following week. On the third week, she
could not save because she had to take out RM3 to help her friend. However,
FatinÊs father gave her RM20. How much money can she spend on the present?
Understand the problem: Saved RM6;
Saved RM5;
Took out RM3; and
Received RM20.
Find out how much money Fatin has.

1st week 2nd week 3rd week
RM5 RM6 RM20 At hand
RM3 Given away
Devise a strategy: Use addition and subtraction
Carry out the strategy: 6 + 5 ă 3 + 20 = 28
Check your answer: 6 + 5 + 20 ă 3 = 28
Therefore, Fatin can spend RM28 on the present.
Example 1.7
To help four fire victims, students from the class of 1 Arif organised a fund
raising campaign. Thirty students managed to collect RM28 each and the other
six students collected RM40 each. Their form teacher, Mrs Kong, also contributed
RM50. If the total donations are to be divided equally among the four victims,
find out the amount of money received by each victim.
Understand the problem: Thirty students collected RM28 each;
Six students collected RM40 each;
Teacher gave RM50; and
Total collection to be shared by the four victims.
Find out the amount received by each victim.
Thirty students Six students Mrs Kong
RM28 RM4 RM5
Shared equally by four people

Devise a strategy: Find the total money collected using multiplication

and addition.
Divide by 4.
Carry out the strategy: 30 × 28 + 6 × 40 + 50
= 840 + 240 + 50
= 1,130
1,130 ÷ 4 = 282.50
or
(30 × 28 + 6 × 40 + 50) ÷ 4
= (840 + 240 + 50) ÷ 4
= 1130 ÷ 4
= 282.50
Check your answer: 282.50 × 4 = 1,130
Therefore, each fire victim will receive RM282.50.
Example 1.8
Madam Nora went to the department store to buy Hari Raya clothes for her
children. She bought three T-shirts at RM27 each. Then she bought a pair of shoes
at RM49 and four scarves at RM19 each. She paid RM250 to the cashier. How
much money will the cashier return to her?
Understand the problem: Bought three T-shirts at RM27 each;
Bought a pair of shoes at RM49;
Bought four scarves at RM19 each; and
Paid RM250.
Find out the change.

3 T-shirts 1 pair shoes 4 scarves
3 × RM27 1 × RM49 4 × RM19
Difference
RM250 Paid
Devise a strategy: Use multiplication.
Then add to find total. Subtract.
Carry out the strategy: 3 × 27 + 49 + 4 × 19
= 81 + 49 + 76
= 206
250 ă 206 = 44
or
250 ă (3 × 27 + 49 + 4 × 19)
= 250 ă (81 + 49 + 76)
= 250 ă 206
= 44
Check your answer: 44 + 81 + 49 + 76 = 250
Therefore, the cashier will return RM44 to Madam Nora.
It is important to train your students to write the working in the proper format.
Also make sure the students answer the question in a proper sentence using the
correct unit. In Example 1.8, the proper working is:
250 ă (3 ×ï 27 + 49 + 4 ï× 19) = 250 ă (81 + 49 + 76)

= 250 ă 206
= 44

Students like to perform operations in a disorganised manner as follows:
2 7 1 9 2 5 0
× 3 × 4 − 2 0 6
8 1 7 6 4 4
+ 4 9
+ 7 6
2 0 6
Others may even write as:
3 × 27
= 81 + 49
= 130
= 4 × 19
= 76 + 130
= 206
= 250 ă 206
= 44
The students can perform the algorithm but they normally do not care about
writing the working so that it makes sense. You, as the teacher, must insist on the
correct usage of the „equal signs‰. Give enough examples and exercises to ensure
that they master the problem solving technique. This is very important as it
prepares the students for learning mathematics at the higher levels, especially
when dealing with problem solving questions.

1.2 NUMBER PATTERNS AND SEQUENCES

(a) Number patterns of a given sequence, extended sequence and completing

missing terms;
(b) Characteristics of even numbers, odd numbers and prime numbers; and
(c) Factors and multiples of whole numbers (exploring and investigating).
1.2.1 Number Patterns

The ability to recognise and construct number patterns helps students make
predictions and generalisations. For example, if we can recognise the patterns
for a sequence of numbers, then we will be able to predict the subsequent
numbers that will appear in the sequence. Often, this can lead to an
algebraic generalisation to determine any terms in the number sequence.
More importantly, such activities help students to see the connections and
relationships between numbers better.
Number patterns can be formed by using various methods. Some of these are:
(a) Using repeated addition or sometimes known as the method of common

difference.
For example, repeated addition of 3.

1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, ⁄
(b) Using repeated subtraction.
For example, repeated subtraction of 8.

50, 42, 34, 26, 18, 10, 2
(c) Using repeated multiplications by a number.
For example, multiply each number by 4.

3, 12, 48, 192, 768, 3,072, ⁄

(d) Using repeated divisions by a number.
For example, divide each number by 2.

256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2
(e) Using the formula of a general term.
For example, the formula 2n + 3 where n = 1, 2, 3, ⁄ generates the

following number patterns in the form of a sequence.
5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ⁄
In recognising number patterns, students should be given the opportunity to

manipulate concrete materials to show the geometrical representation of number
patterns and to make the necessary connection to its symbolic representation in
numbers.
Example 1.9
For the number pattern 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, ..., marbles can be used to show the
geometrical pattern as shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Marbles used to show geometrical pattern
Example 1.10
For the number pattern 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ⁄, cubic blocks can be used to show the
geometrical pattern as shown in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8: Cubic blocks used to show geometrical pattern

The same number pattern can be represented by a different geometrical

representation that shows square numbers as shown in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9: Geometrical representation to show number pattern
Teaching Sample Activity 1.5: Recognising and constructing number patterns.
Instruct the students to get the calendar for a particular month, say August.
Instruct the students to circle a particular day of the week for the whole month,
say Wednesday.
Ask the following question:
„Based on the dates circled, are you able to see a pattern for the numbers?‰
The students should be able to recognise that the difference between a date and
the subsequent date is always 7. So he or she can construct the sequence of
numbers by adding 7 to the first number 2, and then add another 7 to the
second number and so on. He can continue to generate an endless sequence in
this manner.
2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 44, 51, 58, ⁄.
Encourage creativity of the students by asking them to find any other number
pattern from the same calendar.

„Can you find another number pattern?„

„Try to take numbers diagonally down, from left to right.‰
„How about numbers diagonally down, from right to left?‰
Let the students explore and discover other number patterns: horizontally, from
left to right, then from right to left. They can also go vertically: from top to
bottom or from bottom to top.
They may try with calendars of other months. Let the students compare their
number patterns and state any similarities or differences between the calendars
of different months.
Encourage the students to communicate their patterns in class and exhibit their
answers on the board.

1.2.2 Extending Number Sequences

In Teaching Sample Activity 1.5, students obtained a number sequence by taking
the dates of Wednesdays in the month of August.
2, 9, 16, 23, 30, ⁄
Having recognised that the pattern is „add 7‰, the sequence can be extended into
an infinite sequence as follows:
2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 44, 51, 58, 65, 72, 79, 86, ⁄
Teaching Sample Activity 1.6: Extending number sequences.
Let the students form triangles using the given match sticks.
Count the number of match sticks used.
Next form two triangles. Count the total number of match sticks used for
two triangles.
Repeat the process as shown in Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: Triangles using match sticks
Instruct the students to complete Table 1.5.
Table 1.5: Match Sticks Used in Triangles
Number of Triangles Number of Match Sticks Used

1 3
2 5
3
4
5
6

Encourage students to describe their number sequence. Ask the following

questions:
„Can you get a number sequence?‰

„Can you describe the pattern?‰
Let the students explore by arranging the match sticks to form squares,
pentagons, hexagons and so on as shown in Figure 1.11. At this point, you need
not tell them the name of the shapes. Just let them play with the match sticks
and come up with different number sequences.
Figure 1.11: Match sticks arranged in various shapes
Here are some of the number sequences that they will obtain from the activity:
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, ⁄
4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, ⁄
5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, ⁄
6, 11, 16, 21, 26, 31, ⁄
Put forward questions such as:
„How can you extend your number sequences?‰

„How many match sticks do you need to build an additional triangle (square,
pentagon)?‰
Guide them to extend their number sequences by adding the corresponding

numbers to the last terms.

1.2.3 Completing Missing Terms in a Number

Sequence
We can complete a number sequence with missing terms by observing the
number pattern. Then follow the pattern and fill in the missing numbers.
For example,
6, 18, 30, ____, 54, ___, ___, ____, ⁄
6, 18, 30, ____, 54, ___, ___, ____, ⁄
+12 +12 +12 +12 +12 +12 +12
The pattern is „add 12‰ to each term.
So, we have
6 + 12 = 18
18 + 12 = 30;
30 + 12 = 42;
42 + 12 = 54;
54 + 12 = 66;
66 + 12 = 78; and
78 + 12 = 90 and so on.
Hence, the number sequence is
66 ____,
42 54, ____,
6, 18, 30, ____, 78 ____
90
Issue a worksheet and guide them to complete the missing terms in the number
sequences given.
Example 1.11
Fill in the missing numbers for the following sequences.
(a) 4, ____, 36, 108, ____, ____
(b) 72, ____, 64, ____, 56, ____

(c) ____, 22, ____, 32, 37, _____
(d) ____, 80, ____, ____, 53, ____, 35
1.2.4 Odd and Even Numbers

Even numbers are non-zero whole numbers which can be divided by 2. While,
odd numbers are non-zero whole numbers which cannot be divided by 2.
Teaching Sample Activity 1.7: Investigating the characteristics of odd and even
numbers.
You may introduce your lesson by asking your students to open their textbook
and giving them the following instructions.
„Look at the page number. Write it down in the first column.‰

„Look at the page number on the opposite page.‰
„Write it down in the second column.‰
„Now, turn your pages. Observe the page numbers again and jot them down.‰
„Repeat several times by turning the pages at random.‰
Example of a studentÊs record is shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Example of a StudentÊs Record of Page Number
Column I Column II
Page Number Page Number on the Opposite Page
95 94
113 112
151 150
207 206
33 32
259 258
Guide your students to investigate the properties and characteristics of the

numbers in each column by asking questions.

„Look at the page numbers in Column I. What do you notice?‰

„Can you find a number which all these numbers can be divided by?‰
„What about the numbers in Column II?‰
„Can these numbers be divided by another number?‰
„What is this number?‰
„Can anyone tell me what is the name given to numbers like these in
Column II?‰
„What about numbers in Column I?‰
You should encourage your students to come up with their own conjecture via
observations and discussions before they give the conclusion as a general
statement.
You can then tell them to list down the first 25 odd numbers and the first 25
even numbers. You can issue a number chart like the one in Figure 1.12 and tell
them to circle all the even numbers and underline all the odd numbers.
Figure 1.12: A number chart
Further investigation:
„Look at the last digit of all the even numbers. What do you notice?‰
„Can the last digit be divided by 2?‰
„Then look at the last digits of all the odd numbers. What is your conclusion?‰
„Can you find a number which is neither an odd nor even number?‰
„What about the number Â0Ê? Is it odd or even?‰
Encourage your students to find out the answers from the Internet. Give them
the appropriate website.
You can then lead them to investigate other properties of odd and even
numbers like sum, difference, product and quotient.

You may use a table to enhance investigations such as Table 1.7.
Table 1.7: A Table for Investigating Odd and Even Numbers
Operation Number I Number II Result Example

Addition Odd Odd
Odd Even
Even Odd
Even Even
Subtraction Odd Odd
Odd Even
Even Odd
Even Even
Multiplication Odd Odd
Odd Even
Even Odd
Even Even
Division Odd Odd
Odd Even
Even Odd
Even Even
Be cautious when dealing with subtraction and division. Remind your students
to subtract a smaller number from the first number. Otherwise they may be
stuck. Likewise, for division, ask them to use a number which can be divided
by the second number. They should be able to write the result for each row of
the table as „Odd‰ or „Even‰.
Remember your role as a teacher. For any investigation activities, you must
give your students opportunity to justify and reason out their conclusions.
Guide them to see any incorrect or incomplete reasoning or conclusions.

1.2.5 Prime Numbers

A prime number is a whole number that can only be divided by itself and the
number 1.
Teaching Sample Activity 1.8: Investigating the characteristics of prime

numbers.
You can make use of the list of odd and even numbers obtained from Teaching
Sample Activity 1.7 as shown in Figure 1.13 and Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.13: A list of odd numbers
Figure 1.14: A list of even numbers
„Look at the odd numbers in Figure 1.13. Can you find the numbers which can
be divided by any other numbers, for example, 3 or 5 and so on? Cross out
these numbers.‰

„Notice the numbers left as shown in Figure 1.15. All these numbers cannot be
divided by any other numbers except 1 and itself. Are there any exceptions?‰
Figure 1.15: A list of odd and even numbers
„Now look at the even numbers in Figure 1.14, can you find which numbers
can be divided by any other numbers? Cross them out.‰
„Notice that there is only 1 number left, which is 2 as shown in Figure 1.16,
because other even numbers can be divided by other numbers apart from 1
and itself.‰
Figure 1.16: Example of identifying a prime number
You can then introduce the concept of prime number and its definition. Since 1
can only be divided by 1, it is not a prime number by definition. So cross out 1.

Another definition is that a prime number (or a prime) is a natural number that
has exactly two (distinct) natural number divisors. Therefore, 1 is not a prime
number. Using the same definition, we can conclude that 2 is a prime number.
„Can you list down all the prime numbers from 1 to 50?‰
„Are all prime numbers odd?‰
„Are all odd numbers prime?‰
Another way of saying it is that a prime number is a positive integer that is not
the product of two smaller positive integers.
„How can you decide if a given number is a prime?‰

„What is the largest known prime?‰
„Is zero a prime number?‰
Encourage your students to try with various numbers like 187, 467, 443, 599 and
so on. You can give them an assignment which requires them to explore the
Internet and report their findings in class.
Here are the first few prime numbers:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97,
101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191,
193, 197, 199, etc.
Mathematical representations are essential to understanding mathematic

concepts, which are often very abstract. Facilitating students in creating
representations can help them in learning mathematics, because when they
represent an abstract mathematical idea in concrete or pictorial forms, they are
able to visualise the concept more effectively. Geometrical representation can be
used to study the characteristics of prime numbers and determine if a given
number is a prime number.

Teaching Sample Activity 1.9: Determine whether a given number is a prime

number.
(a) Provide students with square tiles or cut-out unit squares from cardboard.
(b) Instruct them to form rectangles using a given number of unit squares.
Start with two unit squares and show how only one rectangle can be
formed. Proceed to three unit squares and show how many different
rectangles can be formed. Then, four unit squares. Remind students that
a square is also a rectangle.
(c) Record the information in Table 1.8.
Table 1.8: Recordings of Prime Numbers
Number of Unit Sketch of Rectangles Dimensions of Is It a Prime

Squares Formed Rectangles Number?
2 1×2 Yes
3 1×3 Yes
1×4
4 No
2×2
Students are guided to make the connection between the geometrical

representations of prime numbers. A prime number can only be
represented with a rectangle with dimensions of 1 and itself (two distinct
natural numbers). For example, 4 is not a prime number because it can
also make a rectangle with dimensions 2 × 2 apart from 1 × 4. Emphasise
that 1 is not a prime number even though it has a 1 × 1 rectangle because
the dimensions are not distinct.
Students should be guided to see that prime numbers cannot form

rectangles with dimensions other than 1 and itself. If rectangles of other
dimensions are used, there would always be odd one(s) out, which
becomes a „remainder‰.

For example, in Figure 1.17, the number 7 represented in dimensions other

than 1 and 7 results in a remainder.
Figure 1.17: Representation of number 7 in dimensions
Seventeen represented in dimensions other than 1 and 17 results in

remainders too, as shown in Figure 1.18.
Figure 1.18: Representation of number 17 in dimensions
(d) Give students prime numbers and non-prime numbers (less than 100)
to determine by using the unit squares whether they are primes or
otherwise (Note: Non-prime numbers are also called composite numbers
except 1 which is neither prime nor composite).
(e) Students should make connections between the number of unit squares,
dimensions of rectangles formed and the multiplicative and divisive
structures of prime and composite numbers. Table 1.9 shows some
examples of the relationships.
Table 1.9: Relationship between Number of Unit Squares and Dimensions of Rectangles
Number of Unit Dimensions of Relationship between (A)

Squares (A) Rectangles (B) and (B)
7 1×7 7 ÷ 1 = 7, 7 ÷ 7 = 1
13 1 × 13 13 ÷ 1 = 13, 13 ÷ 13 = 1
20 ÷ 1 = 20, 20 ÷ 20 = 1,
20 1 × 20, 2 × 10, 4 × 5 20 ÷ 2 = 10, 20 ÷ 10 = 2,
20 ÷ 4 = 5, 20 ÷ 5 = 4
(f) For larger numbers, students should use this relationship to conclude that
prime numbers are divisible by 1 and itself (two distinct natural number
divisors) and use it to determine whether a given number is prime or
otherwise.

Teaching Sample Activity 1.10: Determine all prime numbers from 1 to 100.
The Sieve of Eratosthenes

Eratosthenes (from 275 to 194 B.C., Greece) devised a „sieve‰ to discover prime
numbers. A sieve is like a strainer that you drain spaghetti through when
it is done cooking. The water drains out, leaving your spaghetti behind.
EratosthenesÊ sieve „drains‰ out composite numbers and leaves prime numbers
behind.
To use the sieve of Eratosthenes to find prime numbers between 1 and 100,
make a chart of the first one hundred positive integers (from 1 to 100) as shown
in Figure 1.19.
Figure 1.19: Chart of the first one hundred positive integers (from 1 to 100)
(a) Cross out 1, because it is not a prime.
(b) Circle 2, because it is the smallest positive even prime. Now cross out
every multiple of 2; in other words, cross out every second number.
(c) Circle 3, the next prime. Then cross out all of the multiples of 3; in other
words, every third number. Some, like 6, may have already been crossed
out because they are multiples of 2.
(d) Circle the next open number, 5. Now cross out all of the multiples of 5 or
every 5th number.
Continue doing this until all the numbers through 100 have either been circled
or crossed out. You have just circled all the prime numbers from 1 to 100!

1.2.6 Factors and Prime Factors

A factor of a given number is a number that divides the given number exactly
without any remainder.
For example:
5=1×5
So the factors of 5 are 1 and 5.
8=1×8
8=2×4
So the factors of 8 are 1, 2, 4 and 8.
12 = 1 × 12
12 = 2 × 6
12 = 3 × 4
So the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
You can relate this with what your students have learned in prime numbers in
Teaching Sample Activity 1.9.
„Name a prime number that you know.‰

„Can you write it as a product of two numbers?‰
„So, how many factors does a prime number have?‰
Your conclusion should be: A prime number has exactly two factors, that is, 1 and
itself.
Instruct your students to find all the factors of several numbers. For example: 15,
24, 48, 81 and so on.
Ask your students the following questions:
„How can you find out whether a number is a factor of a given number?‰
„Is 6 a factor of 135?‰
„Is 9 a factor of 117?‰
„Provide reasons to support your answers.‰

Teaching Sample Activity 1.11: Investigating the properties of factors of whole

numbers.
You can use the following method to determine the factors of numbers. Make a
table of numbers and factors as shown in Table 1.10.
Table 1.10: Factors of Numbers
Factors
Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 
2  
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
„Put a tick in the cell if it is a factor of the number. The first two are done
for you. What do you notice?‰
„Circle those factors which are prime numbers‰
The students should be able to tell that:
(a) One is a factor for all the numbers.
(b) The number is a factor of itself.
(c) Prime numbers have exactly two factors.
(d) Some factors are prime numbers or also known as prime factors.

Teaching Sample Activity 1.12: Finding prime factors using factor trees.
(a) You can use a factor tree to find all the prime factors of a composite
number. Finding prime factors is also called prime factorisation.
(b) Illustrate a factor tree by drawing the branches of factors and then ask for
two factors that give a product of that composite number. Continue the
process until all factors are prime factors.
(c) For example, begin with 12 as the composite number. Students may give
3 and 4 as the factors which are drawn at the branches. Circle any factor
that is a prime number, which in this case is 3. For the remaining factor 4,
ask for two more factors, that is, 2 and 2 (although 1 and 4 are also
factors, students should know that 1 is not a prime. Hence, these factors
are not appropriate).
(d) Therefore, the prime factors of 12 are 2, 2 and 3, and we can conclude that
the prime factorisation of 12 is 2 × 2 × 3. The distinct prime factors of 12
are 2 and 3. The factor tree for 12 is as shown in Figure 1.20.
Figure 1.20: Factor tree for 12
(d) Continue with a bigger number, for example, 120. Guide your students to
investigate different factor trees for the same number.
„How many different factor trees can you draw?‰

„Does it matter which factor tree you draw to find the prime factors?‰
(e) Students can also make the connection between the division algorithms
of finding prime factors with the factor trees. For example, 12 divided by
3 gives 4, 4 divided by 2 gives 2 as shown in Figure 1.21.
Figure 1.21: Division factor tree for 12

1.2.7 Multiples
The multiples of a number are the product of that number with any other
whole numbers. In learning multiples, students should make the connection to
multiplication and factors.
Sample Activity 1.13: Listing the multiples of numbers and investigating their
properties.
Guide your students to use the spreadsheet to produce the multiples of

numbers 1 to 10.
m m×1 m×2 m×3 m×4 m×5 m×6 m×7 m×8 m×9 m × 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Next, guide your students to investigate the properties of multiples.
„What is the smallest multiple of any number?‰

„Is there a largest multiple for any number?‰
„Do the multiples of a number form a sequence? What is the pattern?‰
„How do you know whether a number is a multiple of another number?‰
„Is 32 a multiple of 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10?‰
Guide them to answer the last question by locating 32 in the table of multiples
which they have built.
„What about a number which is not found in the table?‰

„How can you tell whether 225 is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 10?‰

Probably your students will start to perform division of the number 225 by the
given numbers of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 10 one by one. Just be patient and let them
try. Encourage them to give alternative suggestions. For example,
„Sir, we need not divide by 2, 4, 6 or 10. Since 225 is an odd number, it is

not possible to divide it by an even number.‰
„Sir, I want to divide by 5 only, since the number ends with 5.‰
These are very creative suggestions which should be praised. Then, as

enrichment, you can ask them to look for the divisibility test from the Internet
and share this with their fellow friends (as shown in Table 1.11).
Table 1.11: Divisibility Test
Divisibility Test Example

A number is divisible by 2 if the last 168 is divisible by 2 since the last digit is
digit is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8. 8.
A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of 168 is divisible by 3 since the sum of the
the digits is divisible by 3. digits is 15 (1 + 6 + 8 = 15), and 15 is
divisible by 3.
A number is divisible by 4 if the number 316 is divisible by 4 since 16 is divisible
formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4.
by 4.
A number is divisible by 5 if the last 195 is divisible by 5 since the last digit is
digit is either 0 or 5. 5.
A number is divisible by 6 if it is 168 is divisible by 6 since it is divisible
divisible by 2 and it is divisible by 3. by 2 and it is divisible by 3.
A number is divisible by 8 if the number 7,120 is divisible by 8 since 120 is
formed by the last three digits is divisible by 8.
divisible by 8.
A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of 549 is divisible by 9 since the sum of the
the digits is divisible by 9. digits is 18 (5 + 4 + 9 = 18) and 18 is
divisible by 9.
A number is divisible by 10 if the last 1,470 is divisible by 10 since the last digit
digit is 0. is 0.
Source: www.mathgoodies.com

1.3 COMMON MULTIPLES AND COMMON

FACTORS
(a) Finding common multiples and the lowest common multiple (LCM);
(b) Finding common factors and the highest common factor (HCF); and
(c) Solving problems involving whole numbers, number patterns and

sequences.
1.3.1 Common Multiples and Lowest Common

Multiple (LCM)
A number which is a multiple of two or more numbers is called a common
multiple of these numbers. For example, 10 is a common multiple of 2, 5 and 10.
The lowest common multiple (LCM) is the smallest number that is a common
multiple of two or more numbers.
Let us study the following example:
The multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, 45, ...
The multiples of 5 are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, ...
We can see that the common multiples of 3 and 5 are 15, 30, 45,... and the smallest
of these common multiples is 15.
Thus, 15 is the lowest common multiple of 3 and 5.
We can write the LCM of 3 and 5 = 15.
Common multiples of two or more numbers are normally determined by listing

all the multiples of each number until the desired number.
You can use the multiple tables from 1 to 10 created in Teaching Sample
Activity 1.13 by the students to find the common multiples and Lowest Common
Multiple of any two or more numbers less than 10.

Teaching Sample Activity 1.14: To find the common multiples and the lowest
common multiple (LCM).
Method 1: Listing Method
„Look at the multiple tables which you have created. Find the common
multiples of 4 and 6.‰
„What is the LCM?‰
„What about the LCM of 4, 6 and 8?‰
m m×1 m×2 m×3 m×4 m×5 m×6 m×7 m×8 m×9 m × 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The students should be able to write:
Multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, ⁄
Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, ⁄
Common multiples of 4 and 6 are 12, 24, 36, ⁄
Therefore, LCM of 4 and 6 is 12.
Multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, ⁄
Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, ⁄
Multiples of 8 are 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, ⁄
Common multiples of 4, 6 and 8 are 24, 48, ⁄

Therefore, LCM of 4, 6 and 8 is 24.

Besides the listing method (Method 1), there are other methods of finding the
LCM, such as follows:
Method 2: Using Prime Factorisation
Find the LCM of 4, 6 and 8.
Write each number as a product of prime numbers using factor trees:
4 = 2 × 2; 6 = 2 × 3; 8 = 2 × 2 × 2
Take the product of the prime factors. If there is a common prime factor, the
one that occurs the most number of times is chosen.
LCM of 4, 6 and 8 is 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 24
Alternatively, after prime factorisation you can draw a Venn diagram to find
the LCM. For example, draw the prime factors for 4, 6 and 8 as shown below.
The LCM is found by multiplying all the prime factors in the Venn diagram,
that is, 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24.
4
2
3 2, 2
6 8
Method 3: Use the Division Algorithm

Find the LCM of 4, 6 and 8.
2 4, 6, 8
2 2, 3, 4
2 1, 3, 2
3 1, 3, 1
1, 1, 1
Note that if the number cannot be divided, it is carried on to the next line. The
division continues until you obtain all 1Ês on the last row. The product of all
the numbers in the left column is the Lowest Common Multiple.
LCM of 4, 6 and 8 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24.

1.3.2 Common Factors and Highest Common Factor

(HCF)
A number which is a factor of two or more numbers is known as common factor.
The largest of all these common factors is called highest common factor (HCF).
We can find all common factors and the HCF by listing down all factors.
For example:
(a) Find all the common factors of 12 and 18. Then, find the HCF.
The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.

Thus, the common factors of 12 and 18 are 1, 2, 3 and 6.
The highest common factor (HCF) is 6.
(b) Find all the common factors of 15, 18 and 24. Then, find the HCF.
The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15.

The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24.
Thus, the common factors of 12, 18 and 24 are 1 and 3.
The highest common factor (HCF) is 3.
To find the HCF of two or more numbers, we can use the division algorithm.
Find the HCF of
(a) 12 and 42 (b) 16, 32 and 48
2 12, 42 2 16, 32, 48

3 6, 21 2 8, 16, 24
2, 7 2 4, 8, 12
2 2, 4, 6
1, 2, 3
Unlike the division algorithm for finding LCM, we divide the numbers by
common factors only. We stop dividing when there is no more common factor
left except 1. The product of all the numbers in the left column is the HCF.
The HCF of 12 and 42 is 2 × 3 = 6; and

The HCF of 16, 32 and 48 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16.

Teaching Sample Activity 1.15: To find the common factors and the highest
common factor (HCF).
„Look at the table which you have created in Table 1.10. The numbers
you have ticked are the factors of the corresponding numbers on the left
column.‰
Using your table:
(a) Find the common factors of 4 and 6. Next find the HCF.
(b) Can you find the HCF of 4, 6 and 8 by the same manner?
Factors
Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 
2  
3  
4   
5  
6    
7  
8    
9   
10    
11  
12      
13  
14    
15    
16     
The students should be able to arrive at the correct answers:
The HCF of 4 and 6 is 2 and the HCF of 4, 6 and 8 is also 2.

Teaching Sample Activity 1.16: To find the highest common factor (HCF) using
prime factorisation and Venn diagram.
(a) Find the HCF of 18 and 48.
(b) Use the factor trees or division algorithm to find the prime factors for 18
and 48.
Prime factors for 18: 2 × 3 × 3

Prime factors for 48: 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
(c) Draw the Venn diagram for the following prime factors:
2 2 2 48
18 3
3 2
The HCF is the product of the prime factors in the intersection region.
Therefore, HCF of 18 and 48 = 2 × 3 = 6
(d) Find the HCF of 84, 105 and 252.
(e) Using factor trees or division algorithm, the prime factorisations for 84,
105 and 252 are:
Prime factors for 84: 2 × 2 × 3 × 7

Prime factors for 105: 3 × 5 × 7
Prime factors for 252: 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 7
(f) Draw the Venn diagram for the prime factors:
84
2
3 2
7
5 2
3 252
105
The HCF of 84, 105 and 252 = 3 × 7 = 21

1.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Whole Numbers

It is important to apply the skills that we learn in mathematics in handling
everyday situations which require calculations. Mathematics then becomes more
meaningful and mathematical concepts become more concrete. This is especially
significant in solving word problems.
Studies have indicated that the inability to understand what is asked for in a
word problem and the difficulty in translating a word problem into the
mathematical form needed to solve the problem, are the two most prevalent
difficulties faced by students in solving word problems. Hence, it is paramount
that students should be guided to understand and create representations to link
the text of the word problem to appropriate mathematical expressions and
strategies.
Look at the following problem.
Problem 1: An ice-cream truck visits JeannetteÊs

neighbourhood every four days during the months
of June and July. Unfortunately, she missed it today
(2 June). When can Jeannette expect the ice-cream
truck to visit her neighbourhood again?
Understand the problem: The truck comes every four days.

After 2 June, when will it come again?
Date: 2 June 6 June 10 June ⁄.
Days:
4 4 4 ⁄..
Devise a strategy: Find the multiples of 4. Add these multiples to 2.
(Alternative strategy: 2 + 4 = 6, 6 + 4 = 10, so look

for a pattern in the sequence: 6, 10, 14, 18, ⁄)
Carry out the strategy: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, ⁄..
2 + 4 = 6, 2 + 8 = 10, 2 + 12 = 14, 2 + 16 = 18, ⁄
Check your answer: If the truck comes on 2 June, it will come again on 6
June, 10 June, 14 June and so on.

Solution: Jeannette should expect the ice-cream truck to

visit her neighbourhood on 6 June, 10 June, 14 June,
18 June, ... and so on.
In the previous example (refer to Problem 1), we have changed a rather difficult
problem to a simple one by applying multiples.
Look at another problem.
Problem 2: During the months of June and July, one ice-cream

truck visits JeannetteÊs neighbourhood every
four days and another ice-cream truck visits her
neighbourhood every five days. If both trucks
visited today (2 June), when is the next time both
trucks will visit on the same day?
Understand the problem: Truck 1 comes every four days.

Truck 2 comes every five days.
They came together on 2 June.
After that, when will they come together again?
Date: 2 June 6 June 10 June ⁄.
Truck 1: 4 4 4 ⁄..?
Date: 2 June 7 June 12 June
Truck 2: 5 5 5 ⁄..?
Devise a strategy: Find the multiples of 4.

Find the multiples of 5.
Find the common multiples of 4 and 5.
Add these multiples to 2.
Carry out the strategy: Truck 1: Days 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, ⁄.
Truck 2: Days 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, ⁄
Together: 20, 40, ⁄
2 + 20 = 22, 2 + 40 = 42, ⁄

Check your answer: If both the trucks come on 2 June, they will both
come again after 20 days, then after 40 days and so
on.
Solution: The next time both ice-cream trucks will visit

JeannetteÊs neighbourhood on the same day will be
on 22 June, 12 July, ... and so on.
Note that the solution to the problem has become about finding the lowest
common multiple (LCM) of numbers 4 and 5.
Let us look at some other similar problems.
Problem 3: Yusoff has a medical check-up every 12 months and

a dental check-up every eight months. On 15 April
2008, he visited the dentist and on the same day, he
also went for a medical check-up. When will his
appointments coincide again?
Strategy: Since the problem deals with multiples and LCM,

we can use the same method.
Medical check-up: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, ....

Dental check-up: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, ...
LCM: 24, 48, ...
Solution: His appointments will coincide again on 15 April

2010.
Problem 4: Mei Ling has three rolls of ribbons measuring 36m,

48m and 54m respectively. She wants to cut the
ribbons into equal lengths so that there is no
leftover of each roll. Find the longest possible
length of each of the cut ribbon piece.

Understand the problem: All three rolls must be cut into equal stripes so that
there is no leftover.
What is the longest possible length?
36m
largest?
48m
54m
Devise a strategy: Find the highest common factor of 36, 48 and 54.
Carry out the strategy:

2 36, 48, 54
3 18, 24, 27 HCF = 2 × 3 = 6
6, 8, 9
Check your answer: 36 ÷ 6 = 6, 48 ÷ 6 = 8, 54 ÷ 6 = 9
Solution: The longest possible length of each of the cut ribbon

piece is 6m.
Problem 5: Rita made 72 curry puffs, 48 muffins and 60 egg

tarts for the kindergarten kids on ChildrenÊs Day.
She wants to serve all three types of food on each
plate. The food must be divided equally and there
must not be any leftovers. What is the largest
number of plates she can use? How many of each
type of food should she put on each plate?

Understand the problem: Equal number of each type of food must be placed
on each plate with no leftovers.
What is the largest number of plates used?
Devise a strategy: Find the highest common factor of 72, 48 and 60.

2 72, 48, 60
2 36, 24, 30
3 18, 12, 15
6, 4, 5
HCF = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
Check your answer: 72 ÷ 12 = 6, 48 ÷ 12 = 4, 60 ÷ 12 = 5
Solution: Rita can use a maximum of 12 plates.

On each plate, there will be six curry puffs, four
muffins and five egg tarts.
It is strongly recommended that you prepare a variety of problem solving

questions based on daily situations. Problem solving should be integrated at
every opportunity and not just at the end of the topic. Try to integrate values into
the questions as well. Furthermore, design questions that encourage thinking
skills. Apart from routine word problems, non-routine problems that challenge
thinking and reasoning should be encouraged. You can make your students work
in groups to solve these problems and communicate their solution strategies in
class presentations.
• The symbols or numerals and the system used to represent numbers are
based on the Hindu-Arabic numeration system.
• The Hindu-Arabic numeration system has five important characteristics:

base-ten; positional or place value; multiplicative principle; additive
principle; and zero as a place holder.
• Conceptual understanding as well as procedural mastery of basic operations

involving whole numbers is important mathematical knowledge.

• Number patterns are important to illustrate the connections and relationships

between numbers.
• A prime number is a whole number that can only be divided by itself and the
number 1.
• A factor is a number that divides another number with no remainder.
• The multiples of a number are the product of that number with any other
whole numbers.
• A number which is a multiple of two or more numbers is called common

multiple of these numbers.
• A number which is a factor of two or more numbers is known as common

factor.
Factors Prime factors

Highest common factor (HCF) Prime numbers
Lowest common factor (LCM) Rounding
Number operations Sequences
Number patterns Whole numbers

Topic  Fractions
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain fractions as parts of a whole by representing them with
diagrams;
2. Find the equivalent fractions of a given fraction;
3. Compare fractions and arrange fractions in order, according to
values;
4. Simplify fractions;
5. Discuss mixed numbers, proper and improper fractions;
6. Perform basic operations (+, ă, × and ÷) involving mixed numbers,
proper and improper fractions; and
7. Solve problems involving proper and improper fractions.
 INTRODUCTION
What do you understand by fractions? Are you able to explain the concept of
fractions clearly to your students?
As mathematic teachers, we need to address the above questions seriously. The

study of fractions is an essential part of mathematics. However, many teachers
view the teaching of fractions as a challenging task. It is difficult to explain to
1 3 3
students that is equal to . It is also not easy to convince students that is
4 12 14
5
greater than since 3 over 14 seems smaller than 5 over 28 respectively.
28

TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS  63
In this topic, we will share with you some of the strategies employed to teach the
concepts and skills related to the learning of fractions.
2.1 CONCEPTS OF FRACTIONS

(a) The concept of fractions as parts of a whole (using representations);
(b) The concepts of equivalent fractions, comparing and simplifying fractions;

and
(c) The concept of mixed numbers.
2.1.1 Fractions as Parts of a Whole

A fraction is a number that represents parts of a whole.
StudentsÊ initial learning experience with parts-whole relationships of fractions

usually involves investigating parts of shapes or regions in relation to the whole
shape. However, students need to understand that „parts‰ and „whole‰ of
fractional thinking can also include sets or collections of discrete objects.
The explanation of the meaning of fractions as parts of a whole involves the

following steps:
(a) Identify the whole of an object. This can be demonstrated by using various
shapes such as squares, rectangles and circles. Alternatively, the whole can
also be represented by a set of objects;
(b) Divide the object into equal parts;
(c) Use appropriate colour to shade one or more of the parts;
(d) Determine the fraction by comparing the proportion of the shaded

part/parts to the whole;
(e) For example, in Figure 2.1, the circle is defined as a whole object. The circle
is divided into four equal parts. In Figure 2.2, the set or collection of four
circles is defined as the whole. And, the four circles are equal parts of the
set;

64  TOPIC 2 FRACTIONS
Figure 2.1: The circle is divided into four different parts
Figure 2.2: A collection of four circles
(f) One out of the four equal parts of a circle is shaded in Figure 2.1 while one
circle out of four circles is shaded in Figure 2.2. Thus, the shaded part in
1
both representations can be described as of a whole; and
4
1
(g) The fraction is read as „one quarter‰ or „one-fourth‰. It is also common
4
to read the fraction as „one over four‰.

The examples shown in Table 2.1 should help you understand fractions better.
Table 2.1: Fractions

2.1.2 Writing Fractions

a
A fraction is written in the form of , where a and b are whole numbers
b
separated by a horizontal line called vinculum but which is commonly
called „fraction bar‰. The number above the fraction bar, that is a, is
called numerator. The number below the fraction bar, that is b, is called
denominator. The numerator represents a number of equal parts and the
denominator indicates how many of those parts make up a whole.
a
If b is greater than a, then the fraction is called proper fraction. On the other
b
a
hand, if a is greater than b, then the fraction is called improper fraction.
b
SELF-CHECK 2.1
What do you think is the result when a and b are the same?

Teaching Sample Activity 2.1: Representing fractions.
Objectives: Students are able to divide a piece of paper into equal parts.
Students are able to represent a given fraction.
Students are able to read fractions represented in diagrams.
1. Instruct the students to work in groups.
2. Each group is given several pieces of paper with various shapes as shown
in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Various shapes

3. Instruct the students to cut the paper to obtain the various shapes.
4. Tell the students to fold the paper into two equal parts. Encourage them
to use all the 10 shapes with different ways of folding.
5. Repeat the process by folding the shapes into 3, 4, 5 or 6 equal parts. It

may not be possible for some shapes.
6. Complete Table 2.2 by drawing their outcomes in the corresponding

spaces.
Table 2.2: Shading Activity
Divide the following shapes into equal parts and shade the parts to represent the
fractions given.
1
2
1
3
1
4

1
5
1
6
7. Guide the students to read the shaded parts.
Upon completion of the activity, students should be able to state the correct
fractions represented by the shaded parts in any figure which is divided into
equal parts.
For example:
Note:
Students should be given opportunity to draw, identify and justify
representations that are exemplars and non-exemplars of a particular fraction.
1
For example, Figure 2.4 shows two non-exemplars for .
3
Figure 2.4: Example of non-exemplars

2.1.3 Equivalent Fractions

Equivalent fractions are fractions that have the same value. The following
activity may help students understand the concept of equivalent fractions.
Teaching Sample Activity 2.2: Understanding the concept of equivalent

fractions.
1. Get the students to fold a piece of rectangular paper into two equal parts
and then colour one part as shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Coloured rectangular paper with two equal parts
2. Tell the students to write down the fraction represented by the coloured
1
part. The answer given by the students should be .
2
3. Then ask the students to fold the paper along the dotted line in the centre
as shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Coloured rectangular paper with four equal parts
4. The paper now has four equal parts with two coloured parts.
5. Tell the students to write down the fraction represented by the coloured
2
parts. Now the correct answer should be .
4

1 2
6. Emphasise to the students that in this activity, both fractions, and
2 4
1 2
refer to the same coloured parts, hence and have the same value and
2 4
1 2
they are known as equivalent fractions. We can write = .
2 4
1 2
7. Guide them to arrive at the conclusion that = by using a similar
3 6
technique.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8. Ask students to explain why = = = = = = = = .... = 1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To find the equivalent fractions of a fraction, just multiply or divide both the
numerator and the denominator by the same number.
1 1× 3 3 1 1× 7 7
Example: = = = =
4 4 × 3 12 4 4 × 7 28
2 2 × 5 10 16 16 ÷ 8 2
= = = =
3 3 × 5 15 24 24 ÷ 8 3
3 3×2 6 18 18 ÷ 6 3
= = = =
4 4×2 8 24 24 ÷ 6 4
1 3 7
Therefore, , and are equivalent fractions.
4 12 28
2 10 16
Similarly , and are equivalent fractions.
3 15 24
3 6 18
Likewise, , and are equivalent fractions.
4 8 24

The procedure of multiplying or dividing the numerator and denominator to

get equivalent fractions should not be taught mechanically without an
understanding of the concept behind the procedure. Therefore, it is important
that students are able to make the connection between the pictorial
representation as seen in Teaching Sample Activity 2.2 and the symbolic
representation of its calculation.
1 1× 2 2
For example, for the equivalent fraction of = = , students should be
2 2×2 4
guided to explain the meaning behind the calculation, as shown in Table 2.3.
Being able to make the connection between the pictorial and symbolic
representations of the calculation and explain the mathematical process involved,
will mean that they are communicating mathematical ideas meaningfully and not
merely learning by rote.
Table 2.3: Explanation of the Calculation
Symbolic
Pictorial Representation Representatio Explanation
n
1 One coloured part out of two equal

2 parts is shaded.
The two parts of the whole are

partitioned into two equal parts,
giving 2 × 2 smaller parts making the
whole. This means the coloured part
1 1× 2 2 is partitioned into two smaller equal
= =
2 2× 2 4 parts, giving 1 × 2 smaller coloured
parts. The region of the two smaller
parts and the original one coloured
part are still the same. Hence, the
values are the same.

Once the students understand the meaning of equivalent fractions, it will be

useful to guide them to build a table of equivalent fractions like the one shown in
Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Table of Equivalent Fractions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 6 9 12 15 18 21
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 8 12 16 20 24 28
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
3 6 9 12 15 18 21
There is a simple method to determine if any two given fractions are equivalent
fractions. What you have to do is just to multiply the numerator of one fraction
by the denominator of the other fraction and vice-versa (cross-multiply), then
compare the two products to see whether they are of the same value.
a c
For example, to check whether and are equivalent fractions, multiply a by
b d
a c
d, and then multiply b by c. If both values are the same, then and are
b d
equivalent fractions.
The above explanation can be illustrated in the mathematical form as follows:
a c
If =
b d
then, a × d = c × b.

3 6
For example, for the given fractions and ,
4 8
the cross-multiplications are: 3 × 8 = 24 and 4 × 6 = 24.
3 6
Since both products are the same, and are equivalent fractions.
4 8
Another example:
2 13
For the fractions and ,
5 30
the cross-multiplications are: 2 × 30 = 60 and 5 × 13 = 65.
2 13
Since both products are different, and are not equivalent fractions.
5 30
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. Can you think of other activities that can help to explain what
equivalent fractions are?
2. How do you determine if two given fractions are equivalent

fractions?
3. Can you draw pictorial representations of the equivalent fractions

in Table 2.4?

2.1.4 Comparing the Values of Two Fractions

Let us now compare the values of two fractions.
(a) If two fractions to be compared have the same denominator, then the
fraction with the bigger numerator is greater in value than the other
fraction;
(b) If two fractions to be compared have the same numerator, then the fraction
with the smaller denominator is greater than the other fraction;
(c) If two fractions to be compared have different numerators and

denominators, then we have to change the fractions into equivalent
fractions with a common denominator before the comparison can be made;
5 3 5
(d) For example, is greater than since 5 is greater than 3 and is greater
7 7 8
5
than since 8 is smaller than 9; and
9
(e) It is good to illustrate the differences in value using pictorial

5
representations. For example, the shaded parts in Figure 2.7 for is greater
8
5
than the shaded parts for .
9
Figure 2.7: Shaded figure

Teaching Sample Activity 2.3: Compare the values of two fractions with
different numerators and denominators.
1. Write down the fractions as shown in Figure 2.8 on two flash cards. Then
ask the class to guess which of the two fractions is greater in value.
Figure 2.8: Flash cards
2. Guide your students to draw two identical rectangles on two separate

transparencies and shade the regions as shown in Figure 2.9 and
Figure 2.10.
3
Figure 2.9: Rectangular transparency for
5
2
Figure 2.10: Rectangular transparency for
3
3. Ask the students again, „Are you able to judge which of the two shaded
regions is larger in size?‰

4. Guide the students to place one transparency on top of the other as

shown in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Two rectangular transparencies overlap
5. Guide students to discover through observation of equivalent fractions

that
3 9 2 10
= and =
5 15 3 15
2 3
6. By now, students should be able to tell that is greater than .
3 5
7. Once the students understand the concept, you need to guide them
to make the connection between the pictorial representations, the
mathematical procedures and the reasoning involved in getting the
answer.
3 3 3 9
= × =
5 5 3 15
and
2 2 5 10
= × =
3 3 5 15
10 9 2 3
Since is greater than , therefore is greater than .
15 15 3 5

Number lines can also be used to compare values of two fractions. Figure 2.12
2 3
illustrates how is greater than .
3 5
Figure 2.12: Number lines to show which value is greater
SELF-CHECK 2.3
3 2
Describe two ways to compare the fractions and . Which fraction
7 5
has a greater value?
2.1.5 Arranging Fractions in Order

Fractions with different numerators and denominators can be arranged in an
increasing or decreasing order. First, change them to equivalent fractions with a
common denominator. This common denominator is actually the lowest common
multiple (LCM). After that, you just need to compare the values by looking at the
numerators.

Teaching Sample Activity 2.4: Arranging fractions in ascending or descending

order.
1. Divide your class into groups of six.
2. Each group is given a set of six cards written with different fractions.
3. Each student in the group is given a card.
2 4 3 7
5 5
3 5 4 8
7 6
4. Appoint a group leader for each group.
5. Lead the students in discussing how they can determine which student is
holding the card with the biggest or the smallest fraction.
6. You can suggest they start off by everyone choosing a partner in the
group. Then the two of them would compare the fractions on their cards.
7. Next they can exchange partners and repeat the process.
8. You will find that after a while, the students will be able to apply the
skills that they have learned earlier to compare fractions by using LCM.
9. Finally, with the help of the group leader, the students in each group
should arrange themselves in a row, based on the values of the fractions
written on their cards in an increasing or decreasing order.
10. The group that completes the task in the shortest time will be the winner
and shall be awarded a prize.

2.1.6 Simplifying Fractions

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
We now know that , , , , , are equivalent fractions because all
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1 1
these fractions have the same value, that is, . In this case, we can say that is
2 2
the fraction in the lowest term. Note that any equivalent fraction can be
simplified to its lowest term by dividing both the numerator and denominator by
their highest common factor (HCF).
For example,
3 3÷3 1
= = and
6 6÷3 2
HCF of 3 and 6 is 3.
7 7 ÷7 1
= =
14 14 ÷ 7 2
8 8÷4 2
= =
28 28 ÷ 4 7
In simplifying fractions, it is common practice not to show the division explicitly.

Instead, the division is performed as cancellation as follows:
8 2 2
=
28 7
7
Another example:
4
24 4
=
54 9 9

Make sure your students understand that the concept underlying the cancellation
short cut is the division of the numerator and denominator with a common
factor.
2.2 THE BASICS OF WHOLE NUMBERS

A proper fraction is a fraction where the numerator is smaller than the
denominator. This means the entire value of a proper fraction is less than one.
Below are examples of proper fractions:
2 4 9 2 7 11
, , , , ,
5 7 11 3 9 15
2.2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Proper Fractions

Before teaching students about addition and subtraction of fractions, we have to
be clear about the steps involved in carrying out such operations. The steps can
be summarised as follows:
(a) Case 1: The Denominators of Both the Fractions are the Same
1 3
Example 2.1: Calculate the value of + .
5 5
1
(i) Explain to students that in this problem, the basic unit is ;
5
1 1 3 1
(ii) means one unit of and means three units of ;
5 5 5 5
1 1
(iii) So the addition in this case is one unit adding to three units of
5 5
1
and the result is four units of ;
5
1 3 1+ 3 4
(iv) Mathematically, it can be written as + = = ;
5 5 5 5

(v) You can add fractions easily if the bottom number (the denominator)
is the same. We can use representations with diagrams to illustrate
1 1
the concept. Figure 2.13 illustrates the addition of and .
4 4
1 1
Figure 2.13: The addition of and
4 4
5 1
Meanwhile, Figure 2.14 shows the addition of and .
8 8
5 1
Figure 2.14: The addition of and
8 8
The subtraction of a proper fraction from another proper fraction with the
same denominator works on the same principle.

5 2
Example 2.2: Calculate the value of − .
7 7
5 2 5−2 3
− = =
7 7 7 7
Similarly, it is important to use diagrammatic representations to illustrate

the concept of subtraction of fractions. For example, subtraction can mean
5 3
the „difference‰ between the values of and as shown in Figure 2.15.
7 7
5 3
Figure 2.15: Differences between the values of and
7 7
Subtraction can also mean „take away‰. Try to illustrate this concept using
diagrammatic representations for the following Example 2.3.
11 7
Example 2.3: Calculate the value of − .
12 12
11 7 11 − 7
− =
12 12 12
4
=
12
1
=
3

(b) Case 2: The Denominators of the Fractions are Different
Table 2.5 clearly details the steps that are used to explain the method to add
two fractions with different denominators. The example used in this case is
1 2
+ .
3 5
Table 2.5: Steps to Add Two Fractions
Instructional Procedure Mathematical Steps

1. Find the lowest common multiple The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15.
(LCM) of the two denominators.
2. Change each of the fractions to its 1 1× 5 5
= = and
equivalent fraction with the LCM 3 3 × 5 15
as its denominator.
2 2×3 6
= =
5 5 × 3 15
3. Add the fractions. 1 2 5 6
+ = +
3 5 15 15
5+6
=
15
11
=
15
Here is another example.
3 1
Example 2.4: Find the value for + .
8 4

Figure 2.16 can illustrate the concept clearly.
3 1 3 2
+ = +
8 4 8 8
3+2
=
8
5
=
8
Figure 2.16: Adding two fractions
You can also apply the same principle when subtracting two fractions with
different denominators.
2 4
Example 2.5: Find the value of − .
3 9
Since the denominators are different, we need to first make them the same,
before being able to subtract them.
2 2×3 6
= =
3 3×3 9
2 4 6 4
− = −
3 9 9 9
6−4
=
9
2
=
9

In principle, the common denominator that we want to find is the LCM of

the two denominators. But sometimes, it is easier to obtain a common
denominator by just multiplying the two common denominators.
7 3
Example 2.6: Calculate − .
8 4
Here, the two denominators are 8 and 4.
7 7 4 28
= × =
8 8 4 32
3 3 8 24
= × =
4 4 8 32
7 3 28 24
− = −
8 4 32 32
28 − 24
=
32
4
=
32
1
=
8
2.2.2 Multiplication of Proper Fractions

Multiplication involving proper fractions can be done in various forms. These
include:
(a) Multiplication of a fraction with a whole number; and
(b) Multiplication of two fractions.

To help you understand the different principles employed in carrying out these
calculations, we have categorised the various forms in Table 2.6:
Table 2.6: Principles Employed in Carrying Out Multiplications
Category Steps Explanation

Multiplication of a fraction 3 2 3 • Write 2 as a fraction.
2× = ×
with a whole number. 8 1 8 • Multiply the numerators
3 2×3 and the denominators.
Example: 2 × . =
8 1× 8 • Simplify the resulting
63 fraction by dividing by
= the highest common
84
factor (HCF).
3
=
4
3 12 3 Alternative
2× = ×
8 1 84 • Simplify the fraction
from the start (divide by
1× 3 HCF). Then multiply the
=
1× 4 numerators followed by
3 the denominators.
=
4
Multiplication of two 3 2 3×2 • Multiply the numerator
fractions. × =
4 9 4×9 with numerator and
denominator with
3 2 61
Example: × . = denominator.
4 9 36 6
• Then simplify the
1 resulting fraction.
=
6
3 2 13 21 Alternative
× = ×
4 9 42 93 • Simplify first.
• Then multiply.
1× 1
=
2×3
1
=
6

To enhance the understanding of mathematical concepts, you should guide

students to make the connection between the symbolic representations as shown
in the calculation procedures with the visual representations using concrete
materials or diagrams. Table 2.7 illustrates the connection between the
representations of the two types of multiplication of proper fractions.
Table 2.7: Connection between Symbolic and Diagrammatic Representations of Fraction

Multiplication
Symbolic Representation Diagrammatic Representation

Multiplication of a 3 3
fraction by a whole Two sets of which equals .
8 4
number.
Example:
3 2 3
2× = ×
8 1 8
2×3
=
1× 8
6
=
8
3
=
4
Multiplication of two 3 2 6
fractions. The intersection of and shows the product of
4 9 36
1
Example: which is equivalent to .
6
3 2 3× 2
× =
4 9 4× 9
6
=
36
1
=
6

2.2.3 Division Involving Proper Fractions

Let us begin this subtopic by looking at the division of a proper fraction with a
whole number. For example:
3 3
÷2 =
4 8
How can the above answer be illustrated using concrete objects?
(a) Imagine this to be a piece of rectangular cake.
(b) Cut the cake into four equal pieces. This is how it looks.
3
(c) If you are given portion of the cake, how much will you get?
4
(d) The coloured region shows the portion of the cake that you will get.
(e) Now, if the portion that you get is divided between two people (you and
your friend), how much will each of you get?

(f) Figure 2.17 shows how the division is made, and how much each of you
will get.
Figure 2.17: The division of the cake
3
(g) From the illustration, it is now quite obvious that each of you will get of
8
3 3
the whole cake. In other words, ÷ 2 is equal to .
4 8
(h) In terms of algorithmic calculation, to divide a fraction by a whole number,

we can multiply the fraction by the reciprocal of the whole number as
shown here:
3 3 1
÷2= ×
4 4 2
3×1
=
4×2
3
=
8

1
Note that in the example, the reciprocal of 2 is .
2
1
In general, the reciprocal of a whole number, for example, y is , and when a
y
whole number is multiplied by its reciprocal, the product is always equivalent to
1. Whereas, when a fraction is divided by another fraction, we can convert the
operation of division to multiplication by its reciprocal.
Example:
5
4 8 4 15 4 8 1 4 15
÷ = × or ÷ = × 2
9 15 9 8 9 15 3 9 8
5
60 1× 5
= 6
=
72 3×2
5 5
= =
6 6
However, how can you convince students that division of fractions can be
converted to multiplication by its reciprocal? Memorising the procedural steps in
calculation without knowing the conceptual basis will only make students learn
by rote and weaken their understanding and thinking of mathematics.
You can guide students to understand why inverting fractions works for
division, by examining the patterns of fraction division using appropriate models
or representations. Fraction division problems can be viewed as measurement or
1 1
quotitive division problems. For example, for 1 ÷ you are asking how many
2 2
are there in 1.

How Do We Illustrate the Fraction-Division Rule?
Step 1: Begin with division of 1 by fractions.
Diagrammatic Representation Symbolic Representation

1 1 1 2
1÷ means how many are there in 1 1÷ =2=
2 2 2 1
which is equivalent to
1 1 2 2
One 1÷ = 1× =
2 2 1 1
1
One
2
1
1 1
2 Two are in 1
2
1 1 1 3
3 3 3 1
1 which is equivalent to
One
3 1 3 3
1÷ = 1× =
1 3 1 1
One
3
1
One
3
1 1
3 1
Three are in 1
3
1 1 1 4
4 4 4 1
4 1 4 4
1 1÷ = 1× =
4 1 1
1 4
4 1
4
1
1 1
4 Four are in 1
4

2 2 2 1 3
1÷ means how many are there in 1 1÷ =1 =
3 3 3 2 2
Half a
3 2 3 3
1÷ = 1× =
3 2 2
2
One
3
2
1 2 2
3 One and half a are in 1
3 3
2
i.e., one and a half are in 1
3
3 3 3 1 4
1÷ means how many are there in 1 1÷ =1 =
4 4 4 3 3
One third of a
4 3 4 4
1÷ = 1× =
4 3 3
3
One
4
3
1 3
4 One and one third of are in 1,
4
4 3
i.e., of are in 1.
3 4

Step 2: Extend to division of fractions with fractions.
Diagrammatic Representation Symbolic Representation

1 1 1 1 1 1 2
÷ means how many are there in ÷ =2=
2 4 4 2 2 4 1
1 1 1 4 2
1 ÷ = × =
One 2 4 2 1 1
4
1
One
4
1 1
1 1 1
2 4 Two are in
4 2
2 1 1 2 2 1 1 4
÷ means how many are there in ÷ =1 =
3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3
1 2 1 2 2 4
One third of ÷ = × =
2 3 2 3 1 3
1
One
2
1
2 1 One and one third of
3 2 1 2
are in ,
2 3
4 1 2
i.e., of are in .
3 2 3

Step 3: Examine patterns of fraction multiplication to generalise fraction-division

rules using inductive reasoning.
1 2
1÷ = 1×
2 1
1 3
1÷ = 1×
3 1
1 4
1÷ = 1×
4 1
2 3
1÷ = 1×
3 2
3 4
1÷ = 1×
4 3
1 1 1 4
÷ = ×
2 4 2 1
2 1 2 2
÷ = ×
3 2 3 1
a c a d
Hence, ÷ = ×
b d b c
2.2.4 Problem Solving Involving Proper Fractions

One major objective of involving students in problem solving activities is to help
them see the application of abstract mathematic problems in real-life situations.
In other words, problem solving activities bridge the gap between mathematics
which appears to be abstract and the real world. As such, the problems designed
should be relevant to studentsÊ real life experiences. The following examples
illustrate this.
Example 2.7: Adding Proper Fractions

3
HanifÊs mother made a cake for him. Hanif ate of the cake and his friend Wee
10
1
Kiat ate of the cake. What is the fraction of the cake both of them have eaten?
2

3 1
Understand the problem: Hanif ate of the cake and Wee Kiat ate of the
10 2
cake. How much have they eaten?
3 1
10 2
Devise a strategy: Use addition of fractions.
3 1 3 5 84 4
Carry out the strategy: + = + = =
10 2 10 10 10 5 5
1 1 5 5
Note that = × =
2 2 5 10
Check your answer: We may use a suitable diagram to check your

answer. In this particular example, we may use a
rectangle (representing the cake) which has been
divided into 10 equal parts. First shade three parts
3
out of the 10 parts (light grey region represents ),
10
then shade five parts (dark grey region represents
1 5
or ).
2 10
Now, the total amount of cake eaten is represented

8 4
by the total shaded region, which is or .
10 5

Example 2.8: Subtraction of Proper Fractions

1
Mary brought one litre of water to school. She drank litre of water during
2
3
recess. Later, she drank another litre of water. How much water is left?
8
1
Understand the problem: Mary brought one litre of water. She drank litre,
2
3
followed by another litre. How much water is
8
left?
Devise a strategy: Use subtraction of fractions.
1 3 8 4 3
Carry out the strategy: 1− − = − −
2 8 8 8 8
8−4−3
=
8
1
=
8
8 1 4
Note that 1 = , = .
8 2 8
Check your answer:

1 1
1 3
8
2 8

2.3 MIXED NUMBERS AND IMPROPER

FRACTIONS
We will now discuss mixed numbers and improper fractions.
2.3.1 Concept of Mixed Numbers and Improper

Fractions
A mixed number consists of a whole number and a proper fraction.
3 4 1 5
For example, 1 , 3 , 2 , 8 are mixed numbers.
4 7 6 7
An improper fraction is a fraction where the numerator is larger than or equal to

the denominator.
The following are some examples of improper fractions:
6 9 13 3 7 14 6 15
, , , , , , ,
5 7 11 2 4 11 6 15
Figure 2.18 illustrates the diagrammatic representation of a mixed number by

combining a whole number representation and a proper fraction representation.
Notice that the representation for an improper fraction is the same as the
representation for the equivalent mixed number.
Figure 2.18: Diagrammatic representation of a mixed number

A mixed number can be converted into the form of an improper fraction.
3 7
Note that the mixed number 1 and the improper fraction , though of
4 4
different forms, are equal in value.
3
To convert the mixed number 1 to improper fraction, you may use the steps as
4
shown in Table 2.8.
3
Table 2.8: Steps to convert 1 to improper fraction
4
Steps Example
1. Multiply the whole number portion (1) by the denominator (4) 1×4=4
2. Then add the value obtained from step 1 to the numerator (3). 4+3 =7
The resulting value is used as the numerator of the improper
3 4×1 + 3
fraction. The denominator remains the same. 1 =
4 4
4+3
=
4
7
=
4
7
3. Thus the improper fraction obtained is .
4
At this point, you should be cautioned that the use of diagrams to illustrate the
fractions which have values more than 1 (like in the case of improper fractions)
may confuse some of the students.
Referring to the diagrammatic representation which was used to illustrate

3 7
the concept of 1 or , some students may interpret the diagram as a
4 4
7
representation of the fraction . These students may look at the diagram as
8
having eight parts and that there are seven shaded parts as shown in Figure 2.19.
Therefore it appears to them that this is a case of 7 out of 8.

Figure 2.19: Seven shaded parts out of eight parts
Thus, it is important to help your students see that the denominator in an

improper fraction refers to the number of equal parts in a one whole, in this case
four parts and not eight.
To avoid the problem mentioned above, the illustration of concepts should be

carried out as a developmental process. Students need to have a good
understanding of the meaning of the whole as compared to parts. To make this
point clear, let us look at the following method used (Table 2.9) to explain the
7
meaning of using representations.
4
Table 2.9: Diagrammatic and Symbolic Representation of the Concept of Whole
Diagrammatic Symbolic
Steps
Representation Representation
• Begin with a diagram of a square to illustrate 3
the concept of improper fraction. 4
• The square is divided into four equal parts
with three parts shaded.
• Use another similar diagram (a square of the 4

or 1
same size but with all four parts shaded) to 4
4
show that is equal to 1.
4
• The concept of the whole (or 1) can be 1

enhanced by removing the partitioned lines.

• Then the concept of a mixed number is 3

1 and can be
presented using combined squares. 4
3
written as 1
4
• By dividing the whole into four equal parts, 4 3 7

+ =
we can demonstrate how to obtain the 4 4 4
improper fraction using addition method.
• At this point, it is necessary to emphasise to

3
students that the mixed number 1 is equal
4
7
in value with the improper fraction .
4
• Use another diagram of the same square 7
which has been divided into eight equal parts 8
but with seven parts shaded to illustrate the
7
value of . This will also help to differentiate
8
7 7
between and .
4 8
SELF-CHECK 2.4
If you encounter students with this problem of misinterpretation, how

would you help to rectify it?

2.3.2 Addition and Subtraction Involving Mixed

Numbers and Fractions
There are two basic methods to this.
1 2
Example 2.9: Calculate 2 +1 .
4 3
Method 1: Separate whole numbers from the fractions, as shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: Separate Whole Numbers from Fractions
Steps Explanation
1 2 1 2 Separate the whole number from the respective fractions.
2 +1 = 2 + +1+
4 3 4 3
1 2 Rearrange/regroup into whole numbers and fractions.
= 2 +1+ +
4 3
3 8 • Add the whole numbers.
= 3+ +
12 12 • Change each of the fractions into its equivalent fraction so
that both fractions have a common denominator.
1 1× 3 3 2 2× 4 8
= = ; = =
4 4 × 3 12 3 3 × 4 12
3+8 Add the fractions.
= 3+
12
11 Combine the whole number and the proper fraction to form a
=3
12 mixed number as the final answer.
So, a complete solution to the above question can be presented as follows:
1 2 1 2
2 +1 = 2 +1+ +
4 3 4 3
3 8
=3+ +
12 12
11
=3+
12
11
=3
12

Method 2: Change mixed numbers into improper fractions as in Table 2.11.
Table 2.11: Change Mixed Numbers into Improper Fractions
Steps Explanation
1 2 9 5 Change each of the mixed number into an improper fraction.
2 +1 = +
4 3 4 3
27 20 Change each of the fractions into its equivalent fraction so that
= +
12 12 both the fractions have a common denominator.
9 9 × 3 27 5 5 × 4 20
= = ; = =
4 4 × 3 12 3 3 × 4 12
27 + 20 Add the fractions.
=
12
47
=
12
36 11 Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number.
= +
12 12
11
=3
12
A written solution to the problem above can be in the following form:
1 2 9 5
2 +1 = +
4 3 4 3
27 20
= +
12 12
47
=
12
11
=3
12

To convert an improper fraction into a mixed number, you can divide the
numerator by the denominator as follows:
3
12 47
36
11
47 11
Therefore, =3 .
12 12
2.3.3 Multiplication and Division Involving Mixed

Numbers
Multiplication and division questions involving mixed numbers and fractions
may be asked in various forms. Some of these forms include:
(a) Multiplication of a mixed number with a fraction or vice-versa;
(b) Multiplication of two mixed numbers;
(c) Division of a mixed number by a fraction; and
(d) Division of a mixed number by another mixed number.

Table 2.12 categorises the various forms and their calculations.
Table 2.12: Various Forms of Multiplication and Division Involving Mixed Numbers
Category Steps Explanation

Multiplication of a 1 3 5 3 • Convert the mixed number to
2 × = ×
mixed number 2 4 2 4 improper fraction.
with a fraction • Multiply numerator with
5× 3
= numerator, and denominator with
Example: 2× 4
denominator.
15
= • Convert improper fraction to
1 3 8
2 × . mixed number.
2 4 7
=1
8
Multiplication of 1 2 10 7 • Convert both mixed numbers to
3 ×1 = ×
two mixed 3 5 3 5 improper fractions.
numbers • Multiply. Then simplify. You can
10 × 7
= also choose to simplify first before
Example: 3×5
the multiplication of the
70
= numerators and the denominators.
1 2 15
3 ×1 • Convert the improper fraction to a
3 5 2
10 mixed number.
=4
15 3
2
=4
3
Division of a mixed 7 26 52 26 • Convert the mixed number to an
number by a 5 ÷ = ÷
9 27 9 27 improper fraction.
fraction • Multiply by the reciprocal of the
2
52 27 3
= × fraction.
Example: 19 26 1
• Simplify the numerators and the
2×3 denominators.
7 26 =
5 ÷ 1× 1 • Perform multiplication.
9 27
6 • Write the answer in the simplest
=
1 form.
=6

Division of a mixed 2 1 17 51 • Convert the mixed numbers to

3 ÷2 = ÷
number by another 5 25 5 25 improper fractions.
mixed number 1 5
• Change division into
17 25
= × multiplication by the reciprocal of
Example : 1 5 51 3
the second fraction.
1× 5
2 1 = • Simplify the numerators and the
3 ÷2 1× 3 denominators.
5 25 5
= • Perform multiplication.
3
2 • Convert the improper fraction into
=1 a mixed number.
3
2.3.4 Problem Solving Involving Mixed Numbers and

Improper Fractions
By doing appropriate problem solving activities, students will be able to
understand the differences between proper fractions, improper fractions and
mixed numbers better. Here are some examples.
Example 2.10
AliÊs mother makes five cakes. She wants the cakes to be shared equally between
Ali and his two friends. How much of the cake does each person get?
Understand the problem: Total number of cakes = 5
Number of people to share the cakes equally = 3
Ali
Friend 1
Friend 2
Devise a strategy: Use the division method.
Five cakes shared equally by three people can be

written as 5 ÷ 3.

5
Carry out the strategy: 5÷3 =
3
3 2
= +
3 3
2
= 1+
3
2
=1
3
Check your answer: If the answer is correct, then the answer for
2 2 2
1 + 1 + 1 should be 5.
3 3 3
Example 2.11
1
Mee Fah brought two and kg of flour to her school for making cookies during
3
3
her home science practical lesson. She used up a total amount of 1 kg of flour.
4
How much of the flour was left?
1
Understand the problem: Initially, Mee Fah has 2 kg of flour
3
3
She then used 1 kg of flour.
4
1
2
3
3
1
4
Difference
1 3
Devise a strategy: Using the subtraction method 2 − 1 .
3 4

1 3 7 7
2 −1 = − (Change to an improper fraction)
3 4 3 4
7×4 7×3
= − (Change to equivalent fractions
3× 4 4×3
with a common denominator)
28 21
= −
12 12
7
=
12
7 3
Check your answer: If the answer is correct, then + 1 should equal
12 4
1
the initial value of 2 .
3
Example 2.12
3 7
Jaafar is 1 m tall. His younger sister Fatin is of his height, whereas his elder
5 10
5
brother HilmiÊs height is 1 that of FatinÊs. Calculate HilmiÊs height.
8
3
Understand the problem: Height of Jaafar = 1 m
5
7
Height of Fatin = of JaafarÊs height
10
5
Height of Hilmi = 1 of FatinÊs height.
8

5
1
8
7
10
JaafarÊs FatinÊs height HilmiÊs height

= 1 of FatinÊs height
5
= of JaafarÊs
height = 1 3 m 7
5 10 8
height
Devise a strategy: Use multiplication.
Find FatinÊs height, then find HilmiÊs height.
Carry out the strategy: FatinÊs height: = 7 × 1 3

10 5
4
7 8
= ×
5 10 5
7×4
=
5× 5
28
= m
25
5 28
Hilmi′s height = 1 ×
8 25
7
13 28
= ×
82 25
13 × 7
=
2 × 25
91
=
50
41
=1 m
50

Hilmi′s height 5
Check your answer: The ratio of should be 1
Fatin′s height 8
41 28 91 28
1 ÷ = ÷
50 25 50 25
13 1
91 25
= ×
2 50 28 4
13
=
8
5
=1
8
Similarly, you can show that
Fatin′s height 7
the ratio of is .
Jaafar′s height 10
Example 2.13
3
In a mathematics test, Brian is given 1hours to complete all the 20 questions in
4
1
the test. However, he intends to spend hour to check his answers. Calculate
4
how much time he should spend on each question. Give your answer in minutes.
3
Understand the problem: Total time = 1 hours
4
1
Time for checking = hour
4
Use the remaining time to answer 20 questions and

find the duration for each question.
The answer has to be in minutes.

3
1 hours
4
1
Time to answer 20 questions hour
4
Devise a strategy: Using mixed operations: Subtraction, followed by

division, then multiplication.
3 1
Time left to answer 20 questions = 1 − hours.
4 4
Time for each question ă divide by 20.
Answer has to be in minutes ă multiply by 60.
Carry out the strategy: Time left to answer 20 questions.
3 1
=1 −
4 4
7 1
= −
4 4
6
=
4
3
= hours
2

Time for each question

3
= ÷ 20
2
3 1
= ×
2 20
3
= hours
40
3 3
= × 60 minutes
2 40
9
= minutes
2
1
=4 minutes
2
⎛ 3 ⎞ 1 3
Check your answer: Total time = ⎜ × 20 ⎟ + = 1 hours.
⎝ 40 ⎠ 4 4
• A fraction is a number that represents part of a whole.
a
• A fraction is written in the form of , where a is called numerator and b is
b
called denominator.
• Equivalent fractions are fractions that have the same value.
• A proper fraction is a fraction where the numerator is smaller than the

denominator.
• A mixed number consists of a whole number and a proper fraction.
• Representations are essential in understanding fractions including performing

basic operations with fractions and solving word problems.
• Making connections between various representations enhances meaningful

learning.

Factors Prime factors

Highest common factor (HCF) Prime numbers
Lowest common factor (LCM) Rounding
Number operations Sequences
Number patterns Whole numbers

Topic  Decimals
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of decimals;
2. Construct activities that show the relationship between fractions
and decimals;
3. Organise activities that convert fractions into decimals and vice
versa;
4. Create activities related to addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of decimals; and
5. Design suitable problem-solving activities involving decimals.
 INTRODUCTION
As teachers, you should already have the knowledge of decimals at your
fingertips. However, the main challenge for you is to convey this information to
your students. This topic will mostly focus on how to teach decimals to Form
One secondary school students.
Please visit this website to learn about the misconceptions of decimal numbers:
https://goo.gl/uqRZTM.
Please share your thoughts and opinions with your peers on these
misconceptions before proceeding to the next subtopic.

TOPIC 3 DECIMALS  115
3.1 CONCEPT OF DECIMALS

Let us begin by learning the concept of decimals.
3.1.1 Relationship between Fractions and Decimals

To understand the concept of decimals, students will first need to have some
knowledge of fractions. You may guide students to understand the concept of
decimals by carrying out Teaching Sample Activity 3.1 and Teaching Sample
Activity 3.2.
Teaching Sample Activity 3.1: How do you teach your students to identify the
relationship between fractions and decimals?
1. Instruct your students to cut a long rectangular strip of cardboard. Write

the number 1 on the strip to indicate its value.
2. Get your students to divide the strip into 10 equal parts by drawing
appropriate vertical lines. Ask your students the following question:
„What fraction is represented by each of the 10 parts?‰
3. Instruct your students to colour one of the parts and write down its
fraction.
1
4. Explain to your students that another form of representing the value is
10
1
by using a decimal notation. means one part out of 10 equal parts.
10

116  TOPIC 3 DECIMALS
1
5. Since 1 ÷ 10 = 0.1, can be written in the decimal form of 0.1.
10
6. Explain to your students that:
(a) The dot is called the decimal point.
(b) The value 0 on the left of the decimal point indicates that this value
is less than the whole number 1.
(c) The value can be read as „zero point one‰ or „nought point one‰.
However the former is more popular.
7. Instruct your students to use another similar strip with 10 equal parts.
This time, ask them to shade four parts and then write down the fraction
4
represented by the shaded parts. The fraction should now be .
10
8. Ask your students to guess how the fraction should be written if it is to be

written in decimal form. The expected answer is 0.4.
9. To further test your studentsÊ understanding, a quiz can be given by

showing them flash-cards with basic proper fractions, which will then
require the students to provide their decimal form or vice-versa.
The number line (refer to Figure 3.1) may also be used to illustrate the meaning
of decimals.
Figure 3.1: A number line of decimal points from 0 to 1

SELF-CHECK 3.1
Compare Teaching Sample Activity 3.1 with the activities you might
usually give to your students to identify the relationship between
fractions and decimals. Then, please answer the following questions:
1. In your opinion, what are the strengths and weaknesses of your

activities compared to Teaching Sample Activity 3.1?
2. Using the strengths of Teaching Sample Activity 3.1, construct an

improved version of the previous activities that you have given to
your students. Present this new improved version to your peers
and get their feedback.
Teaching Sample Activity 3.2: How do you teach your students to identify
the relationship between fractions and decimals (using a 10 × 10 grid)?
1. Guide your students to draw a 10 × 10 grid consisting of 100 equal size

squares or rectangles, as shown in Figure 3.2, on a piece of cardboard. The
10 × 10 grid should cover the whole cardboard.
Figure 3.2: 10 × 10 grid consisting of 100 equal size squares or rectangles

2. Tell your students that now, the whole cardboard has the value 1. The
cardboard is divided into 100 equal small boxes. Ask your students to
write down the fraction represented by one small box. The expected
1
answer is .
100
3. Explain to your students that the fraction can be represented in the

decimal form of 0.01 since its value is 1 ÷ 100.
4. You may continue the activity by shading a region of the small boxes
(see Figure 3.3). Guide your students to see the relationship between the
fractions representing the shaded regions and their equivalent decimals.
For example, if 17 small boxes are shaded, the fraction representing the
17
shaded region is and the equivalent decimal is 0.17.
100
Figure 3.3: A region of the small boxes that have been shaded

SELF-CHECK 3.2
If you were to prepare the cardboard (Figure 3.2) as a teaching aid, each
time you shade it to demonstrate a fraction or a decimal, you may not
be able to use the same cardboard again to show a different fraction or
decimal. You will also probably not have the convenience of making
many more cardboards, each for a different fraction or decimal. What
can you do to overcome this problem?
As you have seen in Teaching Sample Activity 3.1 and 3.2, the numbers 0.1 and
0.01 are called decimals. By definition, a decimal is a number that represents a
fraction in which the denominator is in the form of 10, 100, 1,000 and so on. It is
interesting to inform the students the discovery as follows:
1 1
0.1 = and 0.01 =
10 100
One Two
zero One Two zeros
zero zeros
Your students might also be able to recognise that there are three zeros in the
1
case of 0.001 = .
1000
However, you have to inform them that this does not apply when the numerator
17 49 83
is not 1. For example, 0.17 = , 0.49 = and 0.083 = .
100 100 1000

Changing Fractions into Decimals and Vice Versa

From the above activity, your students will discover that to change fractions into
decimals, they will have to divide the numerator by the denominator. Hence,
871 0.871
= 0. 871
1000 1000 871
000
Three decimal places
Three zeros 8710
8000
7100
7000
1000
1000
Teaching Sample Activity 3.3: How do you teach your students to convert
fractions to decimals?
Provide Table 3.1 to your students. Instruct your students to complete the table
by writing the decimals that correspond to the given fractions.
Table 3.1: Decimals that Correspond to Fractions
Fraction Decimal Fraction Decimal Fraction Decimal

1 1 1
10 100 1000
2 3 9
10 100 1000
3 7 58
10 100 1000
6 49 149
10 100 1000
8 61 472
10 100 1000
9 97 871
10 100 1000

Before your students proceed with this activity, it is important that you inform
them that a short cut exists to convert fractions with denominators of 10, 100,
1,000 and so on. As you already know, this is done by moving the decimal
point to the left according to the number of zeros. Thus,
67 3271
= 6 7 . = 0.67 and = 3 2 7 1 . = 3.271
100 1000
Also alert them that by using long division, any fraction can be converted to
3 57
decimal. For example, = 0.375 and = 14.25.
8 4
0.375 14.25 57
8 3 4 57 Since is an improper fraction,
4
0 4 its value is more than 1.
30 17 Compare this with the
equivalent mixed number of
24 16
57 1
= 14 .
60 10 4 4
56 8
40 20
40 20
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Construct an activity that you personally feel is more effective in

explaining this concept to students compared to Teaching Sample
Activity 3.3. Present your activity to your peers to find out if they agree
with you. Make sure to use the feedback given to you to improve your
activity.

Now, how do you teach your students to change a decimal into a fraction?
Well, you will need to tell your students to count the number of places that the
decimal point has to be moved so that the decimal becomes a whole number.
For example,
83 1245
0.83 = 0 . 8 3 = and 1.245 = 1 . 2 4 5 =
100 1000
Moved three
245 places. Therefore,
=1
Move two Two zeros 1000 three zeros.
places 49
=1
200
Another approach is by telling your students to look at the number of decimal

places. If there is only one decimal place, your students will find that the
denominator will have only one zero. Next, ask your students to write the
decimal as a fraction with a denominator of 10, 100 or 1,000 according to the
question. Tell them to simplify the fraction if necessary.
3.1.2 Place Value and Value of Digit

Decimals follow the Hindu-Arabic numeration system that you have seen in
Topic 1. As with whole numbers, every digit in a decimal has a place value that
subscribes to the base-10 value system. The value of each digit is determined by
its position in the decimal.
It may be a good idea to prepare a place value chart to help your students
understand the place values in decimals more clearly. An example of the chart is
shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Place Value Chart
Tenths Hundredths Thousandths

Place Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones 1 1 1
value 1,000 100 10 1
10 100 1, 000
Digit 4 3 0 5
40 3 0.8 0.05
Value of
43.85
digit
Written
Forty Three point Eight Five
form
Digit 5 2 9 7 . 0 3
Value of
5,000 200 90 7 . 0.8 0.03
digit
Value of
5297.83
digit
Written
Five Thousand Two Hundred Ninety Seven point Eight Three
form
Digit 0 . 2 1 6
Value of
0 . 0.2 0.01 0.006
digit
Value of
0.216
digit
Written
Zero point Two One Six
form
Based on Table 3.2, provide the following Example 3.1 to your students to test
their understanding of place values.

Example 3.1
State the place value of the underlined digit in the following decimal numbers.
(a) 83.074 (b) 92.156 (c) 0.0142
Answers:
7
(a) The place value of the digit „7‰ is hundredths and its value is 0.07 or
100
(seven hundredths);
(b) The place value of the digit „9‰ is tens and its value is 90; and
(c) The place value of the digit „4‰ is thousandths and its value is 0.004 or
4
(four thousandths).
1000
Students are often confused with the values of whole numbers ending with zeros
and decimals ending with zeros. For example, we know 50 is different from 5.
However, 0.50 has the same value as 0.5.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. How can you convince your students that 0.50 has the same value
as 0.5?
2. Can you use a diagrammatic representation to illustrate that

0.50 = 0.5?

3.2 OPERATIONS OF DECIMALS

We have now come to the operations of decimals. Let us begin with addition and
subtraction of decimals.
3.2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Decimals

Before teaching addition and subtraction of decimals, you must ensure that your
students are able to add or subtract whole numbers.
Basically, the method used to add or subtract decimals is the same as that used
for the addition and subtraction of whole numbers. You will just need to ensure
that the decimal points are lined up accurately.
Example 3.2
Find the sum of 3.489 and 2.57.
Answer:
1 1
3 . 4 8 9
+ 2 . 5 7
6 . 0 5 9
You may also use models to help weaker students to understand the algorithm of
decimal addition better. For example, the abacus as seen in Topic 1 can be a
useful tool to help visualise the procedure of grouping and regrouping during
decimal addition.

For example, for the equation in Example 3.2:
(a) Represent 3.489 using the abacus.
Ones Hundredths
Tens Tenths Thousandths
3 • 4 8 9
Decimal point
(b) 9 „thousandths‰ is added to zero. Adding 8 „hundredths‰ to 7

„hundredths‰ involves regrouping 1 „tenths‰ and leaving 5 „hundredths‰.
1
3 • 4 8 9
+ 2 • 5 7 0
5 9

(c) Adding 1 „tenths‰ and 4 „tenths‰ to 5 „tenths‰ involves regrouping 1

„ones‰ leaving 0 „tenths‰.
1
3 • 4 8 9
+ 2 • 5 7 0
5 9
(d) Finally, adding 1 „ones‰ and 3 „ones‰ to 2 „ones‰ gives 6 „ones‰ without
regrouping.
1 1
3 • 4 8 9
+ 2 • 5 7
6 • 0 5 9
Example 3.3
Subtract 0.347 from 1.132.
Answer:
10
10 2 10
1 . 1 3 2
– 0 . 3 4 7
0 . 7 8 5

Example 3.4
Subtract 1.859 from 7.2.
Answer:
10 10
6 1 9 10
7 . 2 0 0 Add two zeros behind
7.2 before you
– 1 . 8 5 9
subtract.
5 . 3 4 1
SELF-CHECK 3.5
Illustrate how you can guide your students to relate the algorithm of
decimal subtraction with the concrete representation of an abacus.
3.2.2 Multiplication of Decimals

If your students have prerequisite knowledge and skills in multiplications
involving whole numbers, then learning multiplication of decimals is going to be
much easier. They just have to follow these rules:
(a) First ignore the decimal point and multiply the two given numbers like
multiplying whole numbers;
(b) Once done, count the total number of digits to the right of the decimal
points; then
(c) From the answer, place the decimal point at the point where to its right,
there are as many digits as you have counted in the previous step.
Example 3.5 will help your students better understand the multiplication of
decimals. The steps and answer are illustrated in Table 3.3.

Example 3.5
Find the multiplication of 38.5 × 0.24.
Answer:
Table 3.3: Multiplication of 38.5 × 0.24
Method Step
1. Write the problem in the vertical
form. 38.5
× 0.24
2. Just ignore the decimal points and 133 182

carry out normal multiplication for .5
the two numbers. ï× 0. 2 4
1 5 4 0
+ 7 7 0
9 2 4 0
3. Count the total number of digits to

the right of the decimal point. The 3 8. 5
first number has one digit to the right ï× 0. 2 4
of the decimal point. The second
number has two digits to the right of 1 5 4 0
the decimal point. Therefore, the + 7 7 0
decimal point has to be placed before
the digit 2 so that there are three 9. 2 4 0
digits to the right of the decimal
point.
You should inform your students that counting the number of digits to the right
of the decimal point is the same as finding the total number of decimal places.
So, for 38.5 × 0.004,
38.5 one decimal place

× 0.004 three decimal places
0.1540 The answer has a total of four decimal places
Note that you have to add a „0‰ in front of the decimal point.

While counting the number of decimal places allows for speedy computation, it
is important that students understand the reasoning behind it. An examination of
the decimal multiplication in fraction form would illustrate why the procedure
works.
5 24
38.5 × 0.24 = 38 ×
10 100
385 24
= ×
10 100
9240
=
1000
240
=9
1000
= 9.240
For multiplication of decimals by 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001
and so on, you can guide your students to do it mentally by observing the
total number of decimal places.
Teaching Sample Activity 3.4: How do you teach your students to perform
multiplication of decimals by 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001?
1. Ask your students to copy and complete Table 3.4 given below.
Table 3.4: Multiplication of Decimals
Column 1 Column 2
27.045 × 10 = 27.045 × 0.1 =
27.045 × 100 = 27.045 × 0.01 =
27.045 × 1,000= 27.045 × 0.001 =
27.045 × 10,000 = 27.045 × 0.0001 =
8.3901 × 1,000 = 8.3901 × 0.1 =
0. 006305 × 100 = 0. 006305 × 0.001 =
2. Tell your students to first perform the multiplications for Column 1.
3. Next, tell them to perform the multiplications for Column 2.
4. Ask the students whether they observe any difference(s) between the
two columns.

3.2.3 Division of Decimals

Let us be clear with the terms used so that when we teach students division of
decimals, we will be able to use the correct terminology.
If 2.58 is divided by 1.2, you can write it as 2.58 ÷ 1.2.
2.58
It can also be written in the form of . Here, the top number (2.58) is called
1.2
the dividend and the bottom number (1.2) is called the divisor.
Or it can be written in the long division form as below:
1.2 2.58
Divisor
Dividend
Your students will find it easier to carry out divisions involving decimals if the
divisor is a whole number. The following demonstration uses this particular
question as an example. The steps are illustrated in Table 3.5:
Table 3.5: Divisions Using Decimals
Method Step
1. Change the division by shifting the decimal
points. Note that the decimal point for both the 2.58 25.8
top and the bottom numbers are shifted one 2.58 ÷ 1.2 = =
step to the right as to make the bottom 1.2 12
number, that is, the divisor, a whole number.
2. Carry out the division using the long division 2.15
method. Remember to place the decimal point 12 25.80
in line with the dividend decimal point.
24
18
12
60
60

You must inform your students that in some cases, the division may leave a
remainder, as illustrated by Example 3.6.
Example 3.6
Calculate
(a) 0.6249 ÷ 0.14
(b) 0.0841 ÷ 6.5
Give your answer correct to three decimal places.
Answer:
4.4635 0.0129
14 62.49 65 0.841
56 65
64 191
56 130
89 610
84 585
50 25
42
80
70 Remainder
10
Based on Example 3.6, your students should note these steps:
(a) They must again change the divisor to a whole number by shifting the
decimal points accordingly;
(b) The long division stops at four decimal places as they are required to give
their answer correct to three decimal places; and
(c) They have to round off the answers to three decimal places.

So you have the following solutions:
(a) 0.6249 ÷ 0.14 = 4.4635

= 4.464 (Three decimal places)
(b) 0.0841 ÷ 6.5 = 0.0129

= 0.013 (Three decimal places)
What about division of decimals by 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001
and so on? As in multiplication, you can guide your students to do it mentally. In
fact it may be easier for divisions.
Teaching Sample Activity 3.5: How do you teach your students to perform
division of decimals by 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001 and so on?
1. Ask your students to copy and complete following Table 3.6:
Table 3.6: Divisions of Decimals
Column 1 Column 2
27.045 ÷ 10 = 27.045 ÷ 0.1 =
27.045 ÷ 100 = 27.045 ÷ 0.01 =
27.045 ÷ 1,000 = 27.045 ÷ 0.001 =
27.045 ÷ 10,000 = 27.045 ÷ 0.0001 =
8.3901 ÷ 1,000 = 8.3901 ÷ 0.1 =
0. 006305 ÷ 100 = 0. 006305 ÷ 0.001 =
2. Then, ask your students to perform the division for Column 1.
3. Next, tell them to perform the division for Column 2.
4. Again ask the students whether they observe any difference(s) between
the two columns.
Your students should be able to note that for division in Column 1, they are
getting smaller numbers as division means sharing with 10, 100 or more
people. In each case, the answer is obtained by moving the decimal point to the
left according to the number of zeros.
In the same manner, they can observe that for divisions in Column 2, they are
getting bigger numbers. And in each case, the answer is obtained by moving
the decimal point to the right according to the number of zeros.

SELF-CHECK 3.6
1. Explain why the result for the division 2.58 ÷ 1.2 is the same as
25.8 ÷ 12.
2. Compare the method of teaching multiplication of decimals with

the method of teaching division of decimals. What are the
similarities and differences?
3.3 PROBLEM SOLVING INVOLVING

DECIMALS
In the design or selection of appropriate word problems, we always adhere to the
principle that problem solving activities are meant to help students apply the
mathematical concepts and procedures that they have learned.
In other words, the students are able to find real life applications of the
declarative and procedural knowledge learned. One way to carry out meaningful
activities is to simulate real life situations, such as having students play the role
of sellers and buyers.
3.3.1 Solving Addition and Subtraction Problems

To help students understand word problems better, it may be a good idea to train
them in formulating their own word problems through some practical activities.
For example, you may get students to do some of the following activities:
(a) Measure the height of the soft board in front of the classroom;
(b) Measure the width of the soft board;
(c) Find the sum of the height and the width; and
(d) Guide them in formulating the problem.
Example of a Word Problem:

Bala wants to decorate the two rectangular soft boards of his classroom by
wrapping a ribbon around each soft board. Mun How and Gurdeep helped him
to measure the height and the width of the soft boards. They found that the
height is 0.864m and the width is 1.352m and that both soft boards have the same
measurements. What is the total length of ribbon required for both soft boards?

Suggested Answer:
(0.864 + 1.352 + 0.864 + 1.352) × 2 = 4.432 × 2

= 8.864m
0.864
1.352 4.432
Therefore, a total length of
0.864 × 2 8.864m of ribbon is required
+ 1.352 8.864 for both soft boards.
4.432
Example 3.7
AhmadÊs mother asks him to buy a packet of chicken drumsticks and a bottle of
fresh orange from the supermarket. The first item costs RM3.99 and the second
item costs RM7.99. How much money does he have to pay in total? If Ahmad
pays using a RM50 note, how much balance will he get?
Answer:
Understand the problem: To pay RM3.99 for the first item and RM7.99 for
second item. Total amount to pay = ?
Pay using RM50, the balance = ?
Devise the strategy: Use the addition method to find the sum.
Then subtract to get the balance.
Carry out the strategy: 3.99 50.00

+ 7.99 − 11.98
11.98 38.02
Total = RM3.99 + RM7.99 = RM11.98
Balance = RM50 ă RM11.98 = RM38.02
Check your answer: RM(3.99 + 7.99 + 38.02) = RM50

Example 3.8
Madam Faridah bought 15.6kg of fresh prawns from the market. She divided the
prawns into three equal portions. She gave one portion to her sister and another
1
portion to her neighbour. She used 1 kg to cook prawn fritters. Then she used
2
1
kg to make seafood tom yam. She decided to keep the remaining prawns in
4
the freezer. How many kg of prawns did Madam Faridah keep in the freezer?
Answer:
Understand the problem: 15.6kg to be divided into three equal portions.

Madam Faridah kept one portion.
1
Cook prawn fritters ă 1 kg
2
1
Make seafood tom yam ă kg
4
Remainder = ?
Devise the strategy: First, use division. Then use subtraction.
Carry out the strategy: 5.2 1 1

5.2 − 1 − = 5.2 − 1.5 − 0.25
3 15.6 2 4
15 = 3.7 − 0.25
6
= 3.45kg
6
Each portion = 15.6kg ÷ 3 = 5.2kg
⎛ 1 1⎞
Remaining prawns = ⎜ 5.2 − 1 − ⎟ kg
⎝ 2 4⎠
= 3.45kg kept in the freezer.

Check your answer: Amount of prawns that Madam Faridah has is

1 1
3.45 + 1 + = 3.45 + 1.5 + 0.25
2 4
= 4.95 + 0.25
= 5.2 kg
Total amount of prawns bought = 5.2 × 3 = 15.6kg.
3.3.2 Solving Multiplication and Division Problems

You can provide similar examples like the ones shown in Example 3.9 and 3.10 to
guide your students in solving multiplication and division problems.
Example 3.9
3
Joanne bought 3 m of cloth for making her dress. Each metre of the cloth costs
4
RM7.20. How much does she have to pay for the cloth?
Answer:
Understand the problem: 3

Joanne bought 3 m
4
Each metre costs RM7.20. Total cost = ?
Devise the strategy: Use the multiplication method

3
RM7.20 × 3 m= ?
4
Carry out the strategy 3

First convert 3 to an improper fraction.
4
3 1.80 15 4
1.80
RM7.20 × 3 = RM7.20 ×
4 41 × 15
= RM1.80 × 15 900
= RM27.00 180
27.00
Therefore, Joanne has to pay RM27.00 for the cloth.

Check your answer: 3

Joanne pays RM27.00 for 3 m.
4
3
Therefore, the cost of one metre = RM27.000 ÷ 3
4
15
= RM27.00 ÷
4
4
= RM27.00 ×
15
= RM1.80 × 4
= RM7.20
Example 3.10
En Yap went to the petrol station to fill up his tank with 42 litres of petrol.
(a) If each litre costs RM1.92, how much does he have to pay?
(b) If his car can travel a total of 360km with a full tank of petrol, how far can
he travel per litre?
(c) What is the cost for each km travelled?
Answer:
Understand the problem: (a) 42 litres, each litre costs RM1.92. Total cost = ?
(b) 42 litres for 360km, 1 litre = ? km
(c) 360km for total cost, cost of 1km = ?
Devise the strategy: (a) Multiply 42 litres by RM1.92.
(b) 360km divide by 42 = ? km
(c) 360km divide by total cost.

Carry out the strategy (a) RM1.92 × 42 = RM80.64
RM1.92
× 42
384
7 68
RM80.64
(b) 360km ÷ 42 = 8.57km
8.57
42 360
336
240
210
300
294
6 Remainder
(c) Total cost for 42 litres = RM80.64
Distance travelled = 360km
Cost of 1km = RM80.64 ÷ 360
= RM0.224
0.224
360 80.64
72 0
8 64
7 20
1440
1440

Check your answer: By now, you would have observed that the way
to check your answers is to do the opposite
operations. If your answer is correct, you must be
able to get the initial given value.
Guide your students to check the validity of their

answer for each part of the question.
SELF-CHECK 3.7
Before reading this topic, have you ever constructed practical problem-
solving activities on decimals for your students? Present those activities
to your peers and get their feedback on whether your activities are on
par or better than the ones shown in Examples 3.7 to 3.10. Use the
feedback given to improve your activities so that you can give these
activities to your students when the time comes.
• A decimal is a fraction where the denominator is a power of ten (such as 10,

100, 1,000, etc).
• Decimals follow the Hindu-Arabic numeration system where every digit has
a place value.
• Basic operations involving decimals follow the same principles as those

involving whole numbers.
Decimals Value of digit

Place value

Topic  Percentages
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the relationship between the concept of fractions and
decimals to the concept of percentages;
2. Convert percentages to fractions and decimals, and vice versa;
3. Explain the method to find the percentage of a quantity; and
4. Solve problems involving profits, losses, interests, dividends,
commissions and discounts.
 INTRODUCTION
The study of percentages is closely related to fractions and decimals. In fact, they
are all just different methods of representing the same mathematical idea.
Therefore, the learning of percentages cannot be isolated from fractions and
decimals. It is easier to teach the concept of percentages by comparing it with
fractions and decimals. We shall explore their relationship in the next subtopic.
4.1 COMPARING FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND

PERCENTAGES
Mathematics involves various relationships among its different concepts and
being able to make the connection between these concepts is integral to
developing mathematical understanding and proficiency. Thus, it is easier for
students to understand the concept of percentage if we relate it to what they have
learned in fractions and decimals. Let us look at the following instructional
activity (refer to Activity 4.1).

142  TOPIC 4 PERCENTAGES
Teaching Sample Activity 4.1: To explore the relationship between fractions,

decimals and percentages.
1. Students are given a piece of paper with two diagrams as shown in

Figures 4.1:
Diagram A
Diagram B
Figure 4.1: Two diagrams in a piece of paper
2. Begin the lesson by guiding students to provide as much information as

possible on the two diagrams.

TOPIC 4 PERCENTAGES  143
3. Some possible responses from the students are:

(a) The diagrams show two squares of the same size;
(b) The shaded regions of the two squares have the same area;
(c) The first square is divided into five equal parts, of which two parts
are shaded;
(d) The fraction represented by the shaded region in the first square is
2
;
5
(e) The second square is divided into 100 equal parts, of which 40 parts
are shaded;
(f) The fraction represented by the shaded region in the second square is
40
;
100
2 40
(g) The fraction is equivalent to the fraction ;
5 100
2
(h) The fraction can be converted into decimal form using division
5
and its value is equal to 0.4; and
40
(i) The fraction can be converted into decimal form using division
100
and its value is equal to 0.4.
4. Introduce the meaning of percent as „out of one hundred‰ or/and as „per

one hundred‰. The term percent comes from the Latin word per centum
which means per hundred.
5. Introduce the percent symbol, %, and guide students to understand the

percentage concept by providing some examples such as:
(a) 10% means 10 out of one hundred;
(b) 35% means 35 out of one hundred; and
(c) 40% means 40 out of one hundred.
6. By referring to Figure 4.1(b), guide students to use percentages to represent

the shaded region. Hence, since 40 out of 100 small squares are shaded, we
can say that 40% of the big square is shaded.

7. By referring to Figure 4.1(b), guide students to use percentages to represent

the shaded region. Hence, since 40 out of 100 small squares are shaded, we
can say that 40% of the big square is shaded.
2 40
8. Emphasise to students that the numbers , , 0.4 and 40% all refer to the
5 100
same value indicated by the shaded region.
9. Using the same set of teaching aids but by varying the size of the shaded
regions, you will be able to guide students to build a table listing various
fractions and their equivalence in decimals as well as in the percentage
forms, as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Fractions and their Equivalence in Decimals and Percentage
No Fraction Decimal Percentage

1
1 0.01 1%
100
10
2 0.1 10%
100
25
3 0.25 25%
100
1
4 0.25 25%
4
1
5 0.5 50%
2
3
6 0.75 75%
4
4
7 0.8 80%
5
2
8 0.667 66.7%
3
9 1 1.00 100%
100
Students should be able to see that 1 = = 100%. You can then ask them the
100
meaning of 120% and so on.
Extension: Provide students with 10 × 10 grid papers and instruct them to colour
the squares (a) 25% red; (c) 15% green; (c) 33% blue; and (e) 20% yellow as
creatively as they can.

4.1.1 Convert Fractions to Percentages

We have mentioned earlier that percentage means „how many out of hundred‰.
For instance, 70% means 70 out of 100. Based on this concept, we can convert a
fraction to its equivalence in the form of percentage.
For example, in Figure 4.2, the shaded region obviously is one part out of four
1
equal parts. Therefore, it can be represented by the fraction . However, if we
4
count in terms of the number of smaller squares, then the shaded region covers
25 squares out of a total of hundred squares (see Figure 4.2). Hence, the region
25
can also be represented by the fraction . This is also an example of 25 out of
100
hundred (as 25 squares are shaded out of the total 100 squares). Therefore, the
value can be written in the percentage form as 25%.
Figure 4.2: Twenty-five shaded squares
1
By now, are you able to deduce a method to convert the fraction to
4
percentage?

It is very simple. Try the following methods:
(a) Method 1
Procedure Notes
1
(a) Change the fraction to an equivalent 1 1 × 25 25
4 = =
4 4 × 25 100
fraction with the denominator of 100.
(b) Take the value of the numerator of the
1
equivalent fraction as the value in the Therefore, = 25%
percentage form. 4
(b) Method 2
Procedure Notes
1
(a) Multiply the fraction by 100. × 100 = 25
4
1
(b) Write the value in the percentage form. Therefore, = 25%
4
It needs to be noted that in some cases, the fraction to be converted to percentage

when multiplied by 100 may not yield a whole number but instead another
fraction. If this is the case, we then have to divide the numerator of that fraction
by its denominator to get the answer. To illustrate this, let us try to convert the
4
fraction to percentage.
7
Procedure Notes
4 400
(a) Multiply the fraction by 100. × 100 =
7 7
(b) Divide the numerator with the denominator. 57.1
7 400
35
50
49
10
7
3
(c) The answer is approximately 57.1 (to one 4
Therefore, = 57.1%
decimal place). 7

4.1.2 Convert Percentages to Fractions

Converting percentages to fractions is simply the reverse process of converting
fractions to percentages. Earlier, we showed you that to convert a fraction to a
percentage; you have to multiply the fraction by 100. Therefore, we can now
deduce that if we want to convert a number in percentage form to its equivalence
in the form of a fraction, then we should divide the number by 100, or multiply it
1
by . Then, you simplify the fraction.
100
Let us look at some examples in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Examples of Percentages to Fractions Conversion
Number in Percentage
Steps to Convert Number in Fractions
Form
1 35 7 7
35% 35 × = =
100 100 20 20
1 60 3 3
60% 60 × = =
100 100 5 5
1 75 3 3
75% 75 × = =
100 100 4 4
4.1.3 Convert Decimals to Percentages

To convert a decimal value to its equivalent in percentage form, simply multiply
the decimal by 100.
Some examples are provided in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Examples of Decimals to Percentages Conversion
Decimals Convert to Percentages

0.5 0.5 = 0.5 × 100% = 50%
0.25 0.25 = 0.25 × 100% = 25%
0.03 0.03 = 0.03 × 100% = 3%
By studying the above examples, you may be able to discover that an easier
method of converting a decimal to the percentage form is by moving its decimal
point two places to the right.

4.1.4 Convert Percentages to Decimals

The conversion from percentages to decimals is the opposite of the conversion
from decimals to percentages; which means that any number in percentage can
be changed to its decimal form by dividing the number by 100 or by multiplying
1
it with . However of course in this case; you should not leave your answer in
100
the form of a fraction. Instead, use long division to find the decimal. Some
examples are given in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Examples of Percentages to Decimals Conversion

(a)
Percentage Convert to Decimal

3
3% = 0.03
100
75
75% = 0.75
100
92
92% = 0.92
100
(b)
Percentage Convert to Decimal
3% 0.03
75% 0.75
92% 0.92

After your students understand and know how to convert between fractions,
decimals and percentages, you can reinforce their understanding through
interesting and motivating activities. Teaching Sample Activity 4.2 shows an
example of a game that your students can play.
Teaching Sample Activity 4.2: Equivalent dominoes ă Reinforcing the

relationship between fractions, decimals and percentages.
Objective of the Game

Match the equivalent values on the playing cards, but not like-for-like. For
example, a player could match 0.75 to 75%, but not 75% to 75%.
Players
Four to six players
Materials
Playing cards numbered with fractions, decimals or percentages. Make three
copies of the square template (producing 36 squares) as shown in Figure 4.3
(you may make more or adjust to suit your players).
Figure 4.3: Square template

Procedure
1. Deal out an equal number of cards to each player, leaving a small pick-up
pile.
2. The first player lays down his/her first card. The next player matches
an equivalent card to the first player, by playing off either of the three
numbered sides showing, but not off the green side (see Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4: Three numbered sides
3. The next player can play off any number available. Either straight on, or
at a right angle to the card. A play must always occur off one or other end
of the developing line, just like dominoes. Figure 4.5 shows the options
for play off a typical line of Equivalent Squares.
Figure 4.5: Typical line of equivalent squares
4. If a player has no equivalent card to play, then he/she takes a card from
the pick-up pile and the turn goes to the next player.
5. The winner of the game is the player who uses all his/her squares first.
Source: http://www.teachingideas.co.uk

4.2 TO FIND THE PERCENTAGE OF A

QUANTITY
To find a particular percentage of a given value, we will need to multiply the
corresponding fraction of that given percentage by the given value.
For example, to find 30% of 50, we multiply the fraction corresponding to 30%,
30
which is , by 50.
100
30
Hence, we have 30% of 50 = × 50 = 15
100
More examples are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Examples of Percentage of a Quantity
Question Solution
60
Calculate 60% of 320. × 320 = 192
100
70 315
Calculate 45% of 70. × 45 = = 31.5
100 10
25 900
Calculate 25% of 36. × 36 = =9
100 100
When given the percentage of a quantity, we can also find the quantity involved.
For example: Given 8 is 40% of a number, find the number.
40
40% of a number, say a, is 8. Hence, × a = 8. We can then use cross-multiply to
100
get the answer. When using cross-multiply, it is good to times both sides with the
reciprocal fraction as shown below to get a more accurate answer.
5
100 40 100
× ×a = 8×
40 100 40 2
a = 20

4.3 PROBLEM SOLVING: APPLICATIONS OF

PERCENTAGES
Percentages have wide applications in real life, especially in the field of business.
Areas involving calculation of percentages include calculation of profits and
losses, dividends, interest, commissions, discounts and so on. It may be a good
idea to teach these form of calculations based on problem situations that students
are familiar with. You may even use role play activities (such as having students
act as sellers and buyers) to enhance their understanding and also to motivate
them in learning the topic.
4.3.1 Percentage of Increase or Decrease

The calculation of percentage increase or percentage decrease is based on the
following principles.
When there is an increase from the original value, the calculation of percentage
increase, usually written as % increase, is carried out in two steps:
Step 1: Increase in value = New value ă Original value
Increase in value
Step 2: Percentage increase = × 100%
Original value
Example 4.1
Last year, our school had 800 students. This year, the number has increased to
1,000. What is the percentage increase of the number of students?
Solution:
Increase = 1,000 ă 800 = 200
Increase in value
Percentage increase = × 100%
Original value
1
200
= × 100%
4 800
= 25%

Similarly, when there is a decrease from the original value, the calculation is as
follows:
Step 1: Decrease in value = Original value ă New value
Decrease in value
Step 2: Percentage decrease = × 100%
Original value
Example 4.2
Azizah bought 20 fishes for the pond in her garden. A week later, three fishes
died. What is the percentage decrease in the number of fishes?
Solution:
Decrease = Original value ă New value = 20 ă 17 = 3
Decrease in value
Percentage decrease = × 100%
Original value
3
= × 100% = 15%
20
Note: If students understand the principles in the calculation of percentage

increase and percentage decrease well, then it will be easier for you to explain the
applications of percentages in everyday calculations.
4.3.2 Profit and Loss

Before teaching students methods to calculate profit and loss, we need to ensure
that they first understand the meaning of profit and loss. You will need to
provide practical examples (see Activity 4.3) to show the following calculation:
Calculation of Profit
Profit = Selling price ă Cost price
Profit
Percentage profit = × 100%
Cost price

Calculation of Loss
Loss = Cost price ă Selling price
Loss
Percentage loss = × 100%
Cost price
Teaching Sample Activity 4.3: The calculation of profit and loss.
Learning will become more meaningful to students when learning activities

initiated by the teacher are closely associated with their real life experiences.
Therefore, to teach students the calculation of profits and losses, it may be a
good idea to involve them in some kind of buying-selling activities, with some
students playing the role of sellers and others the role of buyers. We will
demonstrate this in the following activity.
1. Instruct students to bring from home some household items such as

toothbrushes, T-shirts, cups, rulers and pencils.
2. Guide students in setting up a role-play/simulation activity, modelling a

store in the market. Some students should be assigned to act as sellers
and others as buyers.
3. Guide students to prepare price tags for the items being displayed.
4. Using an inquiry approach, discuss with students the concepts of profits

and losses. Introduce them to examples of the following terms: cost price,
selling price and profits.
5. With appropriate examples, show students the calculation of profit as

well as the calculation of percentage profit.
6. Explain to students that under certain situations, goods may sometimes

be sold at a loss, which is when the selling price is lower than the cost
price. Guide them in the calculation of loss and percentage loss.
7. Guide students to prepare a table as shown in Table 4.6, with the selling
price filled (as displayed on the respective price tags). Discuss with them
to determine the cost price of each item, with some items recording a
higher cost price than its selling price.

Table 4.6: ProductsÊ Price
Item Cost Selling

Percentage
code Item Name Price Price Profit Loss
Profit/Loss
(RM) (RM)
001 Crocodile T-shirt 8.00 10.00
002 Colgate toothbrush 1.50 1.80
003 Harry Potter book 102.00 66.30
004 Pilot fountain pen 28.00 30.80
005 Casio calculator 52.00 44.20
8. Instruct students to carry out the selling and buying activity, and then fill
in the columns of the table accordingly.
4.3.3 Discounts
Offering discounts for items to be sold is a common strategy used in business, to
promote sales. Discounts are often offered in the form of percentages.
Discount = Initial price ă New price
Discount
Percentage discount = × 100%
Initial price
Note that the original price is also referred to as the initial price and the new
price as the discounted price.

Example 4.3
If an item has an initial price of RM30.00, and you want to sell it at RM27.00,
what is the percentage of discount for the item and its new price?
The amount of discount = Initial price − New price

= RM30.00 − RM27.00
= RM3.00
Discount
Percentage discount = × 100%
Initial price
3
= × 100%
30
= 10%
Conversely, if an item has an initial price of RM30.00, and it is to be sold at a 10%

discount, then the calculation of the discount and the new selling price is as
follows:
Discount = 10% of initial price

10
= × 30
100
=3
New price = Initial price − Discount

= 30 − 3
= 27
Therefore, the new selling price after discount is RM27.00.

We may also calculate the new selling price in the following way:
Since there is a 10% discount, the new selling price should be (100 ă 10)% or
90% of the initial selling price.
Hence, the new selling price = 90% of the initial price

90
= × 30
100
= 27
Therefore, the new selling price is RM27.00.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Design a learning activity similar to Teaching Sample Activity 4.3 to
guide students in understanding calculations involving discounts.
4.3.4 Interest, Dividend and Commission

It is useful to expose students to basic financial knowledge and skills at a young
age. Some of the knowledge related to investment and business include the
calculation of interest, dividend and commission.
(a) Simple Interest:

When we deposit a certain amount of money in a bank for certain duration,
the bank will give us extra money which is known as interest. Conversely,
if we borrow money from the bank, we need to pay interest for the loan.
Brochures and flyers that banks use to advertise their saving, fixed deposit
or lending interest rates are good teaching aids that provide real-life
contexts of percentage applications. You should collect such information to
provide authentic learning experiences to your students.
Interest is normally given in the form of percentage (%) per annum.

Simple interest = P ×ïR ×T
Whereby P = Principal = Amount of investment or saving;
R = Simple interest rate; and
T = Time or duration = Number of years.
To clarify this, let us look at the following examples:
Example 4.4
Dorothy deposits an amount of RM2,000.00 in a bank for two years. If the
bank offers an interest of 4% per annum, how much will Dorothy get at the
end of the two years?
Solution:
Understand the problem: Amount of saving = RM2,000.00
Interest rate = 4%
Time/period = Two years
To find the total amount of interest after

two years.
Devise a strategy: Calculate the simple interest based on the

information. Then add this to the original
saving.
Carry out the strategy: Simple interest = P × R ×T

4
= RM2, 000 × ×2
100
= RM160.00
Total amount = RM ( 2, 000 + 160 )

= RM2,160

Check your answer: Interest for one year = RM160 ÷ 2

= RM80.00
Interest
Percentage interest = × 100%
Principal
80
= × 100%
2000
= 4%
Therefore, Dorothy will receive a total of RM2,160.00 at the end of the two
years.
(b) Dividend:
When a company makes profit, it may give part of the profit to its
shareholders in the form of dividend. Dividend is normally calculated as a
percentage of the value of the shares the shareholder owns, as shown in the
following example.
Example 4.5
Norsiah owns RM10,000.00 worth of shares at Company XYZ. The
company announces a dividend of 6%. How much dividend will Norsiah
get?
Solution:
Understand the problem: Value of shares = RM10,000.00
Share dividend = 6%
Find the value of the dividend.
Devise a strategy: Calculate the dividend by multiplication.
Carry out the strategy: Dividend = 6% of RM10,000

6
= × 10, 000
100
= 600

Check your answer: Percentage of dividend
Dividend
= × 100%
Total share value
600
= × 100%
10, 000
= 6%
Therefore, Norsiah will get a total dividend of RM600.00.
(c) Commission:
A commission is a payment or reward given to an agent or a middleman
who has granted certain service or a certain transaction. Commission is
normally stated as a percentage of the value of the transaction.
Example 4.6
Mr Rajah sold a house at RM185,000.00 with the help of an agent. He has
agreed to pay the agent a 2% commission. How much will the agent get?
Solution:
Understand the problem: Value of sales = RM185,000.00
Commission = 2%
Find out how much commission the agent

will receive.
Devise a strategy: Calculate the commission by multiplication.
Carry out the strategy: Commission = 2% of the value of the sale

2
= × 185, 000
100
= 3,700
3,700
Check your answer: Percentage of commission = × 100%
185, 000
= 2%
Therefore, the agent will get a commission of RM3,700.00.

In order to make sure your students understand the use of percentages, you need
to give them a lot of reinforcement exercises under various situations, based
on everyday use as illustrated by the examples. Whenever possible, provide
authentic learning examples to your students.
• Percentages, fractions and decimals are related concepts.
• The relationships between percentage, fractions and decimals are used to

convert one form to another and vice versa.
• Percentages have wide applications in real life including calculation of profits

and losses, dividends, interest, commissions, discounts and so on.
• Using real-life examples and activities are effective ways to enhance

understanding of the applications of percentages.
Commission Dividend
Compare Interest
Convert Percentages
Discounts Profit and loss

Topic  Algebraic
5 Expressions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of unknowns;
2. Identify algebraic expressions; and
3. Simplify algebraic expressions.
 INTRODUCTION
By now, students have learned how to deal with concrete numbers such as whole
numbers, fractions and decimals. In this topic, we are going to introduce them to
something which is very abstract ă the unknowns. From the unknowns, we will
lead them to the abstract world of algebra.
Many students view algebra as something beyond their imagination. They tend
to mix the normal number system with algebra, especially when dealing with
various operations. As such, it is very important for the teacher to deliver the
concepts of algebra clearly and precisely. Otherwise, students will not be able to
grasp this area of mathematics.

TOPIC 5 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS  163
5.1 THE CONCEPT OF UNKNOWNS

Let us begin the lesson with the concept of unknowns.
5.1.1 Introducing Unknowns

An algebraic expression is an expression that contains one or more numbers,
unknowns and arithmetic operations. The concept of unknowns is rather
abstract, particularly to students who are new to the idea of algebraic
expressions. Therefore, let us now look at some of the instructional activities that
you can carry out to deepen studentsÊ conceptual understanding of unknowns in
algebraic expressions.
Teaching Sample Activity 5.1: To explore the meaning of unknowns.
It may be interesting and effective to guide students to discover the meaning of

an unknown using the inquiry approach.
Approach 1
1. Display two identical enclosed boxes. Name the boxes as box A and
box B.
2. Shake the boxes (as shown in Figure 5.1) and tell your students that there
are some pencils in the boxes.
Figure 5.1: Box A and B
3. Now tell them that both boxes contain the same number of pencils.
4. Next give the two boxes to two students from your class, say Azman and
Ben.

164  TOPIC 5 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
5. Ask your class: Do you know how many pencils Azman has?
Do you know how many pencils Ben has?
6. Obviously, the answer is „I donÊt know.‰
7. Tell your students to guess the number of pencils that Azman and Ben
have and jot down their answers in the Table 5.1 provided on the
handout.
Table 5.1: Handout Answer
No. AzmanÊs Pencils BenÊs Pencils Conclusion

1
2
8. You should go round to see what numbers your students have jotted down.
9. Call on a few students to present their answers. You can tabulate their
answers as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: StudentsÊ Answers
Activity 5.1
Name of Student AzmanÊs Pencils BenÊs Pencils Conclusion
Farid 3 3
Chan 8 8
Halim 5 6
Jason 20 20
Dinish 1 1
Tan 7 7
Wong
10. Discuss these answers with your students. It would be interesting if you
have an answer like HalimÊs. Talk about whether the answers are correct.
11. Guide them to arrive at the conclusion that all answers (except HalimÊs)
are correct because Azman and Ben have the same number of pencils.

Now, you are ready to introduce the concept of unknown.
12. Extend the table further for this purpose (shown in Table 5.3). Call on
several pairs of other students. This time, let the first student write
a possible number for Azman and the other student will write the
corresponding number for Ben.
Table 5.3: Finding Out the Unknown
Activity 5.1
Names of Students AzmanÊs Pencils BenÊs Pencils Conclusion
Bakar and Chin 3 3
Ragu and John 8 8
Aishah and Din 5 5
Betty and Ali 20 20
Dan and Murali 1 1
Teng and Rosa 7 7
Hafiz and Soo 4 4
9 ?
15 ?
? 2
x ?
p ?
? m
? ☺
13. Repeat the process until you find that all of them have given the expected
response.
14. Now, you write x under AzmanÊs column. Explain to your students that
since you do not know the exact number of pencils Azman has, you have
chosen x to represent it and x is an unknown.
15. Pose the question: What should we write under BenÊs column?
16. For reinforcement, use another symbol, say, p and ask a similar question.
17. Change the task now to: Ben has m pencils. How many pencils does
Azman have?

By now, your students would have grasped the basic concept of unknowns and
how they can use alphabets or symbols to represent these unknowns. You are
ready to move on for further explorations on unknowns.
Approach 2
1. You can still use the same boxes of pencils. Now however, you give Ben
three extra pencils (refer to Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Give Ben three extra pencils
2. Tell your students to guess and write the number of pencils each of them
may have, in Table 5.4 in the handout.
Table 5.4: Handout Answer
No. AzmanÊs Pencils BenÊs Pencils Conclusion

1
2
3. As before, select several students to present their answers (as shown in

Table 5.5). You can expect them to be more spontaneous this time.
Table 5.5: StudentsÊ Answers
Activity 5.1
Name of Student AzmanÊs Pencils BenÊs Pencils Conclusion
Linda 2 5
Pang 8 11
Kumar 5 8
Jacinta 20 ?
Cavin 1 ?
Lam ? 7
Man ? 4

4. Pose questions such as:
(a) „Can Ben have three pencils? Why?‰
(b) „What about Ben having one or three pencils?‰
(c) „Can Azman have five pencils and Ben six?‰
5. After that, you can lead them to continue the discussion using unknowns
and to give their answers in Table 5.6.
(a) „If Azman has x pencils, how many pencils does Ben have?‰
(b) „If Azman has p pencils, how many pencils does Ben have?‰
Table 5.6: Answer for Unknown
AzmanÊs Pencils BenÊs Pencils

x x+3
p p+3
mă3 m
6. A more difficult question would be: „If Ben has m pencils, how many
pencils does Azman have?‰
7. To encourage them to put on their thinking caps, you can even ask
questions such as: „If Azman has 10 pencils, what is the total number of
pencils that both boys have?‰
8. Then follow this with a question using unknowns: „If Azman has x
pencils, what is the total number of pencils that both the boys have?‰
At this juncture, your students should be quite comfortable with unknowns.
Tell them that we need unknowns to represent quantities which we do not

know and we need to use these unknowns to establish relationships within
Mathematics.
Awareness of the importance of unknowns should be greatly emphasised

before you prepare these students to acquire other skills in algebra.

Note: The number of pencils as represented by the letters x, p, m is also called

the variable. Variables and unknowns are two important related concepts in
algebra. However, teachers and students sometimes confuse the two because
variables and unknowns are often represented by letters. According to Usiskin
(1988), unknown is one conception of the use of variable. In this conception,
variables as unknowns have fixed values that can be solved if enough
information is given. In other words, students often think of them as values
that they do not know yet but which can be found if enough information is
provided in the situation or problem. Nevertheless, as students advance in the
learning of algebra they should learn other conceptions of variable and be able
to differentiate between the various conceptions.
5.1.2 Identifying Unknowns in a Given Situation

In the previous lesson, students have learned how to use letters or alphabets to
represent unknowns or variables. Tell them that besides using both capital and
small letters, they may also use any other appropriate symbols.
Note that we have to use different letters to represent different unknowns. Look
at the following examples. Guide your students to complete Table 5.7.
Table 5.7: Unknowns in Different Situations
Varying Symbols to Represent

No. Situations
Quantity Unknowns/Variables
1 Bee LiÊs height in metre. Height h
2 The time taken by Faiz to complete a Time t
100m race.
3 The number of children Pak Dolah Number of n
has. children
4 The amount of water consumed by Amount of V
GanÊs family last month. water
5 The Mathematics mark scored by Mathematics x
Saiful in the February test. mark
6 The length of a ribbon.
7 The number of desks in a classroom.
8 The width of a notice board.
9 The weight of Yahya in kilogram.
10 The temperature at 12 noon.

In certain cases, they have to use more than one unknown. For example, a
rectangle with a length of x cm and a width of y cm (as shown in Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: A rectangle with a length of x cm and a width of y cm
5.1.3 Algebraic Terms

An algebraic term is the basic unit of an algebraic expression. One or more terms
when combined using mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication or division, forms an algebraic expression. For example, 2 + x ă 4y
is an algebraic expression with three terms. You will see more of algebraic
expression in the next subtopic. For now, let us discuss more about algebraic
terms.
An algebraic term can be a number, an unknown or variable, or a product of

a number and unknown(s)/variable(s). For example, the algebraic expression
2 + x ă 4y has one term which is a number (2), a second term which is an
unknown/variable represented by x, and a third term which is a product of a
number (4) and an unknown/variable represented by y. An algebraic term with
only number is also called constant term.
An algebraic term with one unknown is a product of an unknown and a number.

In other words, the unknown and the number are factors of the algebraic term.
The constant part of an algebraic term is known as numerical coefficient or
simply the coefficient of the term.
Figure 5.4 helps to illustrate the meaning of unknown and coefficient in an

algebraic term.
Figure 5.4: Meaning of unknown and coefficient in an algebraic term

Teaching Sample Activity 5.2: To recognise algebraic terms in one unknown.
1. Prepare a few cards, each written with an algebraic term.
2. Some examples of such terms are:
5k W ăb X2 3 1 h 5
− t p 1 s
4 2 10 7
0.7m 4xy ă3 ă2V
3. Put these cards in a box. Allow each student to draw at random a card
from the box.
4. Ask these questions:
(a) „Is it an algebraic term with one unknown?‰
(b) „If not, why?‰
(c) „What is the unknown? What is the coefficient?‰

5. Guide them to complete Table 5.8:
Table 5.8: Algebraic Terms of Unknown
Algebraic Terms in One Unknown

Unknown Coefficient
Yes No
1 5k
2 W
3 ăb
4 X2
5 3
− t
4
6 1
p
2
7 h
10
8 5
1 s
7
9 0.7m
10 4xy
11 ă3
12 ă2V
13
14
15
16
6. Prepare enough cards so that every student has a chance to try.
7. Award them with a small gift and you will notice that it serves as a good
motivation for them to participate in the activity.

5.1.4 Like and Unlike Terms with One Unknown

Like terms are terms with the same unknowns and same degrees of power, while
unlike terms are terms with different unknowns or different degrees of power.
For example,
1
4x, ă0.5x, x, 36x, ăx, 1000x are like terms with unknown x.
2
6t, ă2p, 0.88x, k are unlike terms, since all the unknowns are different.
2x and 4x2 are unlike terms, since the unknowns are of different powers.
It needs to be noted that all constants are also categorised as like terms.
The following are three simple steps that will help you to determine whether the
given terms are like or unlike terms:
(a) Ignore the numerical coefficients and examine the algebraic part of the
terms;
(b) Check the unknowns or variables in the terms. They must be the same for
like terms; and
(c) Next, check the powers of each unknown or variable in the terms. They
must also be the same for like terms.

You can write any term on the board and tell your students to write several like
terms for the term you have written. Instruct others to give unlike terms as well.
Teaching Sample Activity 5.3: To identify like and unlike terms ă Who is my
partner?
1. This activity is similar to that of Teaching Sample Activity 5.2. You may
use the same set of cards but you will need to prepare another set of cards
with matching unknowns.
2. You may even have three or more cards written with like terms.
3. As before, put these cards in a box. Allow each student to draw at

random a card from the box.
4. Instruct them to look for their partner, who in this case is another student
who has a card with a like term. After which, they will have to run to the
front and exhibit their cards.
5. Make sure that all students are eventually paired up.
6. You can award the pair who completes the task the fastest.
7. On the other hand, you can purposely design the activity so that one or
two students have no partner (no one with like terms). In such a case,
they may be asked to sing a song for the class.
8. Notice that you have just applied multiple intelligence technique in your
learning activities.

5.2 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

An algebraic expression is a number, unknown/variable, or a combination
of the two, connected by mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication or division. In other words, an algebraic expression is made up of
algebraic terms.
The following are some examples:

(a) 3w
(b) 5 ă 2h
(c) x + 5y ă 10
(d) 7 ă 4p + 9p
3w is an algebraic expression with just one term. The term has an unknown w
with three as its coefficient.
5 ă 2h is an algebraic expression with two terms, namely, a constant term 5 and

an algebraic term with unknown h.
x + 5y ă 10 is an algebraic expression with three terms, namely, a constant term ă

10, and two algebraic terms with two unknowns x and y respectively.
7 ă 4p + 9p is an algebraic expression with three terms, namely, a constant term 7

and two algebraic terms, both with the same unknown p.
You may guide your students to make tree diagrams to illustrate the parts of an
algebraic expression. Figures 5.5 and 5.6 show two algebraic expressions and
their parts.
Figure 5.5: Algebraic expression and its part

Figure 5.6: Algebraic expression and its part
Alternatively, you may guide your students to build a table to identify the
various parts of an algebraic expression as shown in the examples in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9: Identifying Various Parts of Algebraic Expression
No. Algebraic Expression Algebraic Term Coefficient Unknown

2m 2 m
1 2m ă 7n
ă7n ă7 n
x 1 x
2 x + 3y ă 5z 3y 3 y
ă5z ă5 z
4 4
4 P P
3 PăQ 5 5
5
ăQ ă1 Q
3a 3 a
0.5b 0.5 b
4 3a + 0.5b 1.6c + 3
ă1.6c ă1.6 c
3 No No

Now we are ready to set up activities to help them in writing algebraic

expressions.
Teaching Sample Activity 5.4: To write algebraic expressions from situations.
1. Prepare a few enclosed boxes which contain different number of marbles

(shown in Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7: Enclosed boxes which contain different number of marbles
2. Tell your students that there are m marbles in Box A.
3. Create a table which displays information about the number of marbles in

the other four boxes.
4. By studying the given information, the students are supposed to derive an

expression which can be used to represent the number of marbles in the
various boxes.
5. Guide your students to complete Table 5.10 by filling in the correct

algebraic expressions in the last column.
Table 5.10: Algebraic Expressions
Information Regarding the Algebraic Expression which

Box
Number of Marbles in the Box Represents the Number of Marbles
A m marbles in Box A m
Three times more than that in 3m
B
Box A
Four marbles more than that in m+4
C
Box A
Two marbles less than that in mă2
D
Box A
1
E Only a quarter of that in Box A m
4

Teaching Sample Activity 5.5: To form algebraic expressions in two unknowns.
1. Prepare two boxes.
2. Put varying numbers of RM1 notes into Box A and RM10 notes into
Box B, then ask students to add the total amount of the notes and fill in
Table 5.11.
Table 5.11: The Total Amount of the RM1 and RM10 Notes
Number of RM1 Number of RM10

Total amount in Ringgit (RM)
Notes Notes
1 1 1 + 10 = 11
1 2 1 + 2(10) = 21
2 2 2(1) + 2(10) = 22
3 4 3(1) + 4(10) = 43
x y x + 10y
3. Explain to students that since we vary the number of RM1 notes (a

variable), we can use a letter to represent the number. In this case, we will
use the letter x.
4. Similarly, since the number of RM10 notes also varies (another variable),
we represent it with a letter, for example, y.
5. Emphasise to students that the results shown in the third column of the
above table indicates that the value 1 and the value 10 are constant.
6. Guide students to form the algebraic expression x + 10y where the

coefficient of x, that is, 1, denotes the value of each RM1 note, and the
coefficient of y, that is, 10, denotes the value of each RM10 note. Hence x
denotes the number of RM1 notes and y denotes the number of RM10
notes. To enhance studentsÊ understanding, guide them to form the
expression using various combinations of RM1 notes and RM10 notes.

5.3 SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

We will now take a look at simplifying algebraic expressions.
5.3.1 Addition and Subtraction of Like Terms

Sometimes an algebraic expression may have more than two terms with the same
unknown. These terms are called like terms as we have seen earlier. We can
simplify such algebraic expressions by combining the like terms using the basic
operations of addition and subtraction.
How can you illustrate through concrete representations the addition and
subtraction of like terms in an algebraic expression? A useful teaching aid is the
algebra tiles, which you can easily make for your students to use.
Figure 5.8 shows a set of algebra tiles for representing positive 1, negative 1,
positive x, negative x, positive y and negative y. You can make these tiles
using coloured mounting board or with laminated coloured papers cut into
appropriate squares and rectangles.
Figure 5.8: Algebra tiles
Like terms are represented by tiles of the same pattern (or colour if you use
coloured tiles). The negative unit is of the same pattern as the positive unit but in
darker shade (or a darker hue of colour or make a cross if you use coloured tiles).
A positive 1 unit when combined to a negative 1 unit gives a zero-pair which has
the value of 0. Similarly, a positive x or y when combined with the corresponding
negative x or y also results in a zero-pair.

Table 5.12 illustrates how the tiles are used to represent addition and subtraction
of algebraic terms.
Table 5.12: Tiles Representing Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Terms
Symbolic Representation Concrete Representation Using Algebra Tiles

x + 2 ă 5 = x + 2 + (ă 5 )
= x + ( ă 3)
= xă3
Zero-pairs
x + 2x = 3 x
3x ă x = 3x + (ăx)
= 2x
Zero-pair
2x ă1 + x ă 3 = 2x + x ă 1 ă 3
= 2x + x ă 1 ă 3
= 3x + (ă 1) + (ă 3)
= 3x + (ă 4)
= 3x ă 4
4x + y ă 2 ă x + 2 y + 4
= 4x + (ă x) + y + 2y + 4 + (ă 2)
= 3x + 3y + 2

In using concrete representations, students can easily see that algebraic terms
which are unlike should not be combined (added or subtracted). This can be
represented by the different patterns or colours of the tiles used.
Thus, an algebraic expression with unlike terms cannot be simplified. Hence,

m + 7n, 9 ă 4k and x + 8y ă 1 cannot be simplified further.
When your students are familiar with the concept of addition and subtraction
of algebraic terms using concrete representations, you can then proceed with
simplifying algebraic expressions by rearranging or regrouping the terms so that
like terms are grouped together. Then you can add or subtract the like terms
accordingly.
Example 5.1: Simplify the algebraic expression 7a + 2 + 3b ă 4a + 7.
Solution: 7a + 2 + 3b ă 4a + 7 = 7a ă 4a + 3b + 2 + 7
= 3a + 3b + 9
Example 5.2: Simplify the algebraic expression 3p + 2q ă 4r ă (ă2p) + 5q + r.
Solution: 3p + 2q ă 4r ă (ă2p) + 5q + r = 3p ă (ă2p) + 2q + 5q ă 4r + r

= 3p + 2p + 2q + 5q ă 4r + r
= 5p + 7q ă 3r
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Illustrate how you can simplify the following algebraic expressions

using algebra tiles:
(c) 3x + y ă 4y ă 5x
(d) 12 ă 6a ă 3b + 7a ă 2c + 5b ă 5

Teaching Sample Activity 5.6: To add and subtract like terms.
1. Use the set of cards you had prepared for Teaching Sample Activity 5.3 as
this is a continuation of that activity.
2. After a student has found his partner who carries a like term, both of
them run to the score board and put the pair of like terms on the prepared
columns.
3. Then they will have to find the sum and the difference of both terms.
For example,
If both the like terms are 5k and ă0.6k,
Then, the sum = 5k + (ă0.6k) = 4.4k
And the difference = 5k ă (ă0.6k) = 5k + 0.6k = 5.6k
4. A maximum score of three points are given for three skills that students
are required to display through this activity, which are: to gather two like
terms, to add them correctly and to subtract correctly.
5. The process is repeated by the other pairs of students.
6. Guide them to complete the score board as shown in Table 5.13.
Table 5.13: Scoreboard
Term 1 Term 2 Sum Difference Score

5k ă0.6k 4.4k 5.6k 3
W 1
W
4
ăb 10b
Total
You can carry out this activity in the form of a competition among two groups
of students by preparing two score boards, one each for each group. The group
with the highest score wins the competition.

5.3.2 Multiplication and Division by a Number

Now we will look at multiplication and division by a number:
(a) When we multiply an algebraic expression by a number, all we need to do

is to multiply each term by that number, before we combine them; and
(b) Similarly, if we want to divide an algebraic expression by a number, we

can split the expression first. Then we divide each term by the number and
finally combine them to form a new expression.
Example 5.2: Multiply the expression 4y ă 3 by 2.
Solution: 2(4y ă 3) = 2(4y) + 2(ă 3)

= 8y + (ă 6)
= 8y ă 6
Concrete representation: Using algebra tiles
2 sets of [4y + ( ă 3)]
4y 4y
3 3
8y ̶6

1
Example 5.3: Multiply the expression p + q ă 1 by 4.
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
Solution: 4 ⎜ p + q − 1 ⎟ = 4 ( p ) + 4 ⎜ q ⎟ + 4 ( −1)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
= 4 p + 2q + ( −4 )
= 4 p + 2q − 4
⎡ 1 ⎤
4 sets of ⎢ p + q + ( −1)⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
1 1 1 1
p q p q p q p q
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
4p 2q ̶4

Example 5.4: Divide the expression 10h + 5k ă 4 by 2.
10h + 5k − 4
Solution: (10h + 5k − 4 ) 2 =
2
10h 5k 4
= + −
2 2 2
5
= 5h + k − 2
2
10h + 5k ă 4 is divided into two sets
10h 5k ̶4
5 5h 5 ̶2
5h k ̶2 k
2 2
5
Each set consists of 5h + kă2
2

SELF-CHECK 5.2
Illustrate how you can simplify the following algebraic expressions
using algebra tiles:
(a) 3 × (4x ă y + 2)
(b) (6a + b ă 9) ÷ 3
5.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Like and Unlike

Terms
Pose problems involving everyday examples so that the students will find them
more meaningful.
Example 5.5
Pak Wan sells fruits at a stall. He has 7x baskets of durians and 3y baskets of
mangosteens. If he has sold 4x baskets of durians and y baskets of mangosteens,
how many baskets of fruits are left?
Understand the problem: Durians: Initially 7x baskets, sold 4x baskets

Mangosteens: Initially 3y baskets, sold y baskets
To find out how much left of each.
Devise the strategy: Use subtraction
Carry out the strategy: (7x + 3y) ă (4x + y) = 7x + 3y ă 4x ă y

= 7x ă 4x + 3y ă y
= 3x + 2y
Therefore, Pak Wan has 3x baskets of durians and 2y baskets of mangosteens

left.

Example 5.6
An egg tart costs p ringgit and a cream puff costs q ringgit. Linda bought six tarts
and four cream puffs whereas Mei Hua bought eight tarts and five cream puffs.
How much more does Mei Hua have to pay compared to Linda?
Understand the problem: One egg tart costs p ringgit

One cream puff costs q ringgit
Linda: Six tarts and four cream puffs
Mei Hua: Eight tarts and five cream puffs
To find how much more Mei Hua pays.
Devise the strategy: Find the total amount Linda has to pay.
Find the total amount Mei Hua has to pay.
Subtract LindaÊs amount from Mei HuaÊs.
Carry out the strategy: LindaÊs amount = 6p + 4q

Mei HuaÊs amount = 8p + 5q
Difference = (8p + 5q) ă (6p + 4q)
= 8p + 5q ă 6p ă 4q
= 8p ă 6p + 5q ă 4q
= 2p + q
Check your answer: Linda: Six tarts and four cream puffs
Mei Hua: Eight tarts and five cream puffs
Difference = Two tarts and one cream puff
Difference in payment = 2p + 1q
Therefore, Mei Hua has to pay RM(2p + q) more than Linda.

Example 5.7
In the year 2000, Jay was w years old and his father was three times his age. JayÊs
sister, Carol, is four years younger. What is their total age in the year 2010?
Understand the problem: In year 2000, JayÊs age =w

FatherÊs age = 3w
CarolÊs age = wă4
To find their total age in year 2010.
Devise the strategy: Find their age in 2010. Then find the sum.
Carry out the strategy: 2010 ă 2000 = 10 years

In year 2010, JayÊs age = w + 10
FatherÊs age = 3w + 10
SisterÊs age = w ă 4 + 10
Their total age = w + 10 + 3w + 10 + w ă 4 + 10
= w + 3w + w + 10 + 10 ă 4 + 10
= 5w + 26
Check your answer: Total age in year 2000 = w + 3w + w ă 4

= 5w ă 4
Total age in year 2010 = 5w ă 4 + 30

= 5w + 26
Therefore, their total age in the year 2010 is 5w + 26.

Example 5.8
Zul and Azlan have decided to save some money so that they can buy a present
for their grandmother on her 80th birthday. Zul saves x ringgit everyday for
20 days, whereas Azlan decides to save y ringgit every week for three weeks.
What is their total savings?
Understand the problem: Zul saves x ringgit a day for 20 days

Azlan saves y ringgit a week for three weeks.
To find their total savings.
Devise the strategy: Find ZulÊs savings. Then find AzlanÊs savings.
Find the sum.
Carry out the strategy: ZulÊs savings = x × 20 = 20x

AzlanÊs savings = y × 3 = 3y
Their total savings = 20x + 3y.
Therefore, their total savings is (20x + 3y) ringgit.
• Variables and unknowns are two important related concepts in algebra.
• Unknown is one conception of the use of variable. Unknowns have values

that can be found if enough information is given.
• Algebraic terms when combined using mathematical operations such

as addition, subtraction, multiplication or division, form an algebraic
expression.
• Like terms are terms with the same unknowns and same degrees of power
while unlike terms are terms with different unknowns or different degrees of
power
• An algebraic expression is made up of algebraic terms.
• Algebraic expressions can be simplified using basic operations involving like

terms.

Algebraic expression Mixed operation

Combining Simplification
Like and unlike terms Unknown

Malaysia.
Usiskin, Z. (1988). Conceptions of school algebra and uses of variables. In

A. Coxford & A. Shulte (Eds.). The ideas of algebra, K-12: 1988 yearbook
(pp. 8ă19). Reston, VA: The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Topic  Basic
6 Measurements
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of measurement;
2. Measure lengths and masses of different objects in standard units;
3. Solve problems involving measurements of lengths and masses
using operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division);
4. Explain the concept of time: seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks
and months in a year;
5. Estimate time intervals;
6. Differentiate between the 12-hours and 24-hours systems; and
7. Solve problems involving time.
 INTRODUCTION
Developing measurement concepts and skills are important goals of the
mathematics curriculum. Mathematical understanding of basic measurements is
needed to function effectively in everyday life because measurement helps us to
quantify the world around us. There are three basic measurements that must be
mastered by lower secondary students: length of objects, mass of objects and
time. They should be able to apply measurement skills to solve everyday
problems and also in other subjects such as science, living skills or geography.

TOPIC 6 BASIC MEASUREMENTS  191
As teachers of mathematics, we need to guide students to understand the

meaning and process of measurement. In other words, what does it mean to
measure the length and mass of an object or measure the time of an event? Let us
take a look at this important conceptual understanding so that you can help your
students develop better understanding of measurement.
6.1 CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT

Suppose that you ask your students to measure a book. They might measure how
long, how wide or how heavy the book is. Or they might measure how long it
takes to read a page from the book. „How long‰ and „how wide‰ are related to
the length of the book. „How heavy‰ is concerned about the weight or mass of
the book. „How long it takes to read a page of the book‰ is related to the time of
an event. Each of these aspects can be measured is an attribute of the book.
Specifically, these aspects are measurable attributes of the book because they can
be quantified by being compared to units of measure.
Thus, to measure an attribute of an object, we need to first identify the attribute

to be determined and then select a unit of measure that has the same attribute. In
other words, to measure length we need units that have length, to measure mass
we need units that have mass, to measure time we need units that have time and
so on. After an appropriate unit is selected, the process of measuring involves
comparing the attribute of the object being measured and the same attribute of
the given unit of measure.
During initial development of measurement understanding, this unit of measure

can take the form of non-standard measure like a paper clip for length, a marble
for mass or a pendulum swing for time. Subsequently, standard units of
measures are used for comparison. The end result of measuring is a number and
a unit of measure such as 20 paper clips or 30cm (length), 45 marbles or 0.5kg
(mass), and 15 pendulum swings or 3 minutes (time).

192  TOPIC 6 BASIC MEASUREMENTS
Figure 6.1 illustrates the concept of measuring different attributes of a book.

For each attribute to be measured, the measurement can be determined by
comparison with either non-standard units or standard units.
Figure 6.1: Measuring different attributes of a book

Source: www.freedigitalphotos.net
Therefore, to measure something involves the following three main steps:
(a) Decide on the attribute to be measured;
(b) Select an appropriate unit that has that attribute; and
(c) Compare the units with the attribute of the object being measured.
Two other important concepts underlie the step of comparing units, which are
partitioning and unit iteration. Partitioning involves sub-dividing an object into
same-sized units. For example, the length of the book is sub-divided into units of
the same size when comparing with the sub-divided standard centimetre units of
a ruler. Unit iteration involves repeating the unit measures along the attribute to
be measured. For example, the length of the book is measured when sub-divided
centimetre units of a ruler are iterated or repeated to correspond to the length of
the book.

Various standard measuring tools are developed to compare measures of an

object or event with units of measures determined by the tool, to give an
indication of a measurement. Rulers, weighing balances, stop watches are some
examples of measuring tools calibrated to measure length, mass and time
respectively.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
The concept of measurement involves three main steps. Explain these

three steps.
6.2 LENGTH
Consider this situation. The students are given a thread or rope which is
straightened. There are two points such as A and B as indicated in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Point A and B of a thread/rope
Then, we can say that length is the distance from one point to another or from
one end to another (Cho, Mangai, Suhana Sebi & Tiew, 2005). Measuring length
involves quantifying „how far‰ it is between the endpoints of A and B. AB can
represent an object or a space between two points of an object. In geometrical
terms, AB represents the space between two points in a plane.
The standard units of length:
Kilometre (km)
Metre (m)
Centimetre (cm)
Millimetre (mm)
Rulers and measuring tapes are examples of tools that can be used to measure
the length of an object.

Take a close look at the metre-rule in Figure 6.3. You can see that there are
markings on it. These markings represent the partitioning and iteration concepts
of measuring, as seen earlier.
Figure 6.3: Metre-rule
Teaching Sample Activity 6.1: Units of measurement.
Discuss with the students about the units which are suitable for measuring the:
1. Thickness of a mathematics textbook;
2. Length of a blackboard;
3. Length from the tip of the hand to the elbow;
4. Height of a student;
5. Length of a football field; and
6. Depth of a river.

6.2.1 Converting One Metric Unit into Another

Students must be able to convert various units of length such as from km to m or
vice versa based on their relationships. For this, we must remind the students
about multiplication and division of numbers involving decimals.
Most countries have adopted the metric system of measurement. Conversions

between units are made easy since multiplying and dividing by 10 is a breeze! To
convert between units, the following relationships are used;
1km = 1,000m 1
1m = 1000 or 0.001km
1m = 100cm or
1
1cm = 10mm 1cm = 100 or 0.01m
1
1mm = 100 or 0.1cm
Example 6.1
The distance between Point X and Point Y is 5.72km. What is the distance in
metres?
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem! What is the task?
Step 2: Plan! Recall the facts and use them.
Remember!
1km = 1000m
5.72km = _m?

Step 3: Execute! Compute the values.
∴5.72km = 5.72 × 1,000m

5.72 × 1000
= 5,720m
Move the decimal point three
places to the right.
Answer: 5,720
Step 4: Check! Look at your working solution and check your answer again.
Example 6.2
The length of a piece of wire is 23.6mm. What is its length in centimetres?
Solution:
Remember!
1mm = 0.1cm
23.6mm = _cm?
∴23.6mm = 23.6 × 0.1cm

23.6 × 0.1
= 2.36cm Move the decimal point one
place to the left.
Answer: 2.36

Example 6.3
The height of a table is 345.9mm. Convert this height into metres.
Solution:
Remember!
1mm = 0.1cm
Since 1cm = 0.01m, we must multiply 0.1 with 0.01m, i.e.
1mm = 0.1 × 0.01 = 0.001m
∴345.9mm = 345.9 × 0.001m

345.9 × 0.001
= 0.3459m
Move the decimal point
three places to the left.
Answer: 0.3459

Example 6.4
A piece of rope is 3m 40cm long. What is its length in mm?
Solution:
Remember!
1m = 100cm
And 1cm = 10mm
∴1m = 100cm × 10mm= 1,000mm
1m = 1,000mm
∴3m = 3 ×1,000mm
= 3,000mm
Remember!
1cm = 10mm
∴40cm = 40 × 10mm
= 400mm
Total length = 3,000mm + 400mm
= 3,400mm

To test their understanding, give the following problems to the students:
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Convert the following into metres:

(a) 5.02km
(b) 50.2cm
(c) 500.2mm
(d) 5km 20m
2. Convert the following into centimetres:

(a) 0.24km
(b) 20.4m
(c) 204mm
(d) 5m 30cm
Make sure that the students have mastered the conversion of units for length
before proceeding to Teaching Sample Activity 6.2. This activity is designed to
enrich their knowledge and skills in measuring length.
Teaching Sample Activity 6.2: Converting one metric unit to another.
1. Divide your students into four groups. Assign one of the tasks listed
below. By using rulers or measuring tapes, measure the following items
(use suitable units):
(a) Distance from your classroom to the school office;
(b) The height of the staircase;
(c) The width of the school field; and
(d) The length of the sepak takraw/basketball court.
2. After measuring the items, ask your students to convert the measurements
to different units.

ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Explain how you would convert a metric unit into another, for
length.
2. Think of an outdoor activity that is related to this topic.
3. Name other instruments that can be used to measure length/
6.2.2 Solving Problems Using Mathematical

Operations
After learning how to convert various units of length, students should be guided
to solve some problems related to mathematical operations (+, ă, × and ÷). You
can guide your students to solve problems using the 4-step PolyaÊs Model.
Example 6.5
Pak Ahmad joins two pieces of fishing nets to make a larger net. If the two nets
are 3m 80cm and 2m 25cm, respectively, how long is the new fishing net?
Solution:
Remember!
1m = 100cm
3m 80cm + 2m 25cm = _m _cm?

 
Add 3 to the cm
regrouped 1 80
in the m m cm
+ 25
column. 3 +1 80
Then add 2. 105
+ 2 25
3+1=4 6 5
We convert 105cm into
∴4 + 2 = 6 1m 5cm.
Regroup 1m to the m
column leaving only 5
in the cm column.

Answer: 6m 5cm
Example 6.6
A piece of wire is 8m 20cm long. Ali cuts 2m 60cm of it away. What is the balance
of the wire in m and cm?
Solution:
Remember!
1m = 100cm
8m 20cm ă 2m 60cm = ?

 
We subtract 1 from We have to regroup
8m since we 100cm from the m
regrouped 1m to the m cm column because 60
cm column. 8 −1 20+100 cannot be subtracted
Then, 8 ă 1 = 7 − 2 60 from 20.
5 60 Then,
∴7 ă 2 = 5
100 + 20 = 120.
∴120 ă 60 = 60
Answer: 5m 60cm
Example 6.7
A piece of curtain is 4m 45cm in length. If Betty needs five curtains, what is the
total length of the curtains? Express your answer in m and cm.
Solution:
Remember!
1m = 100cm
4m 45cm × 5 = ?

 
First, calculate cm
4m × 5 = 20m. 45
m cm
Then add 2m × 5
regrouped from the 42 45
225
cm column × 5
22 25
We convert 225cm
into 2m 25cm.
Regroup 2m to the
m column, leaving
25cm in the cm
column.

Answer: 22m 25cm
Example 6.8
The distance between Town A and Town B is 104km 550m. There are five
stations in between at which a bus must stop to pick up passengers. If these
stations are situated equally along the route, calculate the distance between them
in km and m.
Solution:
Remember!
1km = 1,000m
104km 550m ÷ 5 = ?

20km 910m
5 104km 550m
100
4 4000m 550 + 4,000 = 4,550
4550
Convert 4km into
4,000m
Answer: 20km 910m
Teaching Sample Activity 6.3: Solving problems using mathematical operations

involving length.
1. A group discussion through cooperative problem solving is a good

strategy to help your students solve problems. Think-Pair-Square is a
cooperative structure introduced by Spencer Kagan (1994) which you can
use in your class.
2. Divide your students into small groups of four. Within each group,
two members are paired (pairs can be changed after each question).
3. Prepare a list of problems and pose a problem to the class through an

LCD projector. For example:
(a) Puan Anatasha requires 1,500cm of curtain material for six windows
in her house. Calculate the length, in m, of curtain material, for
10 windows of the same size (PMR, 2004).
(b) Ramli runs 2.75km on track P and 3km 50m on track Q. What is the
total distance, in, km, that Ramli runs (PMR, 2005)?

(c) A wooden pole measures 2m 30cm in length. Calculate the total

length of eight similar poles in m and cm.
(d) Mary uses 40cm of ribbon to wrap a gift. She wants to wrap five
gifts but needed a balance of 60cm of the ribbon for other purposes.
What is the total length, in metres, of ribbon that she needs to buy in
the first place?
(e) A piece of string is 15m long. If it is cut into smaller pieces

measuring 30cm each, calculate how many small pieces of string are
available.
4. Students are told to read and think about the problem without doing any
calculation. Thinking time should be about 20 seconds.
5. The pairs then put their heads together to discuss and solve the problem.
6. After a given amount of time, each pair shares their solution with the
other pair in the group. If a pair disagrees with the solution, the group
discusses to come to an agreement to form a group solution.
7. The group then shares their solution with other groups to check their
answers.
8. Proceed with the next problem if your students can solve the given
problem.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Explain why is it important for the students to remember the

conversion of the units before they start solving problems?

6.3 MASS
Mass and weight are often confused by many students. We often hear people say
„My weight is 60kg‰ rather than using the word „mass‰. Is there a difference? Do
you know the difference?
Mass is the amount of matter of an object, while weight is how hard gravity
is pulling the matter of the object. The mass of an object remains the same
anywhere but the weight would depend on the force of gravity at a particular
place. Thus, your body mass remains the same wherever you are ă on Earth, on
the moon or floating in space. But your body weight can be different ă you weigh
less when you are on the moon than on Earth, because the gravity on the Moon is
lesser than on Earth.
Measuring mass of an object involves quantifying how much matter an object

has. To do this, let us recall the measuring process. First, the attribute to be
measured is identified, which in this case, is the amount of matter. Second, we
select a unit of measure that has the same attribute, that is, we can use a 100g unit
mass. Finally, the object can be compared with the known units of mass using a
balance beam as shown in Figure 6.4. Ten 100g units are used (or iterated
10 times) to balance the mass of the object, thus resulting in a mass of 1,000g.
Figure 6.4: Measuring mass of an object
Tools such as triple-balance beam (see Figure 6.5), spring balance (see Figure 6.6)
and weighing scales (see Figure 6.7) are used to measure mass and weight.
Which of the tools are actually able to measure mass? Does the spring balance
measure mass? Since the gravity on Earth remains the same, all these tools are
often used to indicate mass, although strictly speaking, only the balance scales
are measuring mass.

Figure 6.5: Triple-balance beam

Source:www.edinformatics.com
Figure 6.6:Spring balance

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org
For our discussion in this topic, we shall consider the weighing scales or „scales‰
as the one most commonly used in our homes and shops.
Take a close look at the scale in Figure 6.7. You can see that there are markings
and a pointer on the circular part that is facing us. The pointer indicates the mass
of the object in the diagram. How does partitioning and unit iteration work in
this weighing scale?

Figure 6.7: Weighing scales
Teaching Sample Activity 6.4: Units of measurement.
Discuss with your students about the units which is suitable for measuring the:
(a) Mass of a mathematics textbook;
(b) Mass of 10 mathematics textbooks;
(c) Mass of a box of chalk;
(d) Mass of one student; and
(e) Mass of a lorry.
6.3.1 Converting One Metric Unit into Another

The standard units of mass:
Tonne
Kilogram (kg)
Gram (g)
Milligram (mg)
Students must be able to convert various units of mass, for example, from kg to g
or vice versa based on their relationships. For this, we must remind the students
about multiplication and division of numbers involving decimals, since mass is
measured mostly using the metric system.
To convert between units of mass, the following relationships between metric

units are used;
1 tonne = 1,000kg 1
1kg = 1000 or 0.001 tonne
1kg = 1,000g or
1
1g = 1,000mg 1g = 1000 or 0.001kg
1
1mg = 1000 or 0.001g
Example 6.9
A packet of rice has a mass of 10.5kg. Convert its mass into g.
Solution:
Remember!
1kg = 1,000g
10.5kg = _g?
10.5 × 1,000
Move the decimal point three
places to the right.
∴10.5kg = 10.5 × 1,000g
= 10,500
= 10,500g
Answer: 10,500g

Example 6.10
An exercise book has a mass of 250g. Convert this mass into kg.
Solution:
Remember!
1g = 0.001kg
250g = _kg?
250 × 0.001
Move the decimal point one
place to the left.
∴250g = 250 × 0.001g
= 0.25kg = 0.25
Answer: 0.25kg

Example 6.11
The mass of a piece is 3,459mg. Convert this weight into kg.
Solution:
Remember!
1g = 0.001kg
Since 1mg = 0.001g, we must multiply 0.001 by 0.001m, i.e.:
1mg = 0.001 × 0.001 = 0.000001kg
3459 × 0.000001
Move the decimal point six
places to the left.
∴3459mg = 3459 × 0.000001m
= 0.003459kg = 0.003459
Answer: 0.003459kg

Example 6.12
The mass of a piece of stick is 3kg 400g. What is its mass in g?
Solution:
Remember!
1kg = 1,000g
∴3kg = 3 × 1,000g
= 3,000g
Total mass = 3,000g + 400g
= 3,400g
Answer: 3,400g

EXERCISE 6.2
1. Convert the following into g:

(a) 5.02kg
(b) 50.2kg
(c) 500.2mg
(d) 5kg 20g
2. Convert the following into milligram:

(a) 0.24kg
(b) 20.4kg
(c) 204g
(d) 5kg 30g
Make sure that the students have mastered the conversion of units for length
enrich their knowledge and skills in determining the mass of objects using
weighing scales.
Teaching Sample Activity 6.5: Estimating and measuring the mass of objects.
1. Provide students with a variety of weighing scales.
2. Divide your students into four groups. Provide a list of things to be

measured:
(a) A packet of flour;
(b) Two eggs;
(c) Three pieces of paper (A4 size); and
(d) A crate of oranges.
3. Students estimate the mass of objects in suitable units.

4. Students then determine the actual mass by using appropriate weighing

scales and record all measurements in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Measurement Table
No. Objects Estimated Actual Mass Difference

Mass
1 A packet of flour
2 Two eggs
3 Three pieces of paper (A4
size)
4 A crate of oranges
5. Guide students to compare estimated mass and actual mass.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Explain how you would convert one metric unit to another for
mass.
h k f d h l d h
6.3.2 Solving Problems Using Mathematical

Operations
After we have learned how to convert various units of mass, we should now try
to solve some problems related to mathematical operations (+, ă, × and ÷).
Example 6.13
Solve 3kg 800g + 2kg 250g
Solution:

Remember!
1kg = 1,000g
3kg 800g + 2kg 250g = ?
 
Add 3 to the g
regrouped 1 in the 800
kg column. Then kg g
+1 + 250
add 2. 3 800
1050
3+1=4 + 2 250
6 50
∴4 + 2 = 6 We convert 1,050g
into 1kg 50g.
Regroup 1kg to the
kg column leaving
only 50 in the g
column.

Answer: 6kg 50g
Example 6.14
A cake has a mass of 1kg 200g. Albert cuts a piece which is 400g. What is the
balance of the cake in kg and g?
Solution:

Remember!
1kg = 1,000g
1kg 200g ă 400g = ?
 
We subtract 1 We have to regroup
from 1kg since 1000g from the kg
we regroup it kg g
column because 400
−1
to the g 1 200+1000 cannot be subtracted
column. − 0 400 from 200.
Then, 1 ă 1= 0 0 800 Then,
∴0 ă 0 = 0 1,000 + 200 = 1,200.
∴1,200 ă 400 = 800

Answer: 800g
Example 6.15
The mass of a piece of wood is 4kg 450g. If Bala needs five pieces of wood of the
same mass, what is the total mass? Express your answer in kg and g.
Solution:

Remember!
1kg = 1,000g
4kg 450g × 5 = ?
 
First, calculate g
4kg × 5 = 20kg. 450
kg g
Then add the × 5
42 450
2kg regrouped 2250
from the g − 5
column 22 250
We convert 2,250g
∴ 20 + 2= 22 into 2kg 250g.
Regroup 2kg to the
kg column, leaving
250g in the g column

Answer: 22kg 250g
Example 6.16
The total mass of five parcels is 104kg 550g. If each parcel is equal in mass,
calculate their individual mass in kg and g.
Solution:

Remember!
1km = 1,000m
104kg 550g ÷ 5 = ?
20kg 910g
5 104kg 550g
100
4 4000g 550 + 4,000= 4,550
4550
Convert 4kg into

4,000g
Answer: 20kg 910g
Teaching Sample Activity 6.6: Constructing and solving problems involving

mass.
1. Assign students into small groups (preferably four students to a group).
2. Form pairs within each group.
3. Working in pairs, each pair constructs a word problem involving mass,

for the other pair to solve.
4. A list of problems can be given initially as a guide. For example:
(a) There are six tins of powdered milk in a container. If the mass of
one container is 600g, calculate, in kg, the total mass of the tins.

(b) The total mass of several cakes is 10kg 400g. If one of the cakes is
3kg 500g, calculate, (in kg and g) the mass of the remainder.
(c) A packet of flour has a mass of 10.5kg. Some of the flour was spilled
leaving only 7kg 300g in the packet. Calculate the mass, in g, of the
flour that was spilled.
(d) Container A is filled with 36.75kg of white sugar. Container B is

filled with 24.4kg of brown sugar. Find, in kg, the total mass of both
containers.
(e) One ream of A4 paper has a mass of 900g. If there are 450 sheets of
paper, calculate (in g) the mass of one sheet of paper.
5. Each pair checks the solution of the other pair and provides corrective
feedback and guidance if necessary.
6.4 TIME
Time is a measure but it is different from length or mass in that it cannot be seen
or touched. However, we can feel the effect of time passing, for example, from
day to night and from an unbroken glass to a broken one. There are two
important concepts of time that students must know:
(a) Time as an instant or moment when something happens, for example, „At
1.30pm I take my lunch.‰
(b) Time as duration of an event, for example, „It just takes two days to finish
eating the crate of oranges.‰
Students need to know and master telling time and finding the duration of
events.
In this modern era, time is measured and written in terms of seconds, minutes,
hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, centuries and millennia. In ancient
societies, man measured time using primitive methods such as observing
changes in seasons, day and night, and movement of stars.
The earliest time measurement devices before clocks, and watches were the
sundial, hourglass and water clock.

Figure 6.8(a) shows a typical clock found in our homes and offices and
Figure 6.8(b) shows a wristwatch. These watches are used to tell time. For
example, 11.12am or 1.50pm, where am and pm are abbreviations for ante
meridiem and post meridiem in Latin, which mean „before midday‰ and „after
midday‰ respectively. A stopwatch as shown in Figure 6.8(c) is used to tell us the
duration of an event that has taken place.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.8: A typical wall clock, wristwatch and stopwatch
Teaching Sample Activity 6.7: Determine the appropriate measurement of time

for certain events.
1. Generate a list of events for students to measure. The events should

include finding a specific moment of time as well as the entire duration of
the event. For example:
(a) The time it takes to eat an apple;
(b) The time the school assembly starts;
(c) How long it takes for a kettle of water to boil;
(d) The date that Malaysia achieved independence;
(e) The duration of the Second World War;
(f) The month and year when your father bought a car or house;
(g) How long it takes to run 100 metres;
(h) The Jurassic period when dinosaurs roamed the Earth; and
(i) The time of income tax returns.
2. When appropriate, let students choose a suitable time-measuring device

to measure the time of the event.

3. Students can then proceed to the library or access the Internet to gather
information concerning important events in history. They need to
determine the time (e.g. date) or duration (e.g. number of years) of the
historical events.
4. Students will then need to share the information gathered, with the class.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
1. For the listed events in Teaching Sample Activity 6.7, determine
which is a measure of time as
(a) An instant of an event; and
(b) A duration of an event.
2. List down five additional events that measure time as an instant

and another five events that measure time as a duration.
6.4.1 Converting One Unit of Time into Another

Students must be able to convert various units of time, for example, from seconds
to minutes or vice versa based on their relationships.
To convert between units of time, the following relationships between metric

units are used:
1 minute = 60 seconds 1
1 second = or 0.0167 minute
1 hour = 60 minutes 60
or 1
1 day = 24 hours 1 minute = or 0.0167 hour
60
1 week = 7 days
1
1 hour = or 0.042 day
24
1
1 day = or 0.0143 week
7

Example 6.17
Convert 30 minutes into seconds.
Remember!
1 minute = 60 seconds
30 minutes = _ seconds?
∴30minutes = 30 × 60
= 1,800 seconds.
Answer: 1,800 seconds

Example 6.18
A television programme lasted two hours and 15 minutes. Convert this into
minutes.
Solution:
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
2 hours + 15 minutes =_ minutes?
2 × 60 = 120
∴ time taken = 120 minutes + 15 minutes
= 135 minutes
Answer: 135 minutes

EXERCISE 6.3
1. Convert the following into seconds:
(a) 5 minutes 10 seconds
(b) 50 minutes 10 seconds
(c) 5 hours 10 minutes
(d) 5 hours 10 seconds
2. Convert the following into minutes:

(a) 12 hours 25 minutes
(b) 10 hours 2 minutes
(c) 22 hours 17 minutes
(d) 5 hours 50 minutes
3. Convert the following into hours:

(a) 2 days 3 hours
(b) 3 days 15 hours
(c) 5 days 20 hours
(d) 10 days 2 hours

Make sure that the students have mastered the conversion of units for time
enrich their knowledge and skills in estimating the time interval of events.
Teaching Sample Activity 6.8: Estimating the time interval of events.
1. Divide your students into groups. By using suitable units, direct your
students to estimate the time taken for:
(a) School assembly
(b) The principalÊs speech during the school assembly
(c) Journey from home to school
(d) A walk around the school building
(e) Frying an egg
(f) Building a house
(g) A durian tree to mature and bear fruit
(h) A stalagmite to grow 1cm
2. Students then compare their estimated times with their classmates,

and discuss variations and differences in their estimations, with proper
reasoning.
ACTIVITY 6.3
1. Explain how you would convert one metric unit to another, for
time.

6.4.2 Calculations Involving Time

After we have learned how to convert various units of time, let us now try to
solve some problems related to mathematical operations (+, ă, × and ÷).
Example 6.19
Solve 5 hours 20 minutes + 2 hours 45 minutes.
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
5 hours 20 minutes + 2 hours 45 minutes =_ hour_ minutes?
 
Add 1 from the Min
Min column to 5.
Hr Min 20
Then, 5 + 1= 6 + 45
5 +1 20
∴6 + 2 = 8 65
− 2 45
8 05
We convert 65 minutes
into 1 hour 5 minutes.
Regroup 1 to the Hr
column. Leave 5 in
the Min column.

Answer: 8 hours 5 minutes

Example 6.20
Solve 23 minutes 12 seconds ă 15 minutes 20 seconds.
Solution:
Remember!
1 minute = 60 seconds
23 minutes 12 seconds ă 15 minutes 20 seconds = _ minutes _ seconds?
 
We subtract 1 We regroup 60 from
from 23 Min the Min column
since we regroup Min Sec because 20 cannot be
−1
it to the Sec 23 12 +60 subtracted from 12.
column. − 15 20 Then,12 + 60 = 72.
Then, 23 ă 1= 22 7 52 ∴72 ă 20 = 52
∴22 ă 15 = 7
Answer: 7 minutes 52 seconds

Example 6.21
Fatimah read a novel for 45 minutes. Then, she solved several mathematics
problems for 35 minutes. What is the total time taken for both activities, in hours
and minutes?
Solution:
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
45 minutes + 35 minutes = _ hour _ minutes?
 
Add 1 from Min Min
column to 0. 45
Hr Min
∴0 + 1 = 1 + 35
0 +1 45
80
− 35
1 20
We convert 80
minutes into 1 hour
20 minutes.

Answer: 1 hour 20 minutes

Example 6.22
Gopal boarded a bus from Butterworth to Kuala Lumpur. The journey took
4 hours 35 minutes. Then he took a taxi to Seremban. The total time taken from
Butterworth to Seremban was 6 hours 15 minutes. Calculate, in hours and
minutes, the time taken from Kuala Lumpur to Seremban.
Solution:
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
6 hours 15 minutes ă 4 hours 35 minutes = _ hours _ minutes?
 
Subtract 1 from 6 We regroup 60
in the Min minutes from the Hr
column. Hr Min column since 35
Then, 6 ă 1 = 5 6 −1 15+60 cannot be subtracted
− 4 35 from 15.
∴5 ă 4 = 1
1 40 Then, 15 + 60 = 75
∴75 ă 35 = 40


Example 6.23
Peter completed his mathematics problems in 1 hour 40 minutes. Michael
completed the same problems but took twice as long as Peter. How long, in hours
and minutes, did Michael took to solve his mathematics problems?
Solution:
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 hour 40 minutes × 2 = _ hours _ minutes?
 
First, operate Min
1 hour × 2 = 2 40
Hr Min
hours.
Then add 1 Hr 1 40 × 2
regrouped from × 2 80
the Min column, 3 20
We convert 80 minutes
∴2 + 1 = 3 into 1 hour 20 minutes.
Regroup 1 minute to the
Hr column, leaving 20 in
the Min column.
Regroup 1 to the Hr
column. Leave 20 in the
Min column.


Example 6.24
A marathon runner took 5 hours 20 minutes from Starting Point A to the
Finishing Line E. There are three checkpoints, B, C and D along the route. The
time taken from A to B; B to C; C to D and D to E is equal to one another.
Calculate, in hours and minutes, the time taken from B to C.
Solution:
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
5 hour 20 minutes ÷ 4 = _ hours _ minutes?
1hr 20min
4 5hrs 20 min
4
1 60 60 + 20 = 80
80
Convert 1 hour 80
into 60 minutes

6.4.3 The 12-hour and the 24-hour Systems

The 12-hour system refers to the division of one day into two equal parts, i.e.:
from 12 oÊclock at midnight to 12 oÊclock at noon (12 hours), that is, ante
meridiem (before midday); and from 12 oÊclock at noon to 12 oÊclock at midnight
(12 hours), that is, post meridiem (after midday). So, total hours in one day are
24. The use of the 12-hour time system has been traced back to ancient Egypt and
the Romans.
While it is alright to say time at 8 oÊclock in the morning as 8.00am or 5 oÊclock in

the afternoon as 5.00pm, it is inaccurate to say 12 oÊclock as 12.00am or 12pm. To
avoid confusion 12 oÊclock at night or day is designated as 12 midnight or
12 noon respectively.
Example 6.25:

Teaching Sample Activity 6.9: Telling time using the 12-hour system.
Study the clocks below and state the appropriate time. Indicate also whether it
is am or pm.
Remember that there are 24 hours in one day. The 24-hour system refers to the
time of day expressed from 12 oÊclock midnight (0000) to 12 oÊclock midnight the
next day (2400). The 24-hour system is the international standard notation of
time and is widely used in the fields of military, aviation, navigation, tourism,
meteorology, astronomy, computing, logistics, emergency services and hospitals.
This is because these fields require time to be stated accurately and without
ambiguity or confusion.
Imagine that an air traveller is informed that the departing flight is 4.50pm and
he may easily mistaken it as 4.50am and miss the flight! There is less ambiguity
in using the 24-hour system as compared to the 12-hour system since 1650 hours
indicates clearly the time is in the afternoon and not in the early morning. The
history of the 24-hours system dates back to 1800s and by early 1920s many
European countries were adopting its use, especially in the military.

Example 6.26
12-hour System 24-hour System Read as

2.30am 0230 Zero two thirty hours
10.27am 1027 Ten twenty seven hours
1.34pm 1334 Thirteen thirty four hours
5.12pm 1712 Seventeen twelve hours
11.45pm 2345 Twenty three forty five hours
Explain to the students that for the 24-hour system, there is no am or pm and
there must be four digits written without any dots.
Teaching Sample Activity 6.10: Telling the time using the 12-hour system and
the 24-hour system.
Discuss the time of the following activities with the students and express them
in 12-hour and 24-hour systems.
Activities 12-hour System 24-hour System

The mathematics period starts at ..............
The recess time ends at .......
School dismisses at ......
I leave home usually at ........
I reach home usually at .......
Others...

6.4.4 Problem Solving Involving Time

Example 6.27
A bus departed Butterworth at 6.45am and reached Ipoh at 11.35am. What is the
duration of the journey?
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
11.35am
Ends
Duration of journey = ?
6.45am
Starts
 
Add 1 to Min We regroup 60
column. minutes from the Hr
Hr Min column since 45
Then, −1
11 35+60 cannot be subtracted
11 ă 1 = 10 from 35.
− 6 45
∴10 ă 6 = 4 4 55 Then, 35 + 60 = 95
∴95 ă 45 = 55


Example 6.28
A helicopter departed from its base at 8.45am. The duration of its flight was
4 hours 17 minutes. Find, in a 12-hour system, the time it reached its destination.
Ends
??
Duration = 4 hours 17 minutes
Starts
8.45am
 
Add 1 from Min Min
column to 8.
Hr Min 45
Then, 8+ 1 = 9 +1 + 17
8 45
∴9 + 4 =13 62
+ 4 17
13 2
We convert 62
minutes into 1 hour
2 minutes. Regroup
1 to the Hr column.
Leave 2 in the Min
column.


1302 is equivalent
to 1.02pm
It reaches at 1302.
Answer: 1.02pm
Example 6.29
Talib started his journey from Kuala Lumpur and reached Alor Setar at 2036. The
duration of his journey was 5 hours 50 minutes. Find, in the 24-hour system, the
time he started his journey.
Remember!
1 hour = 60 minutes
Start
??
Duration = 5 hours 50 minutes
2036
Ends

 
Regroup 1 to Min We regroup 60
column. minutes from the
Hr Min Hr column since 50
Then,
20−1 36 +60 cannot be
20 ă 1 = 19 subtracted from 36.
− 5 50
∴19 ă 5 = 14 14 46 Then, 36 + 60 = 96
∴96 ă 50 = 46

Answer: 1446
Teaching Sample Activity 6.11: Solving problems involving time.
1. For the problems listed below ask your students to use PolyaÊs 4-step
model to solve them.
2. You should encourage your students to draw diagram representations

to understand the problem better before executing the calculation. For
example, for question (a):
Enter Paper 1 Break Paper 2 End
1 1
10 min 1 hours 20 min 1 hours 1.05pm
4 2

(a)
Test Time Allocation
Paper 1 1
1 hours
4
Break 20 minutes
Paper 2 1
1 hours
2
All candidates must be in the examination hall 10 minutes before Paper 1

starts. Paper 2 ends at 1.05pm. At what time must the candidates be in the
hall before Paper 1 starts (PMR, 2004)?
1
(b) A train leaves Johor Bahru at 0715. It reached Tampin 2 hours later and
2
stopped for 30 minutes. It resumes its journey for another three hours to
Kuala Lumpur. At what time, in a 24-hour system, did it arrive at Kuala
Lumpur?
1
(c) A journey by taxi from Alor Setar to Butterworth takes 1 hours. A
2
passenger wants to reach Butterworth at 11.00am. At what time must the
passenger starts his journey?
(d) Mamat did his homework in 1 hour 25 minutes and rested for 15 minutes.
Then, he played football for 1 hour until 6.20pm. Find, in a 12-hour
system, the time he started doing his homework.
(e) Shirley boarded a bus to Kota Bharu at 1025. She reached her destination
at 1415. Find, in hours and minutes, the duration of her journey.

ACTIVITY 6.4
1. Can you think of other ways to solve the problems given to you?
2. Think of other examples that are related to this topic.
• Measuring process
ă Decide on the attribute to be measured;
ă Select an appropriate unit that has that attribute; and
ă Compare the units with the attribute of the object being measured.
• Length
ă Length is the distance from one point to another or from one end to
another;
ă Units: millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm), metre (m), kilometre (km); and
ă Conversion:
1km = 1,000m 1
1m = 1000 or 0.001km
1m = 100cm or
1
1cm = 10mm 1cm = 100 or 0.01m
1
1mm = 100 or 0.1cm

• Mass
ă Mass is the amount of matter of any object;
ă Units: milligram (mg), gram (g), kilogram (kg), tonne; and
ă Conversion:
1 tonne = 1,000kg 1
1kg = 1000 or 0.001 tonne
1kg = 1,000g or
1
1g = 1,000mg 1g = 1000 or 0.001kg
1
1mg = 1000 or 0.001g
• Time
ă Time is the duration of an event or a point in a period when something

happened;
ă Units: second, minute, hour, day, week, month, year, century and
millennium; and
ă Conversion:
1 minute = 60 seconds 1
1 second = or 0.0167 minute
1 hour = 60 minutes 60
or 1
1 day = 24 hours 1 minute = or 0.0167 hour
60
1 week = 7 days
1
1 hour = or 0.042 day
24
1
1 day = or 0.0143 week
7

• 12-hour system: Division of one day into two equal parts:
− From 12 oÊclock at midnight to 12 oÊclock at noon (12 hours); and
− From 12 oÊclock at noon to 12 oÊclock at midnight (12 hours).
• 24-hour system: The time of day expressed from 12 oÊclock midnight (0000) to
12 oÊclock midnight the next day (2400).
Conversion of units Measurable attribute

Length Time
Mass
Cheong, J. (2007). Koleksi peperiksaan sebenar PMR Matematik KBSM. Shah

Alam, Malaysia: Cerdik.
Chua, M. K., Teh, E. K., & Ooi, S. H. (2002). Mathematics form 1 volume 2. Johor
Bahru, Malaysia: Pelangi.
Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan.

Malaysia.

Topic  Lines and
7 Angles
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concepts of points, lines and angles;
2. Show how to draw, determine and measure acute, right, obtuse
and reflex angles;
3. Draw parallel lines and perpendicular lines using a protractor;
4. Summarise the properties of adjacent, vertical, complementary and
supplementary angles;
5. Demonstrate how to solve problems involving angles formed by
intersecting lines; and
6. Design activities that emphasise hands-on constructive learning.
 INTRODUCTION
Lines and angles are basic concepts in the study of geometry. A solid foundation
of these geometric concepts is essential for students in mastering related concepts
in other topics of geometry involving two-dimensional and three-dimensional
shapes. Thus, for this topic, you must ensure that your students are able to
identify the properties of various types of lines and their related angles, as well
as able to measure various types of angles. The concepts of equality, sums and
differences in angles need to be understood by your students.
In addition, they must be instructed on how to use the protractor properly, in

order to measure angles accurately. This skill will be used later on, especially in
Form 2. This topic is especially important and useful for students who are
interested in becoming architects or engineers.

244  TOPIC 7 LINES AND ANGLES
Teaching Sample Activity 7.1: How sailors determine(d) positions at sea?
You can discuss with your students about how ships determine their positions
at sea. Nowadays, sailors use global positioning system (GPS) which depends
on satellites orbiting the earth. These satellites track their movements
accurately and relay them to the computers on board the ships. Before, sailors
depended on the sextant (see Figures 7.1 and 7.2), a device that measures the
position of the sun in relation to the horizon. The sunÊs position is measured by
the angle of the sun at noon. The angle indicates the position of the ship. You
can also discuss about buildings which depend on angles for stability.
Figure 7.1: The sextant (photo) Figure 7.2: The sextant (schematic diagram)
7.1 CONCEPT OF ANGLES

Let us now discuss the concept of angles.
7.1.1 Concepts of Points and Lines

To understand angles, we must first understand the concept of lines in geometry.
In turn, to begin understanding lines we have to start with points.
A point is a precise and specific location in a plane. Points are usually

represented in diagrams as dots. However, students need to understand that
these dots are just representations of geometric points. If you draw a dot using
a pencil to represent point A, that point indicates a position, not a thing.
TOPIC 7 LINES AND ANGLES  245
Regardless if you are drawing a big or a small dot, the position represented by
the dot does not have dimensions. The dot drawn by a pencil may have a
diameter of say, 0.2mm, but the point still does not have size.
Lines are made up of points. If all the points are located along a particular
direction, this collection of points forms a line. Strictly speaking, a line is made
up of an infinite number of points and thus does not have ends. A straight line
passing through two points A and B, extends indefinitely on both directions
of the points. This is usually represented by arrows in both ends as shown in
Figure 7.3.
When you draw a line with a pencil as shown in Figure 7.3, this drawing is a
representation of the idea of a line. Lines have one dimension of length but no
width or height. Like the dot, if you examine the line
under a magnifying glass you may find measurable width in the drawing, but
the geometric line represented by the drawing does not have width. If you draw
a line joining
two points A and B as in Figure 7.4, a line segment AB is represented, that is, part
of a line. Line segments have end points which in this case are the points A and B.
Figure 7.3: Representation of a line
Figure 7.4: Representation of a line segment
The drawings of dots and lines as representations of geometric concepts are

commonly used in Mathematics to make abstract ideas more concrete, to
facilitate understanding.
7.1.2 Concept of Angles

Angles are formed from lines. We can define an angle as:
The space between two straight lines or surfaces that joins each other. It is
measured in degrees (x°). The symbol used to denote an angle is ∠ or ∧.
(Cho, Mangai, Suhana & Tiew, 2005)

Teaching Sample Activity 7.2: Developing the concept of angles.
1. Instruct the students to tie two pieces of ice-cream sticks together using
rubber bands. The position of the sticks is as shown in Figures 7.5, 7.6 and
7.7.
Figure 7.5: Ice-cream sticks tied together with rubber bands (Set A)
Figure 7.6: Ice-cream sticks tied together with rubber bands (Set B)
Figure 7.7: Ice-cream sticks tied together with rubber bands (Set C)
2. Instruct them to observe which set of sticks is furthest apart at one end
and which is the nearest.
(a) Which set of sticks above is furthest apart? Set ___

(b) Which set of sticks above is nearest? Set ___

3. Let us look at Figure 7.8. The ice-cream sticks represent the two lines and
the rubber band represents the point where the lines meet. The space
between the two lines indicated by the curved line shows the angle
between the two ice-cream sticks.
Figure 7.8: Ice-cream sticks with rubber bands
4. If we refer to Figures 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7, which set do you think has the
biggest angle and the smallest angle?
(a) Biggest angle: Set ___
(b) Smallest angle: Set ___
7.1.3 Denoting and Labelling Angles

Let us consider Figure 7.9. There are two lines: PQ and QR, which joins at point
Q. PQ and QR are line segments while point Q is called the vertex.
Figure 7.9: AnglePQR
We label the angle formed between the lines as ∠PQR or ∠Q or PQ̂ R. We must
make sure that the letter Q is placed in the middle of the three alphabets.

To test their understanding, give the following problems to the students.
Label the angle in the following Figures 7.10, 7.11 and 7.12:
Figure 7.10: Angle RST
Figure 7.11: Angle ABC
Figure 7.12: Angle KLM

7.1.4 The Protractor

The protractor is used to measure angles. There are various types of protractors
such as in Figures 7.13 and 7.14 but the most common protractor used in schools
is shown in Figure 7.15 which is transparent. These protractors measure angles in
degrees, as this unit is most commonly used to represent angles.
Figure 7.13: The 360°Ĉprotractor
Figure 7.14: The 180° protractor

Source: http://mathforum.org/

Figure 7.15: The 180° protractor

Source: http://etc.usf.edu
7.1.5 Measuring Angles

Next, we shall measure angles in degrees with the aid of a protractor.
Let us use Figure 7.15 but this time we will measure ∠PQR using the protractor
(see Figure 7.16). Study the four steps given in Figure 7.16.
Figure 7.16: Protractor
∴∠PQR = 50°

Teaching Sample Activity 7.3: Measuring angles.
Let the students work in pairs. Instruct them to observe and measure the angles
formed:
(a) At the corners of a textbook;
(b) At the corners of a paper which is folded into a triangle; and
(c) Between the hour-hand and the minute-hand of a watch if the time is
1.20pm.
7.1.6 Right, Acute, Obtuse and Reflex Angles

We shall now differentiate between various angles. Figure 7.17 shows a right
angle, Figure 7.18 shows an acute angle, Figure 7.19 shows an obtuse angle and
Figure 7.20 shows a reflex angle.
Figure 7.17: Right angle Figure 7.18: Acute angle
Figure 7.19: Obtuse angle Figure 7.20: Reflex angle

Teaching Sample Activity 7.4: Constructing right, acute, obtuse and reflex
angles.
1. Group the students in pairs and tell them to face each other. Instruct
them to use their arms as lines and their body as the vertex to form the
following angles:
(a) A right angle;
(b) An acute angle;
(c) An obtuse angle; and
(d) A reflex angle.
2. Students should also be given manipulatives to form angles and to

categorise them. A simple manipulative that you can easily make is by
using two strips of cardboards or laminated cards tied at one end through
a punched hole, as shown in Figure 7.21. The cardboard strips can be
turned to form any angle.
Figure 7.21
Each pair of students will use the manipulatives to form various right,
acute, obtuse, and reflex angles and ask their partners to categorise and
name them.
3. Finally, students are tasked to use the protractors to draw various right,
acute, obtuse and reflex angles.

To test their understanding, instruct the students to classify the angles given in
Table 7.1 in Exercise 7.1.
EXERCISE 7.1
7.1.7 Angles on a Straight Line

Technology can be used to help students to better their understanding of
geometry. One useful interactive dynamic software is the GeometerÊs Sketchpad,
or GSP for short. GSP is a useful teaching and learning tool for students to
construct geometrical objects and investigate their properties. Teaching Sample
Activity 7.5 is an example of a simple activity to help students to better
understand angles on a straight line.

Teaching Sample Activity 7.5: Determining the total of angles on a straight line.
Pre-requisite skills: Students should have the basic skills in using the
GeometerÊs Sketchpad.
Let the students work in pairs.
1. Instruct them to draw three straight lines as in Figure 7.22 using the
Figure 7.22: Angle of straight line
2. Let them measure angles x, y and z, using the Measure command.
3. Instruct them to make a conjecture about the sum of the angles x, y and z
(aconjecture is an educated guess where you make a suggestion or
proposition that is likely to be true).
4. Instruct them to find the sum of angles x, y and z, using the Calculate
command and then to fill the values in the table.
5. Repeat the whole process for Figure 7.23, and make a conjecture about the
sum of the angles a, b, c and d.
Figure 7.23: Angle of straight line

6. Measure angles a, b, c and d, and check whether the proposed conjecture

is true.
7. Fill the values in the table.
8. Instruct them to drag any of the lines at an end point and notice if the
sum of the angles changes.
9. Instruct them to make a conclusion of the total angles on a straight line.
x y z x+y+z a b c d a+b+c+d
180° 180°
∴Total angle on a straight line= 180°
Let us now try to solve a few problems related to this subtopic.
Example 7.1
In Figure 7.24, AOB and CO are straight lines. Find x.
Figure 7.24: AOB and CO

Solution:
Remember!
Total of angles on a straight line = 180°
42° + x = 180°
Cancel 42° from both sides of the equation
ă42°
ă42°
42° + x = 180°
x = 180° ă 42°.
∴ x = 138°
Answer: 138°

Example 7.2
In Figure 7.25, POQ, MO and ON are straight lines. Find y.
Figure 7.25: POQ, MO and ON
Solution:
Remember!
35° + y + 28° = 180°

Cancel 35° and 28° from both sides of the equation.
ă35°
ă28°
ă 35°Ĉă 28°
35° + y + 28° = 180°
y = 180°ă 35°ă 28°
∴ y = 117°
Answer: 117°
Example 7.3
In Figure 7.26, KOL, RO, SO and TO are four straight lines. Find z.
Figure 7.26: KOL, RO, SO and TO

Solution:
Remember!

49° + 35° + z + 15°= 180°
Cancel 49°, 35° and 15° from both sides of the equation.
ă49° ă35° ă15° ă49°ă 35° ă 15°
49° + 35° + z + 15° = 180°
z = 180° ă 49°Ĉă 35°Ĉă 15°
∴ z = 81°
Answer: 81°

EXERCISE 7.2
In each diagram, find the value of the unknown angle. Assume that all
are on straight lines.
1.
x = ____°
2.
p = ____°
3.
q = ____°

4.
m = ____°
5.
y = ____°
7.1.8 One Whole Rotation

From angles on a straight line, students should progress to understand properties
of angles formed in one whole rotation at a point. Teaching Sample Activity 7.6 is
an example of a simple activity to help students understand angles in one whole
rotation using the GeometerÊs Sketchpad.
Teaching Sample Activity 7.6: Finding sum of angles at a point.
Let the students work in pairs.
1. Instruct them to draw three straight lines as in Figure 7.27 using the
2. Let them measure angles x, y and z, and make a conjecture of the sum of
the angles x, y and z.
3. Find the sum of the angles using GeometerÊs Sketchpad and fill the
values in the table.
4. Repeat the whole process for Figure 7.28, and make a conjecture about
the sum of the angles a, b, c and d.

5. Measure angles a, b, c and d, and check whether the proposed conjecture

is true.
6. Fill the values in the table.
7. Instruct them to drag any of the lines at an end point and notice if the
sum of the angles change.
8. Instruct them to make a conclusion of the sum of angles at a point.
Figure 7.27: Three straight lines Figure 7.28: Four straight lines
x y z x+y+z a b c d a+b+c+d
360° 360°
∴ Sum of angles at a point = 360°
Let us now try to solve a few problems related to this subtopic.
Example 7.4
In Figure 7.29, AO, BO and CO are three straight lines. Find x.
Figure 7.29: AO, BO and CO

Solution:
Remember!
Sum of angles at a point = 360°
46° + 88° + x = 360°
Cancel 46° and 88°from both sides of the equation.
ă 46° ă 88°
ă 46 ă 88
46° + 88° + x = 360°
x = 360° ă 46° ă 88°
∴ x = 226°
Answer: 226°

Example 7.5
In Figure 7.30, AO, BO, CO and DO are four straight lines. Find y.
Figure 7.30: AO, BO, CO and DO
Solution:
Remember!
Sum of angles at a point = 360°
46° + 88°Ĉ+ 33° + x = 360°

Cancel 46°Ĉand 88° from both sides of the equation.
ă 46° ă 88° ă 33°
ă 46° ă 88° ă 33°
46° + 88°+ 33° + x = 360°
x = 360° ă 46° ă 88° ă 33°
∴ x = 193°
Answer: 193°Ĉ
Example 7.6
In Figure 7.31, AO, BO, CO and DO are four straight lines. Find z.
Figure 7.31: AO, BO, CO and DO

Solution:
Sum of angles at a point = 360° Remember!
z + 88° + z + 206° = 360°
Cancel 88° and 206° from both sides of the equation.
ă 88° ă 206°
ă88°Ĉă 206°
z + 88° + 206° + z = 360°
z + z = 360° ă 88° ă 206°
2z = 66°
 
Cancel the 2 also on the
1 33 right hand side
coefficient 2 on 2 66
the left hand z of the equation
21 21
side of the
equation by 2
∴z = 33°
Answer: 33°

EXERCISE 7.3
In each diagram, find the value of the unknown angle. Assume that all
the lines are straight.
1.
x = ____°
2.
a = ____°
3.
m = ____°
4.
n = ____°

5.
p = ____°
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Demonstrate that:
(a) The angle of a straight line is 180°.
(b) The sum of the angles at a point is 360°.

7.2 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
Teaching Sample Activity 7.7: Recognising parallel and perpendicular lines in

objects.
To motivate the students, we can start the lesson by asking them to look at
certain objects in the classroom. These objects may include the blackboard
(refer to Figure 7.32), desk or textbook. Observe the sides of the blackboard and
measure the distance between them. Tell the students that their observations
are related to the present topic.
Figure 7.32: Blackboard
7.2.1 Parallel Lines

We can define parallel lines as:
Two or more lines that are always the same distance apart and they never meet.
Based on this definition, are the two sides of the blackboard parallel?

If we want to show or represent two or more lines that are parallel to each other,
we can add „arrows‰ onto the lines. This is shown in Figure 7.33.
Figure 7.33: Parallel lines
We can express the two parallel lines as: AB // CD or AB is parallel to CD.
Examples of parallel lines are shown in Figure 7.34 and Figure 7.35.
Figure 7.34: Parallel lines Figure 7.35: Parallel lines

7.2.2 Constructing Parallel Lines

There are several ways of constructing parallel lines. One of the simplest ways
is by using a ruler and a protractor. You must make sure that the students
have already mastered the use of protractor in the previous subtopic before
proceeding with this subtopic.
Instruct the students to observe and follow the seven steps as follows:


Teaching Sample Activity 7.8: Recognising parallel lines in objects.
1. Instruct the students to list two objects in the classroom and three objects
out of the classroom which have parallel lines.
2. Instruct the students to sketch the objects and draw the parallel lines
where they are located in the objects.
Instruct the students to select the lines which are parallel to each other by
placing in the spaces provided.
1.
__________
2.
__________
3.
__________
4.
__________
5.
__________

7.2.3 Perpendicular Lines

We can define perpendicular lines as follows:
Perpendicular lines are straight lines that intersect each other at 90°.
Examples of perpendicular lines are shown in Figures 7.36 and 7.37.
Figure 7.36: The line AB is perpendicular Figure 7.37: The line KL is perpendicular
to CD to PQ
Teaching Sample Activity 7.9: Recognising perpendicular lines in objects.
1. Instruct the students to list two objects in the classroom and three objects
out of the classroom which have perpendicular lines.
2. Instruct them to show their friends where the perpendicular lines are
formed in the objects.
3. Tell the students to fold and unfold a piece of paper to obtain

perpendicular lines as indicated by the creases in the fold. Check the
accuracy of the perpendicular lines by using the protractor.
4. Working in pairs, students learn to construct perpendicular lines using
(a) Protractor; and
(b) GeometerÊs Sketchpad.

Instruct the students to select lines which are perpendicular to each other by
placing  in the space provided.
1.
__________
2.
__________
3.
__________
__________
5.
__________

SELF-CHECK 7.2
State the properties of:
(a) Parallel lines; and
(b) Perpendicular lines.
Teaching Sample Activity 7.10: Recognising objects with intersecting lines.
We can start the lesson by recalling the properties of angles and lines as
discussed in the previous subtopics. Instruct the students to look for objects or
patterns in the classroom that have intersecting lines. Inform them that this is
related to the topic to be discussed presently.
7.3 PROPERTIES OF ANGLES ASSOCIATED

WITH INTERSECTING LINES
We will now discuss the properties of angles associated with intersecting lines.
7.3.1 Intersecting Lines

Observe Figures 7.38, 7.39 and 7.40:
Figure 7.38 Figure 7.39 Figure 7.40

An intersection occurs when two or more lines cross, meet or touch each other.
The point where the intersection occurs is called „point of intersection‰.
EXERCISE 7.4
Instruct the students to select the line segments which intersect each
other by placing  in the space provided.
1.
__________
2.
__________
3.
__________
4.
__________
5.
__________

7.3.2 Vertically Opposite Angles

Now we will discuss the vertically opposite angles.
Teaching Sample Activity 7.11: Exploring the relationships between vertically

opposite angles.
1. Instruct the students to:
(a) Draw two intersecting lines as shown in Figure 7.41.
Figure 7.41: Two intersecting lines
(b) Measure angles a, b, c and d by using a protractor.
(c) Repeat the steps for Figure 7.42.
Figure 7.42: Two intersecting lines
(d) Draw an inference regarding the relationship between the angles.
(e) Verify the inference regarding the relationship between the angles
by cutting the angles drawn on a piece of paper and matching them.
2. Alternatively, your students can explore the relationships between the

angles using the GeometersÊ Sketchpad by following these steps:
(a) Draw two line segments similar to Figure 7.41.
(b) Label the line segments AB and CD.

(c) Select AB and CD, and construct the intersection point and label
it E.

(d) Select angle a by selecting the three points that make up the angle
and measure the angle. Do the same for the angles b, c and d.
(e) Drag a point on AB or CD and observe what happens to the angles.
(f) Make a conclusion regarding the relationships between the angles.
What can we say about the angles?
a = c; b = d; p = r; q = s
From the measurements and observations above, we can conclude
that:
Vertically opposite angles are equal
Instruct the students to give their answers in the space provided.
EXERCISE 7.5
Find the values of the unknown angles.
1.
m = _______°
n = _______°
2.
p = ______°
q = ______°

3.
x = _______°
y = _______°
7.3.3 Complementary Angles

Complementary angles are angles which add up to 90° (Cho, Mangai, Suhana &
Tiew, 2005). This can be seen in Figures 7.43 and 7.44.
Figure 7.43: Complementary angles
Figure 7.44: Complementary angles
Observe that all the angles in Figures 7.43 and 7.44 have a total of 90°. Therefore,
these angles are complementary angles.

Example 7.7
Find the value of x, if x is the complement of 36°.
Solution:
Remember!
Complementary angle
x + 36° = 90°
ă 36°Ĉ ă 36°Ĉ
x + 36° = 90°
x = 90° ă 36°
x = 54°
Answer: 54°

Example 7.8
Find the value of y, if y is the complement of 72°.
Solution:
Remember!
Complementary angle
y + 72° = 90°
ă 72° ă 72°
y + 72° = 90°
y = 90° ă 72°
y = 18°
Answer: 18°

EXERCISE 7.6
Instruct the students to give their answers in the table provided.
Table 7.2: Find the Complementary Angle
Angle Complementary Angle

42°
63°
21°
78°
11°
42°
7.3.4 Supplementary Angles

Supplementary angles are angles which add up to 180° (Cho, Mangai, Suhana &
Tiew, 2005). This can be seen in Figures 7.45 and 7.46:
Figure 7.45: Supplementary angles
Figure 7.46: Supplementary angles

Observe that all the angles in Figures 7.45 and 7.46 have a total of 180°. Therefore,
these angles are supplementary angles.
Example 7.9
Find the value of x, if x is the supplement of 36°.
Solution:
Remember!
Supplementary angle
x + 36° = 180°
ă 36° ă 36°
x + 36° = 180°
x = 180° ă 36°
x = 144°
Answer: 144°

Example 7.10
Find the value of y, if y is the supplement of 72°.
Solution:
Remember!
Supplementary angle
y + 72° = 180°
ă 72° ă 72°
y + 72° = 180°
y = 180° ă 72°
y = 108°
Answer: 108°

EXERCISE 7.7
Instruct the students to give their answers in the table provided.
Table 7.3: Find the Supplementary Angle
Angle Supplementary Angle

42°
63°
21°
78°
11°
7.3.5 Adjacent Angles

Let us look at the three straight lines, AB, BC and BD in Figure 7.47.
Figure 7.47: AB, BC and BD

Angle x and angle y are next to each other. They share a common line BD and a
vertex (point B). We call these angles as adjacent angles.
Now, let us look at Figure 7.48 closely. There are two adjacent angles, m and n.
Figure 7.48: ABC and BD
Since the line ABC is a straight line, then m + n = 180°.
Example 7.11
AO, BO and CO are straight lines joined at O. Given that ∠AOC is 85°, find the
value of x in Figure 7.49.
Figure 7.49: AO, BO and CO

Solution:
Remember!
Adjacent angles
x + 60° = 85°
ă 60° ă 60°
x + 60° = 85°
x = 85° ă 60°
x = 15°
Answer: 15Ĉ
Example 7.12
ABC and BD are straight lines joined at B. Given that ∠DBA is 45°, find the value
of y in the Figure 7.50.
Figure 7.50: ABC and BD

Solution:
Remember!
Adjacent angles on a straight line
45Ĉ+ y = 180°
ă 45°
ă 45°
45° + y = 180°
y = 180° ă 45°
y = 135°
Answer: 135°

EXERCISE 7.8
1. AB, BC and BD are straight lines joined at B. ∠ABC is 92°. Find the
value of k.
2. KO, LO, MO and NO are four straight lines joined at O. If ∠KON

is 150°, find y.
3. PR, QRS and RT straight lines joined at R. What is the value of

e+f?

4. DG, EG and FG are straight lines joined at G. Given that ∠DGF is

94°, find p.
5. HK, IK and JK are straight lines joined at K. Find q.
Paper folding or origami activities are interesting and fun for students and
can be used to enhance geometric understanding. These folding and unfolding
activities provide an opportunity for students to examine geometric lines and
angles through concrete manipulation of materials. Additionally, these activities
allow the lines and angles from the folded object to be clearly visible, providing a
visual mode of investigating their properties and relationships. Teaching Sample
Activity 7.12 shows an example of an origami activity that you can use.

Teaching Sample Activity 7.12: Identifying various types of lines and angles
through origami.
1. Instruct students to work in pairs.
2. Distribute square pieces of paper to each pair.
3. Instruct your students to make a paper crane by following the

instructions given in Figure 7.51.
Figure 7.51: Origami crane

Source: www.en.origami-club.com

4. When students have completed the paper crane, instruct them to unfold
the crane to show the creases from the folding. Figure 7.52 illustrates how
the creases might look like after unfolding the crane. To get a clearer
view, students can draw the lines of the creases.
Figure 7.52: Creases from origami crane
5. Using the unfolded paper, instruct your students to identify by labelling

on the paper the following:
(a) A pair of parallel lines;
(b) A pair of perpendicular lines;
(c) An acute angle, a right angle, an obtuse angle and a reflex angle;
(d) A pair of vertically opposite angles;
(e) A set of complementary angles;
(f) A pair of supplementary angles; and
(g) A pair of adjacent angles.
6. Students can use a protractor to measure the identified angles to verify

their properties and relationships.
7. Students can then share their results with other pairs in the class.
8. Conclude the activity by asking them to refold the paper crane and use
them as decorations in the class.

At the end of this topic, it is useful to give your students a review of the
important mathematical terms and concepts related to lines and angles. Students
should also be encouraged to communicate their understanding of using proper
mathematical terminology and language, as mathematical communication is an
important process in learning mathematics. Teaching Sample Activity 7.13 is an
example of a review activity which you can carry out with students.
Teaching Sample Activity 7.13: Providing definition and diagrammatic

representation of various angles and lines.
Work in pairs:
1. Distribute the worksheet as shown in Table 7.4.
2. Instruct your students to complete the information emphasising the

proper use of certain words and drawings to represent the mathematical
terms.
3. When students have completed the worksheet, encourage them to

communicate their review through class presentation or discussion.

Fill in the correct definition and draw an appropriate diagram to represent the
mathematical term related to angles and lines in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4: Worksheet
Diagrammatic
Vocabulary/Term Definition
Representation
Right angle
Acute angle
Obtuse angle
Reflex angle
Parallel lines
Perpendicular lines
Vertically opposite angles
Complementary angles
Supplementary angles
Adjacent angles

ACTIVITY 7.1
2. By using your own examples, demonstrate the meaning of

vertically opposite angles.
3. What is the difference between complementary and supplementary
• Angle is the space between two straight lines or surfaces that join each other.
It is measured in degrees (e.g. 90°, 180°). Angles can be denoted in the form of
∠ABC, ABC or ∠B. A protractor is used to measure angles.
• Right angle is exactly 90°. Acute angle is less than 90°. Obtuse angle is more
than 90° but less than 180°. Reflex angle is more than 180°Ĉbut less than 360°.
ă Angle on a straight line = 180°
ă Sum of angles at a point = 360°
• Parallel lines are two or more lines that are the always the same distance
apart and they never meet. Each line has an „arrow‰ usually in the middle of
the line.
• Perpendicular lines are straight lines that intersect each other at 90°. The right
angle symbol must be present.
• Vertically opposite angles are always equal.
• Complementary angles always add up to 90°.
• Supplementary angles always add up to 180°.
• Adjacent angles are positioned next to each other. They share a common line
and a vertex.

Acute angles Perpendicular lines
Adjacent angles Reflex angles
Complementary angles Right angles
Obtuse angles Supplementary angles
Parallel lines Vertically opposite angles

Malaysia.

Topic  Polygons
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how to recognise and sketch polygons (triangle to
decagon);
2. Identify the properties of polygons (sides, vertices and diagonals of
the given polygons);
3. Describe the concept of symmetry (line of symmetry of shapes);
4. Demonstrate how to draw designs using the concept of symmetry;
5. Demonstrate how to explore the properties of triangles and
quadrilaterals; and
6. Demonstrate how to investigate the relationship between angles of
a triangle and a quadrilateral.
 INTRODUCTION
Geometrical objects and images exist everywhere, and they are the link
between mathematics and art. For this topic, you will be looking at a class of
two-dimensional geometric objects called polygons. In particular, you must
ensure that your students are able to identify these polygons based on their
properties. They must also be able to construct simple polygons, using the
skills and knowledge acquired from the previous topics. Knowledge of angles
would be used to construct relationships between angles in a triangle and a
quadrilateral. In addition, students must also be able to understand the concept
of line symmetry and how it can be used for creating designs.

TOPIC 8 POLYGONS  299
Teaching Sample Activity 8.1: Induction set.
Show your students pictures or videos of buildings, homes, pedestrian malls

and places of worship which have decorations that are made up of geometric
patterns (for example, geometric pattern as shown in Figure 8.1). These
patterns can also occur naturally (see Figure 8.2) and can be found on certain
everyday objects (see Figure 8.3). Some of these patterns are made up of shapes
such as polygons.
Figure 8.1: Geometric patterns

Source: http://home.swfla.rr.com
Figure 8.2: Geometric patterns which occur naturally

Source: www.carto.net

300  TOPIC 8 POLYGONS
Figure 8.3: Geometric patterns as seen on a soccer ball

Source: www.designtutorials.info
Although these polygons have artistic value, they also have mathematical
properties. Therefore, they can be measured and calculated. Inform the
students that this topic is both important and interesting and will also be
taught later on in Form 3.
8.1 CONCEPT OF POLYGONS

We can define polygons as the following:
A polygon has closed shapes with three or more straight sides.

Instruct the students to re-examine Figures 8.1 and 8.3. The figures show certain
shapes joined together over a surface area. Figure 8.4 shows the same pattern
drawn schematically. The seven six-sided shapes are joined together to form a
geometric pattern.

Figure 8.4: Same pattern drawn schematically
Let us take a look at shape one which is represented by ABCDEF in Figure 8.5. It
is called hexagon, which is a polygon with six sides. The sides are in fact line
segments that join and enclose the shape. The points A to F are called vertices.
The number of vertices is the same as the number of sides of the polygon.
The dotted lines (see Figure 8.5) AC, AD, AE, BD, BE, BF, CE, CF and DF are
called diagonals.
Figure 8.5: Diagonals

The figure in Figure 8.6 is not a polygon, as it is not a closed figure.
Figure 8.6: Not a polygon because it is not a closed figure
The figure in Figure 8.7 is not a polygon too, as the sides are not all made of line
segments.
Figure 8.7: Not a polygon because not completely made of line segments
Lastly, the figure in Figure 8.8 is not a polygon, as its sides do not intersect in
exactly two places each.
Figure 8.8: Not a polygon because its sides do not intersect in exactly two places each
You need not teach the concept of polygons by providing students its definition
as this approach is very teacher-centred. An alternative strategy is to use a
more student-centred approach where students can be guided to construct
understanding based on structured reasoning or inquiry.
In this strategy, students figure out the attributes or properties of polygons by

examining exemplars and non-exemplars of polygons. The students can then
generate their own definitions and compare these with the formal definition. This
strategy is often called Concept Attainment Model, based on the work of Jerome
Bruner. Teaching Sample Activity 8.2 illustrates an example utilising the model
to teach the concept of polygons.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.2: Defining polygons by examining exemplars and

non-exemplars.
Materials: Cards with drawn shapes that show exemplars and non-exemplars
of polygon.
1. Inform the students that they are going to learn about polygons but do
not provide them its definition.
2. Using the whiteboard, draw a large table with two columns, one labelled
„Exemplar of polygon‰ and the other labelled as „Non-exemplar of
polygon‰ as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Exemplars/Non-exemplars of Polygons
Exemplars of Polygon Non-exemplars of Polygon

3. Then, provide 1 example each of a polygon and non-polygon by selecting

a card each which is an exemplar and a non-exemplar and place them in
the respective columns. Students are instructed to compare the figures.
4. Individually, students are asked to select a card and place the selected
card on the correct column one at a time. For each card, the teacher will
confirm if the shape drawn on the card is an exemplar or a non-exemplar
of polygon by just saying YES or NO.
5. After confirming at least three cards for each column (refer to Table 8.1),
ask the students to examine the exemplars of polygon and discuss how
they are alike. Ask „What do they have in common?‰
6. You can then continue asking the students to select and place the cards
under the „exemplars‰ or „non-exemplars‰ columns.
7. After at least six examples and six non-examples are listed, ask the
students to write down the common attributes or properties of polygons.
8. Continue with student-generated exemplars and non-exemplars until

most of them have caught on by giving correct polygon and non-polygon
exemplars.
9. Finally, students are asked to write definitions of polygons and compare

it with the formal definition.

8.1.1 Regular and Irregular Polygons

The different names of polygons are, derived from the number of sides of each
polygon.
For example, the names of polygons with 3 to 10 sides are listed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Polygons and Sides
Polygons Sides
Triangles 3-sided polygons
Quadrilaterals 4-sided polygons
Pentagons 5-sided polygons
Hexagons 6-sided polygons
Heptagons 7-sided polygons
Octagons 8-sided polygons
Nonagon 9-sided polygons
Decagon 10-sided polygons
Now, examine the polygons in Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9: Regular polygons

Source: www.racismnoway.com.au
These are called regular polygons because they have sides which are equal in
length (equilateral) as well as interior angles which are also equal (equiangular).
The terms equilateral triangle and square, refer to regular three-sided and four-
sided polygons.

Irregular polygons are those that have sides which are of unequal length or
unequal internal angles as shown in Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10: Irregular polygons
Teaching Sample Activity 8.3: Identifying polygons with an understanding of

its properties.
1. Instruct your students to answer part (a) and then complete Table 8.3.
Mark  if you think the figure shown in Table 8.3 is a polygon and state
your reason.
Table 8.3: Which One is a Polygon?
Mark  If the Figure is a

Figure Reason
Polygon

2. Refer to Figure 8.9 and ask your students to complete Table 8.4, listing
the properties of each polygon regarding the number of sides, vertices
and diagonals.
Table 8.4: Properties of Polygons
Polygon Quadrilateral Octagon Triangle Nonagon Heptagon Pentagon

No. of
sides
No. of
vertices
No. of
diagonals

3. Instruct them to look for images/murals within the school compound

that have polygons. They are required to take photographs of these and
list them in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Photos of Polygons
Location
Photograph
Type of
polygon found
8.1.2 Van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thinking

An influential theory describing how students reason out geometric objects is
the, Van Hiele Model. This theory was developed by the husband and wife team
of Pierre Marie van Hiele and Dina van Hiele-Geldorf in Netherlands, in 1957.
According to the Van Hiele model, there are five levels that describe childrenÊs
reasonings on geometric shapes and ideas. A description of the levels and an
example for each level is given in Table 8.6.

Table 8.6: Van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thinking
Level Name Description Example

1 Visualisation See geometric shapes as a A student is able to identify a
whole; without focusing on square using visual prototypes
their attributes. Objects of but, would be unable to
thoughts are the individual explain that it has four
shapes. congruent sides with right
angles.
2 Analysis Recognise that each shape has A student is able to identify
different properties; identify that a parallelogram has two
shapes by their properties. pairs of parallel sides, and that
Objects of thoughts are classes if a quadrilateral has two pairs
of shapes but, generally do not of parallel sides it is identified
allow overlapping classes. as a parallelogram.
3 Informal See the inter-relationships Given a definition of a
Deduction between figures. Objects of rectangle as a quadrilateral
thought are geometric with right angles, a student
properties and being able to could identify a square as a
understand that the properties rectangle.
are related.
4 Formal Construct proofs rather than Given the property of a
Deduction just memorise them; see the parallelogram as made up of
possibility of developing a two triangles, a student could
proof in more than one way. logically deduce the proof for
Object of thought is deductive the area of a parallelogram
reasoning to construct simple based on the area of a triangle.
proofs. (see Topic 9, Teaching Sample
Activity 9.7)
5 Rigour Learn that geometry needs to Students should understand
be understood in the abstract; that other geometries exist and
see the „construction‰ of that what is important is the
geometric systems. Objects of structure of axioms, postulates
thought are deductive and theorems.
geometric systems.
Source: Breyfogle & Lynch (2010)

The Van Hiele levels are not dependent on the age of children. Instead, the
levels are the product of experience and instruction provided to children to learn
about geometric objects. This means, teachers must provide sufficient learning
experiences for children to progress from a lower level, to a higher level of
geometric thinking. Failure to do so may result in children being stranded at
Level 1 of geometric thinking, impeding them from learning more formal
geometric concepts in upper secondary or tertiary education. In lower secondary
schools, students should be given opportunities and learning experiences to
develop geometric thought that progresses to formal deductive reasoning
(Level 3).
Developing geometric thinking is an essential part of learning geometry. You

should provide opportunities for your students to develop the skills of geometric
thinking using appropriate graphic organisers. Thinking skills such as,
categorising, comparing and contrasting can be easily facilitated in this topic.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.4 illustrates the use of graphic organisers to help
students to make categories and comparisons, based on an analysis of properties
of polygonal shapes and their relationships.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.4: Comparing, contrasting and classifying

polygons.
Materials: Various polygons, non-polygons, regular and irregular polygons

made from cardboards or manila cards
1. Provide students with a combination of polygons, non-polygons, regular

polygons and irregular polygons of different sizes.
2. Working in small groups of three or four students, instruct them to

examine the various shapes and categorise them into
(a) Polygons;
(b) Non-polygons;
(c) Regular polygons; and
(d) Irregular polygons.

3. Using a large piece of mahjong paper, instruct students to draw the

diagram as shown in Figure 8.11 and paste the shapes into the accurate
categories. Instruct students to give justification for each classification.
Figure 8.11: Graphic organiser to categorise
4. Provide your students with a regular pentagon and an irregular

pentagon.
5. Distribute the graphic organiser as shown in Figure 8.12. Guide students

to look for similarities and differences between the regular pentagon and
irregular pentagon and then to fill in their findings in the organiser.

Figure 8.12: Graphic organiser to compare and contrast
8.1.3 Constructing Regular Polygons

In order to construct a regular polygon, we need to use a protractor, a pencil and
a ruler. Please recall the facts from Topic 7.
Example: Regular pentagon
Step 1: We will need to calculate the angle subtended at the centre, for each side.
The sum of the angles at a point is 360°. Since a regular pentagon has five equal
sides, we divide 360° by 5, that is,
360° ÷ 5 = 72° ∴∠AOB = 72°

Step 2: By using a protractor, measure 72° by constructing two straight lines of

equal length, that is, AO and BO. This is shown in Figure 8.13.
Figure 8.13: AO and BO
Step 3: Join point A to point B with a straight line as shown in Figure 8.14. ΔAOB
1
represents of the whole figure.
5
Figure 8.14: ΔAOB
Step 4: Repeat the process for the remaining four sides. In the end, this will result
in the creation of a regular pentagon, as shown in Figure 8.15.
Figure 8.15: Regular pentagon
Similarly, you can construct regular polygons after you have found the angle
subtended in the centre, for each side of a regular polygon.

For example, for a regular hexagon, the angle subtended in the centre is 360°
divided by six which gives 60°.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. State the properties of a polygon.
2. Demonstrate the construction of the following:
(a) Regular heptagon; and
(b) Regular octagon.
8.1.4 Diagonals in a Polygon

Problem solving is an important process in learning mathematics. Problems can
be given to examine patterns of geometrical properties of polygons. Teaching
Sample Activity 8.5 illustrates a problem solving activity, to determine the
general rule for finding the number of diagonals in a polygon.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.5: Investigating number pattern in diagonals of

polygons.
Instructional Activities:
1. Go through with the students the meaning of diagonal of a polygon, to

ensure that they understand it well before proceeding with the activity.
Instruct them to sketch a regular polygon and then sketch its diagonal(s).
Remember that a diagonal of a polygon is a line segment linking two non-

adjacent vertices.
2. Pose the following problems to start off the activity:
How many diagonals are there in a polygon with 10 sides? 25 sides?

100 sides? Can you find the answer without drawing all the diagonals?

3. Working in small groups of three or four students, instruct them to

determine the number of diagonals of a polygon by sketching and
counting them systematically. Fill in the information in Table 8.7.
Table 8.7: Sides and Diagonals of Polygons
Polygon Triangle Square Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon
Sketch
No. of
sides
No. of
diagonals
4. After the students have completed determining the number of diagonals

in Table 8.7, guide them to observe the pattern in the number of
diagonals. Instruct them to use the pattern or sequence of numbers to find
the number of diagonals for a polygon with 10 sides and 25 sides. (You
may want to bring in the term n-gon as a representation of a polygon
with n sides). Relate the number pattern to number sequences that
students have learned in Topic 1.
5. For a polygon with 100 sides (100-gon), students should realise that it is
inefficient to find the number of diagonals by sketching or extending the
number sequence. Instruct them to make conjectures about a general rule
to find the total number of diagonals in a given polygon.
6. Guide them to find the general rule for finding the number of diagonals
in a polygon with n sides (an n-gon), by logical reasoning through a series
of questions.
(a) How many diagonals can be drawn from each vertex in a square?
Pentagon? Hexagon? Heptagon? Octagon?
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5 diagonals)

(b) How many diagonals can be drawn from each vertex in an n-gon?
(n ă3 diagonals can be drawn from each vertex.)
How many vertices are there in an n-gon?

(An n-gon has n vertices.)
(c) Is the total number of diagonals in an n-gon equal to n(n ă 3)? Why
is this so?
(No, because each diagonal has two vertices. Multiplying the
number of vertices by the number of diagonals that can be drawn
from each vertex, „double counts‰ each diagonal. Therefore, the
total number of diagonals should be halved.)
(d) What is the general rule or formula to find the number of diagonals
in an n-gon?
The general rule or formula is:
n ( n − 3)
Number of diagonals =
2
Extension
The following extension activity can be given to students for enrichment
purposes:
Identify the number of regions formed when diagonals dissect a regular

polygon.
E.g. Square ă 4 regions Pentagon ă 11 regions

8.2 CONCEPT OF SYMMETRY

Now we will look at the concept of symmetry.
To motivate the students, we can start the lesson by using the inkblot
technique. Inform them that their observations are related to the present topic.
Step 1: For this activity, we need a piece of blank A4 size paper, bottle of ink
and a dropper.
Step 2: Draw a dotted line across the paper vertically as shown in Figure 8.16.
Figure 8.16: Dotted line
Step 3: Place a few drops of ink onto one side of the paper as shown in
Figure 8.17.
Figure 8.17: Drops of ink

Step 4: Fold the paper along the dotted lines and flatten the paper for a few
seconds.
Step 5: Reopen the paper and let the students see the image that emerges.
Inform the students that the images in Figures 8.18 and 8.19 may appear
according to the positions of the ink droplets and also the pressure applied
during folding.
Figure 8.19: Inkblot

Figure 8.18: Inkblot Source:
Source: http://www.deltabravo.net http://www.deltabravo.net
Step 6: Instruct the pupils to repeat Steps 2 to 5 but this time using multiple colours.
The image in Figure 8.20 may emerge.

Source: http://web.tickle.com

Symmetry exists all around us and many people view it as a thing of beauty.
Symmetry can be seen in the design of many animals. Insects like the butterflies
show an almost perfect symmetry in structure, as well as the design of patterns
on their wings. For example, Figure 8.21 shows a famous Malaysian butterfly, the
Rajah Brooke Birdwing, which exhibits symmetrical shape and pattern on its
wings.
Figure 8.21: Rajah Brooke Birdwing

Source: www.ggallery.ca
8.2.1 Lines of Symmetry in Shapes

We define symmetry as the following:
Symmetry is an exact match in size and shape between parts or sides of a

figure or an object.
In Form One, the concept of symmetry is confined to reflectional symmetry

involving lines or axes of symmetry. As studentsÊ progress to higher levels, they
will learn other types of symmetry, for example, rotational symmetry.

Teaching Sample Activity 8.7 illustrates how you can develop the concept of lines
of symmetry using inkblot activities.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.7: How to develop the concept of lines of symmetry
using inkblot activities?
1. Instruct the students to make inkblots as in Teaching Sample Activity 8.6.
2. Then, instruct them to observe the inkblots closely, some of which could
be similar to Figure 8.22.
3. Next, tell them to draw a dotted line along the folded part of the paper.
4. Instruct the students to talk about both parts on either side of the dotted
line. They should be able to notice that the dotted line divides the image
into two equal parts.

5. We can say that the right side of the image is symmetrical to the one
on the left. The dotted line is called line of symmetry. You can provide
students with a mirror or a MIRA math reflector tool, to check the
symmetry and line of symmetry. Figure 8.23 shows an example of a
MIRA reflector which has the reflective quality of a mirror, as well as a
transparent quality, thus making it a very useful tool for learning
symmetry.
Figure 8.23: A MIRA reflector

Source: http://www.enasco.com
6. Continue by instructing the students to try folding the paper horizontally

as shown in Figure 8.24 to see if they are able to get the top part of the
image to be the same as the bottom part. Using a mirror or a MIRA, guide
them to check what the inkblot should look like if the top and bottom
parts are equal. Students should be guided to see that the image is not
divided into two equal parts. Therefore, they are not symmetrical and the
dotted line cannot be considered as the line of symmetry.
Figure 8.24: Fold paper horizontally
7. In conclusion, this image has only one line of symmetry.

To test the studentsÊ understanding of symmetry, you can try out Teaching
Sample Activity 8.8.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.8: Identifying and counting the line(s) of symmetry
of different shapes.
1. Instruct the students to identify the line(s) of symmetry and count the
number of lines present in the images given in Figure 8.25. The first line is
already shown.
Figure 8.25: Lines of symmetry

Source: www.learner.org
2. Students are to write their answers in Table 8.8. Instruct them to use the
mirror or MIRA to check their answers.
Table 8.8: Number of Lines of Symmetry
Images Number of Lines of Symmetry

A

SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. When do lines of symmetry occur?
2. When is it possible to have an infinite number of lines of
8.2.2 Completing Symmetrical Shapes

Let us proceed with the next Teaching Sample Activity.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.9: Completing symmetrical shapes.
1. Instruct the students to complete the drawings given in Figures 8.26 to

8.29. The dotted lines are the lines of symmetry.


Extensions:
(a) Provide figures with two or three lines of symmetry, for students to
complete by drawing.
(b) Investigate symmetrical figures with GeometerÊs Sketchpad:
(i) Draw any geometric figure using the Line segment tool and Arc
through 3 Points tool.
(ii) Select one straight line on the figure; click Transform and then Mark
Mirror to select it as a line of symmetry.
(iii) Students can make predictions of how the completed symmetrical

figure would look like.
(iv) Select the whole figure, click Transform and then Reflect to show
the completed symmetrical figure.
(v) Drag 1 vertex of the figure to change its shape and observe how the
whole figure changes in relation to the line of symmetry.
(vi) Proceed with figures with two or three lines of symmetry.

8.2.3 Drawing Designs Using the Concept of

Symmetry
Symmetry is used widely in creating designs for the likes of wall papers, gift
wrapping papers, tiles and quilts. Figure 8.30 shows two quilts with symmetrical
patterns. How many types of polygons can you identify in both designs?
Figure 8.30: Quilts with symmetrical design

Source: www.kentuckyquiltco.com
Students should be encouraged to create their own designs using the concept of
symmetry. Teaching Sample Activity 8.10 shows an example of a creative activity
you can do with your students.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.10: Drawing designs using the concept of line
symmetry.
1. Show a quilt or pictures of quilts like that of Figure 8.30 to your students.
Discuss the characteristics of quilts and have them identify symmetrical
patterns in the quilts shown.
2. Discuss with the students how symmetry is used in the making of quilt
patterns and have them think of the pattern they would like to create.

3. To practise designing using symmetry, carry out the following activity.
On the grid as shown in Figure 8.31, part of the quilt design is drawn. PQ
and RS are lines of symmetry. Complete the design using the patterns A,
B, C and D by shading the remaining squares on the grid, so that the
resultant pattern is symmetrical for PQ and RS.
Figure 8.31: Quilt design
4. Provide students with 1cm grid paper to draw their symmetrical designs
and colour them creatively.
5. To encourage mathematical communication, instruct the students to write

a paragraph about their design ă discussing the polygonal shapes used,
how symmetry is created and a story about the quilt design.

We can start the lesson by recalling the properties of polygons, especially

triangles, as was discussed in the previous subtopics. Instruct the students to
look for objects or patterns in the classroom that look like triangles. Inform
them that this is related to the topic to be discussed.
8.3 TRIANGLES AND QUADRILATERALS

Let us now continue our discussion on triangles and quadrilaterals.
8.3.1 Properties of Triangles

Triangles are polygons with three sides. It also has three interior angles.
„Interior‰ means the insides of an object or image.
Triangles can be represented by the symbol Δ.
There are various types of triangles as summarised in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9: Types of Triangles
Types of Triangles Properties

Isosceles 2 equal sides, AB = AC
∠ABC = ∠ACB

Equilateral All three sides are equal, AB = AC = BC
∠ABC = ∠BCA = ∠CAB = 60À
Scalene Three unequal sides, AB ≠ AC ≠ BC

All three interior angles are also unequal
Acute All three angles are acute (less than 90°)
Right-angled One of the angles must be 90°
∠ABC = 90°

Obtuse One of the angles is obtuse (more than 90°)
∠CAB is more than 90°
Students should construct an understanding of the properties of triangles

through constructive activities that enhance geometric reasoning. Teaching
Sample Activity 8.4 in the earlier subtopic can serve as an example to develop
your own activities.
8.3.2 Sum of Angles of Triangles

Try the next Teaching Sample Activity with your students to find the sum of
angles of triangles.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.12: Investigating the sum of angles of triangles.
Instruct the students to do the following:
1. Choose and draw any three types of triangles and label the vertices A, B
and C.
2. Measure all the interior angles by using the protractor.

3. Record the measurements in Table 8.10.
Table 8.10: Measurements of Triangles
Type of
∠ABC ∠BCA ∠CAB Total
triangle
4. Draw an inference regarding the sum of the interior angles in each of the
triangle.
As an alternative activity, you can carry out the following Teaching Sample
Activity.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.13: Investigating the sum of angles in a triangle.
Instruct the students to:
1. Draw any type of triangle and label the angles a, b and c.
2. Cut out all three angles along the dotted lines as shown in Figure 8.32.
Figure 8.32: Cut along the dotted lines

3. Rearrange the three angles to form a straight angle on a straight line as

shown in Figure 8.33.
Figure 8.33: Rearrange the three angles
4. Make a conjecture about the sum of angles of a triangle. You may want to
guide your students to make the conjecture by asking them to complete
these statements:
(a) The three angles of a triangle can be arranged ........
(b) Therefore, the sum of three angles of a triangle .........
5. Check their conjecture by repeating Steps (a) to (c) with other triangles.
6. Make a conclusion about the sum of angles of a triangle.
Extension: Investigate the sum of angles in a triangle using the GeometerÊs

Sketchpad.
(a) Draw any triangle using the Line Segment tool.
(b) Label the vertices A, B and C.
(c) Measure each angle by selecting three vertices and select Measure →
Angle.
(d) Calculate the sum of all the angles by selecting Measure and then
Calculate. When the calculator is displayed, click each displayed angle
and add them up.
(e) Use the Arrow tool to drag any of the vertexes to change the angles in the
triangle. Observe the value of the sum of the angles of the triangle.

8.3.3 Problem Solving Involving Triangles

Students are expected to solve problems using angle properties of triangles. Here
are some examples of problems and their solutions related to angles in a triangle.
Example 8.1
ABC is an isosceles triangle as shown in Figure 8.34. Find x.
Figure 8.34: ΔABC
Solution:
Remember!
ΔABC is an isosceles triangle.
∴∠ABC = ∠BCA = 70°
Answer: 70°

Example 8.2
In Figure 8.35, PQR is a triangle. Find y.
Figure 8.35: ΔPQR
Solution:
Remember!
ΔPQR is an isosceles triangle because both sides are equal in length.
Sum of angles in Δ = 180°
∠PQR = ∠QRP = 70°

70° + 70° + y = 180°
ă 70° ă 70° ă 70° ă 70°
70° + 70° + y = 180°

y = 180° ă 70° ă 70°
y = 40°
Answer: 40À

Example 8.3
Figure 8.36 shows the triangle ABC. If DAC is a straight line, calculate ∠DAB.
Figure 8.36: ΔABC and line DAC
Solution:
Remember!
Angle in straight line = 180°

Part I
Let us denote ∠CAB = x
Then,
50° + 55° + x = 180°
ă 50° ă 55°
ă 50° ă 55°
50° + 55° + x = 180°
x = 180° ă 50° ă 55°
x = 75°
Part II
We have calculated that ∠CAB = 75°.
We know that ∠CAB + ∠DAB = 180°
Let us denote ∠DAB as y.
Then,
75° + y = 180°
ă 75° ă 75°
75° + y = 180°
y = 180° ă 75°
y = 105°
Answer: 105°

Example 8.4
KLM is a triangle as shown in Figure 8.37. Find p.
Figure 8.37: ΔKLM
Solution:
Remember!

Angle in a straight line = 180°
Represents 90°

Part I
Let us denote ∠LMK = x
Then,
145° + x = 180°
ă 145° ă 145°
145° + x = 180°
x = 180° ă 145°
x = 35°
Part II
We have calculated that ∠LMK = 35°
We know that ∠MKL = 90°
We also know that ∠MKL + ∠LMK + p = 180°
Then,
90° + 35° + p = 180°
ă 90° ă 35° ă 90° ă 35°
90° + 35° + p = 180°
p = 180° ă 90° ă 35°
p = 55°
Answer: 55À

Teaching Sample Activity 8.14: Instruct students to calculate the unknown

angles in the diagrams.
To test their understanding, give the following problems to them.
Exercise 8.1
1. In Figure 8.38, DEF is a triangle. Find the value of q.
Figure 8.38: ΔDEF
2. In Figure 8.39, PQR and SRT are two equilateral triangles while QRT is a
straight line. Find the value of a.
Figure 8.39: ΔPQR, ΔSRT and line QRT

3. In Figure 8.40, ABC and DCE are two isosceles triangles. BCE is a straight
line. Calculate the value of a.
Figure 8.40: ΔABC, ΔDCE and line BCE
4. In Figure 8.41, PQS is a right-angled triangle, QRS is an isosceles triangle

and RST is a straight line. Find the value of x (PMR, 2005).
Figure 8.41: ΔPQS, ΔQRS and line RST

5. In Figure 8.42, STU is an equilateral triangle and VTU is an isosceles

triangle. Find the value of x (PMR, 2005).
Figure 8.42: ΔSTU and ΔVTU
8.3.4 Properties of Quadrilaterals

Quadrilaterals are polygons that have four sides. This means that they have
four interior angles and four vertices.
There are various types of quadrilaterals, as shown in Table 8.11.

Table 8.11: Various Types of Quadrilaterals
Type of Quadrilateral Property

Square • All sides are equal
• All interior angles are 90°
• Opposite sides are parallel
• The two equal diagonals bisect at 90°
• Four lines of symmetry
Rectangle • All interior angles are 90°

• Opposite sides are equal and parallel
• The two diagonals are equal
• Two lines of symmetry
Rhombus • All sides are equal

• Opposite angles are equal
• The two diagonals bisect at 90°
• Two lines of symmetry

Parallelogram • Opposite sides are parallel and equal in length

• Opposite angles are equal
• Two diagonals bisect each other
Trapezium • Two opposite sides are parallel

• One line of symmetry for isosceles trapezium (i.e.
the base angles are equal and therefore, the left and
right side lengths are also equal)
When learning about geometric shapes, it is vital that the properties are not
merely presented by the teachers to their students as accepted truths. Students
need to construct meaningful understandings with rich learning experiences that
involve hands-on and minds-on activities. Constructive learning activities should
include manipulation of concrete materials, active discussions, sharing of ideas,
reflective thought and building thinking skills.
According to the Van Hiele model, students learning geometry should be given
the opportunity to go through five phases of learning, which encourage progress
from 1 level to the next. These phases are described briefly in Table 8.12.
Table 8.12: Phases of Learning by Van Hiele
Phase Description
Information/inquiry Teacher assesses studentsÊ prior knowledge through discussion
and allows questions to prompt topics to be explored.
Directed orientation Teacher and students explore sets of carefully sequenced
activities.
Explication Students share explicit views and understandings about their
activities.
Free orientation Teacher challenges students to solve problems related to the
geometric concepts and make connections among them.
Integration Students reflect on observations and how they fit into the
overall structure of the concepts.
Source: Geddes (1992)

Some students often have difficulties in using common properties of

quadrilaterals to show the relationship between various quadrilaterals. For
example, a square is a special case of a rectangle and also a rhombus. Teaching
Sample Activity 8.15 provides you with an activity to guide your students to
investigate the relationships among quadrilaterals based on their properties,
using the five phases of learning from the Van Hiele model.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.15: Investigating properties and relationships of

quadrilaterals.
Phase 1: Information/Inquiry
1. Carry out discussions with the students to assess prior knowledge of

quadrilaterals.
(a) What are these shapes? (Showing examples of quadrilaterals.)
(b) How are these shapes alike with triangles? (Comparing with
triangles.)
(c) How are these shapes different from triangles? (Contrasting with
triangles.)
(d) What are the similarities and differences of these shapes?
(Preliminary comparison of quadrilaterals.)
2. Inform students that they will further investigate the detailed properties
of quadrilaterals and how they are related.
Phase 2: Directed Orientation
3. Provide your students with cut-out shapes of squares, rectangles,

parallelograms, rhombi and trapeziums. Alternatively, geostrips can be
provided to allow students to form various quadrilaterals. Figure 8.43
shows an example of geostrips.
Figure 8.43: Geostrips

Source: http://www.hbsgroup.net

4. For each quadrilateral, students work in small groups to identify their

properties by exploring with concrete materials provided.
5. Students draw a representation of each quadrilateral and list down the

properties as shown in Table 8.11.
6. Instruct them to write down all possible names for each quadrilateral and
give reasons based on the properties, as indicated in Table 8.13.
Table 8.13: The Different Quadrilateral and Its Respective Properties
Quadrilateral Possible Names Reasons

(Example) • All sides are equal
• Square • All interior angles are 90°
• Rectangle • Opposite sides are parallel
• Rhombus • All interior angles are 90°
• All sides are equal
• Opposites are parallel

Phase 3: Explication
7. Students in each group share their findings with other groups and review
the properties that are incorrect or not listed.
8. Encourage students to question each other to provide justifications

and explanations to their understanding of the geometric properties of
quadrilaterals.
Phase 4: Free Orientation
9. For all quadrilaterals, instruct the students to identify common

properties. For example, both a square and a rectangle have interior
angles of 90°.
10. Instruct students to draw Venn or tree diagrams to relate different

quadrilaterals.
11. Instruct the student to identify the defining property of each

quadrilateral. For example, the defining property of a rectangle is: „all
interior angles are 90o‰. Using the defining property, guide the students
to draw the conclusion that a quadrilateral (e.g. square) which has this
property, is also a rectangle. Students redraw their Venn or tree diagrams,
if necessary, in light of new information.
Phase 5: Integration
12. Students then integrate all information by drawing a Venn diagram or a

tree diagram to show the relationships among the various quadrilaterals
as shown in Figure 8.44.
13. Students write a summary of their investigation in their mathematics

journal.

Figure 8.44: Relationship of quadrilaterals
SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. Justify whether a square is a parallelogram.
2. Draw a Venn diagram to show the relationship between the

various quadrilaterals.

8.3.5 Sum of Angles of Quadrilaterals

Let us now try out the next Teaching Sample Activity.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.16: Investigating the sum of angles in a

quadrilateral.
1. Choose and draw any three types of quadrilaterals.
2. Measure all the interior angles by using a protractor.
4. Draw an inference regarding the sum of the interior angles in each of the
quadrilateral.
Table 8.14: Measurements
Type of
∠A ∠B ∠C ∠D Total
Quadrilateral
∴The sum of the interior angles of any quadrilateral is 360°.
A similar activity to calculating the sum of angles of a triangle can be used to

investigate the sum of angles of a quadrilateral.

Teaching Sample Activity 8.17: Investigating sum of angles in a quadrilateral.
1. Draw any type of quadrilateral and label the angles a, b, c and d.
2. Cut out the four angles along the dotted lines as shown in Figure 8.45.
Figure 8.45: Cut along the dotted lines
3. Rearrange the four angles so that the vertices meet at a point as shown in
Figure 8.46.
Figure 8.46: Rearrange the four angles
4. Make a conjecture about the sum of angles of a quadrilateral. You may

want to guide your students to make the conjecture by asking them to
complete these statements:
(a) The four angles of a quadrilateral can be arranged........
(b) Therefore, the sum of four angles of a quadrilateral.........
5. Check their conjecture by repeating Steps (a) to (c) with other

quadrilaterals.
6. Make a conclusion about the sum of angles of a quadrilateral.

Extension: Investigate the sum of angles in a quadrilateral using interactive

dynamic software like the GeometerÊs Sketchpad or Geogebra.
A simple proof of the sum of angles in a quadrilateral can be carried out using
the sum of angles in a triangle.
Teaching Sample Activity 8.18: To prove sum of angles in a

quadrilateral is 360°.
1. Distribute diagrams of quadrilaterals such as parallelograms and

trapeziums to your students.
2. Instruct your students to partition the quadrilateral into triangles, by

drawing diagonals. The diagonals shall not cross each other.
3. Ask them how many triangles are formed from a parallelogram, a

trapezium, a rectangle, a rhombus or a square.
4. Your students should be able to see that only one diagonal can be drawn
to form two triangles for all quadrilaterals. Figure 8.46 shows the
triangles formed from the parallelogram and trapezium.
5. Instruct your students to label the trapezium as ABCD and the angles in
the triangles ABC and ACD as x, y, z, and p, q, r, respectively, as shown
in Figure 8.47.
6. Guide your students to prove by reasoning the following, through a

series of questions:
(a) In triangle ABC, what is the sum of the angles x, y and z? Why?
(b) In triangle ACD, what is the sum of the angles p, q and r? Why?
(c) What is the relationship between triangles ABC and ACD, and
trapezium ABCD?
(d) What is the sum of all the angles x, y, z, p, q and r?
(e) What can you say about this sum of the angles?

Figure 8.47: Triangles formed from the parallelogram and trapezium
7. A more formal way of writing the proof can then be introduced as

follows:
In ΔABC, x + y + z = 180° (Sum of angles in Δ) ------(1)

In ΔACD, p + q + r = 180° (Sum of angles in Δ) ------(2)
Adding (1) and (2) gives

x + y + z + p + q + r = 180° + 180°
(x + p) + y + (q + z) + r = 360°
∴ ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°
Therefore, the sum of angles in a quadrilateral is 360°.

SELF-CHECK 8.4
1. State the properties of a parallelogram.
2. Name three examples of a parallelogram.
3. How do you prove that the sum of the interior angles of a

quadrilateral is 360°?
8.3.6 Problem Solving Involving Quadrilaterals

Let us now try to solve some problems related to angles in a quadrilateral.
Example 8.5
In Figure 8.48, ABCD is a quadrilateral and EBC is a straight line. Find x.
Figure 8.48: Quadrilateral ABCD and line EBC
Solution:
Remember!
Sum of interior angles in a quadrilateral = 360°

Part I
Denote ∠ABC = p
We know that ABE + p = 180°
Then,
ă 140° ă 140°
140° + p = 180°
140° + p = 180°
p = 180° ă 140°
p = 40°
Part II
We have calculated ∠ABC = 40°
We also know that ∠ABC + ∠BCD + ∠CDA + ∠DAB = 360°
Then,
40° + 110° + 80À + x = 360°
ă 40° ă 110° ă 80°

ă 40° ă 110° ă 80°
40° + 110° + 80° + x = 360°
x = 360° ă 40° ă 110° ă 80°
x = 130°
Answer: 130À

Example 8.6
In Figure 8.49, PQRS is a parallelogram. TQR is a straight line. PS = QR and
QP = RS. Find q.
Figure 8.49: Parallelogram PQRS and line TQR
Solution:
Remember!
Sum of interior angles in a quadrilateral = 360°
Opposite angles in a parallelogram are equal.

Part I
Denote ∠PQR = p
We know that ∠TQP + p = 180°
Then,
120° + p = 180°
ă 120° ă 120°
120° + p = 180°
p = 180° ă 120°
p = 60°
Part II
We have calculated ∠PQR = 60°
We also know that ∠PQR + ∠QRS + ∠RSP + ∠SPQ = 360° and ∠PQR = ∠RSP;
∠QRS = ∠SPQ
Then,
60° + q + 60° + q = 360°
ă 60° ă 60°
ă 60° ă 60°
60° + q + 60° + q = 360°
q + q = 360° ă 60° ă 60°
2q = 240°
÷ 2
q = 120° ÷2
Answer: 120°

Teaching Sample Activity 8.19: Calculating unknown angles.
Instruct students to calculate the unknown angles in the following problems.
Exercise 8.2
1. In Figure 8.50, PQRS is a quadrilateral and RST is a straight line. Find the
value of y (PMR, 2005).
Figure 8.50: Quadrilateral PQRS and line RST
2. In Figure 8.51, KLMN is a quadrilateral. Calculate r.
Figure 8.51: Quadrilateral KLMN

3. Figure 8.52 shows a quadrilateral, EFGH. GHI is a straight line. Find m.
Figure 8.52: Quadrilateral EFGH and line GHI
4. Figure 8.53 shows a quadrilateral. ALB is a straight line. Calculate the

value of q.
Figure 8.53: Quadrilateral JKLM and line ALB
5. In Figure 8.54, DEFG is a quadrilateral. FGH is a straight line. Calculate

the value of x.
Figure 8.54: Quadrilateral DEFG and line FGH

SELF-CHECK 8.5
1. Create a non-routine problem on quadrilaterals.
2. Devise a game that is related to this topic.
• Polygons have closed shapes with three or more straight sides.
• Regular polygons have sides which are equal in length.
• Irregular polygons have sides which are of unequal length.
• Symmetry is parts or sides of a figure or an object that are exact match in size
and shape.
• Line of symmetry is the line that divides the image symmetrically.
• Triangles are polygons with three sides. They have three vertices and three
interior angles. The sum of these angles is 180°. Δ is the symbol for a triangle.
• Quadrilaterals polygons have four sides. They have four vertices and four
interior angles. The sum of these angles is 360°.
Irregular polygons Regular polygons

Polygons Triangles
Quadrilaterals Symmetry

Breyfogle, M. L., & Lynch, C. M. (2010). Van Hiele revisited. Mathematics

Teaching in the Middle School, 16(4), 232ă238.
Cheong, J. (2007). Koleksi peperiksaan sebenar PMR matematik KBSM. Shah

Alam, Malaysia: Cerdik.
Geddes, D. (1992). Geometry in the middle grades: Curriculum and evaluation

standards for school mathematics. Addenda series: Grades 5ă8. Reston, VA:
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Malaysia.

Topic  Perimeter
9 and Area
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the heights and bases of triangles, rectangles,
parallelograms and trapeziums;
2. Describe the concept of perimeter;
3. Find the perimeter of a region or an enclosed region, including
perimeter of triangles, rectangles, parallelograms and trapeziums;
4. Derive the formulae of areas for triangles, rectangles,
parallelograms and trapeziums;
5. Solve problems involving perimeters, and areas of triangles,
rectangles, parallelograms and trapeziums; and
6. Evaluate the perimeters and areas of figures made up of triangles,
rectangles, parallelograms or trapeziums.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic is about solving problems related to perimeters and areas of enclosed
regions or objects. Take note that some skills involving mathematical operations
will be involved. Therefore, before you proceed, ensure that your students have
mastered these skills. Also, the students must be able to recall the concepts of
geometrical shapes learned in the previous topics. Specifically, they should know
the properties of the various types of triangles and quadrilaterals.

TOPIC 9 PERIMETER AND AREA  361
1. Relate this problem to your students:
A farmer has four plots of land of different shapes: a triangle, rectangle,

parallelogram and a trapezium (see Figure 9.1).He has four children and
each of them will inherit a plot of land.Who gets the biggest plot?
Figure 9.1: The four plots of land with different shapes
2. In order to solve this problem, inform them that they need to calculate
each area of the four plots and draw a comparison between all four. To do
that, it is best to review the concepts of the shapes first.

362  TOPIC 9 PERIMETER AND AREA
9.1 REVIEW OF TRIANGLE, RECTANGLE,

PARALLELOGRAM AND TRAPEZIUM
We will now review the shapes of triangle, rectangle, parallelogram and
trapezium.
9.1.1 Types of Triangles

Observe the figures and photographs in Figure 9.2. Do you notice any
similarities?
Figure 9.2: What are the similarities?

Source: http://photobucket.com
These are the shapes of triangles that we can see every day.Take note that there
are only three sides for each object or figure.
We can classify triangles according to the relative lengths of their sides:
(a) Equilateral triangle: All sides are of equal length. All its interior angles are
equal, that is, 60°. This is shown in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3: Equilateral triangle

(b) Isosceles triangle: Two sides are of equal length (see Figure 9.4). An
isosceles triangle also has two equal angles (namely, the angles opposite the
equal sides).
Figure 9.4: Isosceles triangle
Note: An equilateral triangle is an isosceles triangle, but not all isosceles

triangles are equilateral triangles. Can you explain this?
(Hint: Look at the defining properties of both triangles.)
(c) Scalene triangle: All sides have different lengths. The interior angles in a
scalene triangle are all different (refer to Figure 9.5).
Figure 9.5: Scalene triangle
We can also classify triangles according to their interior angles:
(a) Right-angled triangle: Has a 90° interior angle (a right angle). The side
opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse; it is the longest side in the
right triangle. The other two sides are the legs or catheti (singular: cathetus)
of the triangle (see Figure 9.6).
Figure 9.6: Right-angled triangle

(b) Obtuse triangle: Has one interior angle larger than 90° (an obtuse angle).
This is shown in Figure 9.7.
Figure 9.7: Obtuse triangle
(c) Acute triangle: Has interior angles that are all less than 90° (three acute
angles). This is shown in Figure 9.8.
Figure 9.8: Acute triangle
Note: An equilateral triangle is an acute triangle, but not all acute triangles are
equilateral triangles. Can you explain this?
9.1.2 Types of Parallelograms

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.
Some special parallelograms have their own names: squares, rectangles,

rhombuses (see Figure 9.9).
(a) A rectangle is a parallelogram in which all angles are equal (i.e. 90°);
(b) A rhombus is a parallelogram in which all sides are equal; and
(c) A square is a parallelogram that is a rectangle and a rhombus at the same
time.
Figure 9.9: Parallelograms

The lengths of opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal and the measures of
opposite angles are also equal. Adjacent angles of a parallelogram always add
up to 180° and the diagonals bisect each other. In terms of the area of the
parallelogram, what can you say about its diagonals? Examine Figure 9.10 and
state a property of the diagonals in relation to the area of the parallelogram.
Figure 9.10: Diagonals
9.1.3 Types of Trapeziums

A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides. In other words, it is
a geometrical shape with foursides, two of which are parallel. Figure 9.11 shows
examples of trapeziums.
Examples:
Figure 9.11: Examples of Trapeziums

9.1.4 Height and Bases of Triangles, Parallelograms

and Trapeziums
The height of a triangle is the perpendicular distance from the base to the highest
point of the triangle (Chua, Teh & Ooi, 2002).
This definition can be applied to the heights of parallelograms and trapeziumsas

any quadrilateral is made up of two triangles.
We denote the letters h for the height and b for the base of the triangle.
(a) Examples for triangle (see Figure 9.12).
Figure 9.12: Examples for triangle
(b) Example for parallelogram (see Figure 9.13).
Figure 9.13: Example for parallelogram

(c) Examples for trapezium (see Figure 9.14).
Figure 9.14: Examples for trapezium
9.2 PERIMETER
Perimeter is defined as the following:
Perimeter is the total length or distance of an enclosed shape.

(Cho, Mangai, Suhana Sebi & Cho, 2005)
9.2.1 Concept of Perimeter

It is common for teachers to communicate the concept of perimeter by providing
the definition to students. However, you should consider a more hands-on
approach that encourages active learning amongst your students. Teaching
Sample Activity 9.2 illustrates an example to introduce the concept of perimeter
to your students.

Teaching Sample Activity 9.2: To construct understanding of perimeter.
1. Start the lesson by posing this problem:
A farmer wants to determine how much fencing is needed to fence up his

animal pens or enclosures. Can you help him?
2. Provide the students with a grid paper with drawn shapes of the animal
pens as shown in Figure 9.15.
Figure 9.15: Paper grids of animal pens
3. To provide a three-dimensional feel to the problem, instruct the students

to form the various shapes using a Geoboard. A Geoboard is a piece of
board usually made from wood, with pegs or nails to form grids. Elastic
bands can then be held by the pegs or nails to form various shapes. You
can visit this website to take a look at how to make a Geoboard
(http://goo.gl/uRPbD8).

4. Instruct the students to count how many unit lengths are needed to
enclose the pens and record them in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Unit Length of Animal Pen
Animal Pen Unit Length

A
B
C
D
5. Guide the students to state the property of the fence, that is, it represents
the length of the boundary of the animal pens.
6. Introduce the term perimeter and instruct the students to write a

definition of it.
7. Instruct the students to answer the following questions:
(a) Which animal pen has the largest perimeter?
(b) Which animal pen has the smallest perimeter?
9.2.2 Perimeter of a Rectangle, Square and

Parallelogram
If we recall the above definition, then the perimeter of a rectangle in Figure 9.16
should be:
Figure 9.16: Perimeter of a rectangle
∴ Perimeter of a rectangle = 2m + 6m + 2m + 6m
= 16m

Now, what about the perimeter of a square (see Figure 9.17)? We calculate its
perimeter the same way as we did with the rectangle.
Figure 9.17: Perimeter of a square
∴ Perimeter of a square = 4cm + 4cm + 4cm + 4cm
= 16cm
Let us examine the parallelogram in Figure 9.18 and the rhombus in Figure 9.19.
Figure 9.18: Perimeter of a parallelogram
∴ Perimeter of a parallelogram = 4cm + 6cm + 6cm + 4m
= 20cm
Figure 9.19: Perimeter of a rhombus
∴ Perimeter of a rhombus = 3cm + 3cm + 3cm + 3cm
= 12cm

Teaching Sample Activity 9.3: Measuring the perimeter of different facilities.
1. Start the lesson by informing the students that help is needed by the
school to perform some tasks involving measuring lengths of certain
facilities.
2. Organise the pupils into four groups. Inform them that they have to
measure the size (length and breadth) of these facilities within the school
compound.
3. The first group will measure the size of the school field to determine how
many buntings are needed to decorate the school field for the Sports Day.
4. The second group will measure the basketball/sepak takraw/netball

court to find out how much paint is needed to repaint the borders.
5. The third group will measure the staff room to determine how much wall
paper would be needed to decorate all the walls.
6. And the fourth group will measure the canteen to determine how many
tiles are needed to decorate the boundary.
(The students should recall that the length of an object or region is greater
than its breadth.)
7. The measurements of the facilities are recorded in Table 9.2:
Table 9.2: Measurements of Facilities
Location Length (m) Breadth (m)

School field
Basketball/takraw/netball court
Staff room
Canteen

8. By referring to the above examples, instruct the students to calculate the

perimeter of the facilities and record them in Table 9.3:
Table 9.3: Perimeter of Facilities
Length Breadth Perimeter

Location
(m) (m) (m)
School field
Staff room
Canteen
9. If given any rectangle with length a and breadth b as shown in

Figure 9.20, instruct the students to derive a shortcut or formula for
finding the perimeter of these rectangles.
Figure 9.20: Rectangle
Perimeter of rectangles = a + b + a + b
= 2a + 2b
= 2(a + b)

9.2.3 Perimeter of a Triangle

Let us now try to calculate the perimeter of various types of triangle.
Example 9.1
Equilateral triangle (see Figure 9.21)
∴ Perimeter of triangle = 7cm + 7cm + 7cm
= 21cm
Example 9.2
Right-angled triangle (see Figure 9.22)
= 12cm

Example 9.3
Isosceles triangle (see Figure 9.23)
= 14cm
9.2.4 Perimeter of a Trapezium

Let us now try to calculate the perimeter of a trapezium.
Example 9.4
Figure 9.24: Trapezium
∴ Perimeter of trapezium = 4cm + 5cm + 5cm + 8cm
= 22cm

Example 9.5
Figure 9.25: Trapezium
∴ Perimeter of trapezium = 10cm + 10cm +10cm + 22cm
= 52cm
9.2.5 Perimeter of a Region or Enclosed Region

Let us now try to calculate the perimeter of a region or enclosed region.
Example 9.6
If you are given a figure as shown in Figure 9.26, how do you calculate its
perimeter? Assume that all the angles at the corners are 90°.
Figure 9.26: Perimeter of a region

Solution:
To find the perimeter of an enclosed region, in this case, ABCDEF.
The perimeter of the figure as shown in Figure 9.27 is:
AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FA
That is, (8 + BC + 4 + 3 + EF + 2)cm
We need to find the distance between BC and EF first in order to solve the
problem.
(a) BC = AF + ED (b) EF = AB ă DC
BC = AF + ED EF = AB ă DC
= 2cm + 3cm = 8cm ă 4cm
= 5cm = 4cm
∴The perimeter of the figure is 8cm + 5cm + 4cm + 3cm + 4cm + 2cm = 26cm.
Answer: 26cm

Example 9.7
Find the perimeter of the figure as shown in Figure 9.28 if AB = BC = DE = EF =
1
FG and CD = AB. Assume that all the angles at the corners are 90°.
2
Solution:
To find the perimeter of the enclosed region ABCDEFGH.
Figure 9.29: Perimeter of an enclosed region
1
It is given that: AB = BC = DE = EF = FG and CD = AB
2

AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FG + GH + HA
Perimeter = (4 + 4 + CD + 4 + 4 + 4 + GH + HA)cm
We need to find the distance CD, GH and HA first in order to solve the problem.
1
(a) CD = AB
2
1
∴ CD = × 4cm
2
= 2cm
(b)
In order to find GH, we must construct a dotted line across the figure so
that PDEQ forms a straight line and is perpendicular to AB and GH.
P and Q are two points that we add arbitrarily to make it easier for us to
solve the problem.
We already know that CD = 2 = cm,∴PA = 4cm ă 2cm
= 2cm
Since QH = PA, then QH = 2cm.
It is given that EF = 4cm, ∴GQ is also 4cm.
Then, GH = GQ + QH
= 4cm + 2cm
= 6cm

(c) From Figure 9.30, AH = BC + DE + FG
= 4cm + 4cm + 4cm
= 12cm
AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FG + GH + HA
∴Perimeter of figure = 4cm + 4cm + 2cm + 4cm + 4cm + 4cm + 6cm + 12cm
= 40cm
Answer: 40cm
Example 9.8
In the figure as shown in Figure 9.31, ABE is an equilateral triangle. BCDE is a
rhombus. Given that the perimeter of the figure ABCDE is 25cm, calculate AB.
Solution:
To find the distance of AB.

For:
(a) Equilateral triangle, all three sides are equal.
(b) Rhombus, all four sides are equal.
Remember!
AB = BE = EA =BC = CD = DE = EB
Equilateral Rhombus BCDE

triangle ABC
∴ Perimeter ABCDE = AB + BC + CD + DE
= 25cm
(Note that we do not consider BE in our calculations as it is not a part of the

perimeter.)
If AB is xcm, then we can form the equation:
x + x + x + x + x = 25, since AB = BE = EA = BC = CD = DE
x + x + x + x + x = 25
5x = 25
then x = 5cm
∴ AB = 5cm
Answer: 5cm

To test their understanding, give the following problems to your students.
EXERCISE 9.1
1. In the following diagram, PQRY and RSWX are squares and TUVW
is a rectangle.YR = RS = WV. Find the perimeter, in cm, of
Figure 9.32.
Figure 9.32: Squares and a rectangle
2. In Figure 9.33, ABCH is a rhombus. CDE and EFG are equilateral

triangles. AB = 6cm. Find the perimeter, in cm, of Figure 9.33.

EXERCISE7.7
3. In Figure 9.34, PQRS is a rectangle which has a length of 16m and a
breadth of 6m. JKRM is a square with each side being 3m. Find the
perimeter of the shaded region.
4. Figure 9.35 shows a trapezium, ABCD and an equilateral triangle,

CEF. Given that BC = CE, calculate the perimeter, in cm, of the
figure ABCEFD.
Figure 9.35: Trapezium and an equilateral triangle
5. In Figure 9.36, ABCD is a rectangle. Find the perimeter, in cm, of the

shaded region. Assume that all the corners are 90°.

Learning mathematics can be tedious for some students, so to make mathematics

more interesting, you can use educational games when teaching. Many
mathematic games are available on the Internet, which you can access and use
for your classroom. According to Davies (1995), some of the benefits of using
mathematics games in the classrooms include:
(a) Application of mathematical ideas and skills in meaningful challenging

situations;
(b) Motivating students to participate in learning, because of the fun and joy
involved;
(c) Building self-concept and developing a positive attitude towards

mathematics;
(d) Increasing learning through interaction between children and learning to

test intuitive ideas and problem solving strategies;
(e) Opportunity for assessment of studentsÊ thinking in a non-threatening

situation; and
(f) Building independence, as the games usually motivate students to perform

tasks, without teacherÊs supervision.
However, you should select mathematics games that have a specific purpose and
have clear mathematical objectives. Games should not be just „time fillers‰ where
students play any games just for whiling away the time in-between activities or
lessons. Thus, choose games that have an underlying mathematics structure,
require thinking and problem solving, are challenging, and of course fun to play.
Teaching Sample Activity 9.4 is an example of a mathematics game for enhancing
understanding of the concept of perimeter.

Teaching Sample Activity 9.4: Enhancing understanding of perimeter concept

through a mathematics game.
1. The objective of the game is to form enclosed shapes, made up of squares,

with a total perimeter more than that of your opponent.
2. The game can be played by two to four players.
3. Provide students with a 10 × 10cm grid dot paper, as shown in

Figure 9.37.
Figure 9.37: Grid dot paper
4. Players toss a coin to see who will go first. Player 1 draws a straight line
(either vertical or horizontal, but not diagonal) between any two adjacent
dots on the grid.

5. Each player attempts to complete a small square by drawing the fourth

line around it. A player who completes a square initials his number on the
square. Figure 9.38 shows an illustration of the game after a number of
turns between two players.
Figure 9.38: Illustration of the game
6. The game continues until they can no longer complete any more squares.
Each player finds the perimeter of all enclosed shapes made from the
squares.
7. The player with the highest total perimeter of all his shapes is the winner.
(Note: When students have learned about area, the rule to win can be changed
to the largest areas of the shapes formed.)
Remind the pupils about the farmer and his plot of land at the beginning of this
topic. This subtopic is interesting as it can help them solve the problem.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Think of an outdoor activity that is suitable to be used for teaching

perimeter of shapes.
9.3 AREA
Area can be defined as the following:
Area is the amount of enclosed space that is measured in square units on a flat
surface.
9.3.1 Area of Rectangle

The formula for the area of a rectangle (A) is:
A = Length (L) × Breadth (B)
Example 9.9
ABCD (see Figure 9.39) is a rectangle with a length of 10cm and breadth of 5cm.
Find its area.
Figure 9.39: Rectangle ABCD

Solution:
To find the area of rectangle
A=L×B
Area of rectangle = 10cm × 5cm
= 50cm2
Answer: 50cm2
Example 9.10
A floor measures 3.5m by 1.5m. What is its area, in cm2? Assume that its shape is
rectangular.
Solution:
To find the area of the floor (rectangle) in cm2
A = L×B
1m = 100cm

Area of floor = 3.5m × 1.5m
= 350cm × 150cm
= 52,500cm2
Answer: 52,500cm2
Example 9.11
A rectangular cardboard has an area of 180cm2. Its length is 15cm. Find the value,
in cm, of its breadth.
Solution:
To find the breadth of the rectangle.
Area of rectangle, A = L × B
180 = 15cm × x
or 180 = 15x
180 = 15x
Divide by 15 Divide by 15
15x = 180
15x 180
=
15 15
x = 12
Answer: 12cm

Teaching Sample Activity 9.6: Measuring the area of different facilities.
Use the data collected in Teaching Sample Activity 9.3 to calculate the area of
the facilities in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4: Measurement of Facilities
Location Length (m) Breadth (m) Area (m2)

School field
Staff room
Canteen
9.3.2 Area of Square

The formula for the area of a square (A) is:
A = Side (S) × Side (S)
Example 9.12
ABCD (see Figure 9.40) is a square with sides of 9cm each. Find its area, in m2.
Figure 9.40: Square ABCD

Solution:
To find the area of the square in m2.
Area of square = S × S
1cm = 0.01m
Area of square = 9cm × 9cm
= 0.09m × 0.09m
= 0.0081m2
Answer: 0.0081m2
9.3.3 Area of Triangle

1
A right-angled triangle can be described as of a rectangle or a square.
2
Consider the rectangle PQRS in Figure 9.41.
Figure 9.41: Rectangle PQRS

Figure 9.42 shows the rectangle PQRS divided into two equal right-angled
triangles.
Figure 9.42: Rectangle PQRS divided into triangles
1
The area of one of the right-angled triangle is of the area of the rectangle.
2
∴ The area of a right-angled triangle (see Figure 9.43):
1
× Base (b ) × Height ( h )
2
Figure 9.43: Triangle
Example 9.13
Figure 9.44 shows the right-angled triangle, ABC. Find its area.

Solution:
To find the area of the right-angled triangle.
1
Area of triangle = × base × height
2
1
Area of triangle, A = × 6cm × 8cm
2
= 24cm2
Answer: 24cm2
Example 9.14
Figure 9.45 shows the triangle ABC. Calculate the area of the triangle.
Figure 9.45: Triangle ABC

Solution:
To find the area of the triangle ABC.
1
2
Area ABC = Area of ABD + ACD
1
Area of triangle, ABD = × 4cm × 4cm
2
= 8cm2
1
Area of triangle, ACD = × 8cm × 4cm
2
= 16cm2
∴ Area of ABC = ABD + ACD
= 8cm2 + 16cm2
Answer: 24cm2

Example 9.15
JKL (see Figure 9.46) is a right-angled triangle with an area of 120cm2. Find the
value of y.
Solution:
To find the area of the triangle JKL.
1
2

1
Area of triangle, JKL = × 12cm × ycm
2
1
or × 12y = 120
2
Multiply by 2
Multiply by 2
1
2× × 12y = 120 × 2
2
1 1
× 12 y = 240 ×
12 12
y = 20
Answer: 20cm
The formula for the area of a triangle is usually taught deductively to the
students, as illustrated in the previous subtopic. This means that the teacher
presents the general formula and then provides specific applications of the
formula with some examples.

However, you can also allow your students to „discover‰ the formula by
inductive reasoning, whereby the students examine specific cases and then make
a generalisation about the area of triangles. Teaching Sample Activity 9.7 shows
an example of an inductive method to teach the formula of the area of triangles.
Teaching Sample Activity 9.7: Deriving the formula of area of triangles

inductively.
1. Provide the students with some triangles drawn on grid paper as shown
in Figure 9.47.
Figure 9.47: Triangles on grid paper

2. For each triangle, instruct the students to count the unit length for the
base and height and record these in the corresponding columns in
Table 9.5. For example, for triangle A, the base is four units in length and
the height is also four units in length.
Table 9.5: Record of Triangle Measurement
Relationship
Base (B) Height (H) Area (A)
Triangle between B, H
(Unit Length) (Unit Length) (Unit Squares)
and A
1
A 4 4 8 (4 × 4) = 8
2
B
C
D
E
Conclusion: The area of a triangle is given by: A =
3. For each triangle, instruct the students to determine the area by counting
the number of unit squares that make up the triangle. For example, for
triangle A, the area is eight unit squares.
4. After the students have completed the information for the bases, heights,
and areas of all four triangles, instruct them to write a mathematical
equation that shows the relationship between the base (B), height (H) and
area (A) of all the triangles.
5. If your students have difficulties recognising the relationship, lead them

by asking them specific questions but refrain from giving them the
answer. For example:
(a) What operation or operations can you apply to the values of the
base and height in triangle A, to make them equal to the value of the
area?
(b) Does your operation(s) apply to triangle B as well? Triangle C?
Triangle D? If not, think of another operation.

6. Instruct them to test out the relationship between B, H and A by drawing

another triangle E on the grid paper, and examine whether the
relationship holds.
7. Students can then draw a conclusion by writing the general formula for
finding the area of a triangle.
8. Students proceed to use the formula to solve problems.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Design an activity that allows your students to find the formula for the
area of a rectangle using the inductive method.
9.3.4 Area of Parallelogram

Let us consider rectangle PQRS in Figure 9.48. Based on the diagram, its area is
15cm × 8cm = 120cm2.
Figure 9.48: Rectangle PQRS

Then, we place two equal right-angled triangles, PST and QRU on the rectangle,
as shown in Figure 9.49. The shaded figure PURT is now a parallelogram.
Figure 9.49: Right-angled triangles PST and QRU
The area of parallelogram PURT:
= Area of rectangle PQRS ă Area of triangle PTS ă Area of triangle QRU
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
= [15cm × 8cm ] − ⎢ × 3cm × 8cm ⎥ − ⎢ × 3cm × 8cm ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
= 120cm2 ă 12cm2 ă 12cm2
= 96cm2
This is the same as 12cm (base) × 8cm (height)
∴ Area of parallelogram is (see Figure 9.50)
Base (b) × Height (h)
Figure 9.50: Area of parallelogram

You can also show the area of a parallelogram using the property that, a diagonal
of a parallelogram bisects it into two equal triangles, as illustrated in Teaching
Sample Activity 9.8.
Teaching Sample Activity 9.8: Deriving the area of a parallelogram from

triangles.
1. Instruct the students to draw a typical parallelogram and label it PQRS.
2. Draw a diagonal as shown in Figure 9.51.
Figure 9.51: Diagonal triangle
3. For each triangle, label the base and height as shown in Figure 9.52.
Figure 9.52: Base and height of diagonal rectangle

4. Ask the students to state some properties of the parallelogram based on

Figure 9.52:
(a) What can you say about ΔPRS and ΔPQR?
(b) Are their bases the same? Why?
(c) Are their heights the same? Why?
(d) Are their areas the same? Why?
5. Guide students to write down the relationship between the areas of the
triangles and the parallelogram.
Area of parallelogram PQRS = Area of ΔPRS + Area of ΔPQR
1 1
= ( base × height ) + ( base × height )
2 2
⎡1 ⎤
= 2 × ⎢ ( base × height )⎥
⎣2 ⎦
= Base × Height
6. Question the students on the application of the formula to other

quadrilaterals:
(a) Does the formula work for a rectangle? A square? A trapezium? A

rhombus?
(b) Why or why not?
7. Students then use the formula to solve some problems.
Extension: Investigate the area of parallelogram using interactive dynamic

software, like the GeometerÊs Sketchpad or Geogebra.

Example 9.16
Figure 9.53 shows the parallelogram KLMN. Find its area.
Figure 9.53: Parallelogram KLMN
Solution:
To find the area of the parallelogram.
Area of parallelogram = Base × Height
∴ Area of parallelogram, A = 11cm × 7cm
= 77cm2
Answer: 77cm2

Example 9.17
Figure 9.54 shows the parallelogram WXYZ. Its area is 140cm2 and its base is
20cm. Calculate in cm, its height.
Figure 9.54: Parallelogram WXYZ
Solution:
To find the height of the parallelogram.
Area of parallelogram, A = 20cm × h
= 140cm2
140 = 20 × h
or 20h = 140

1 1
× 20h = 140 ×
20 20
h =7
∴ Height of parallelogram = 7cm
Answer: 7cm
9.3.5 Area of Trapezium

The formula of a trapezium is given as shown in Figure 9.55.
1
[a + b ] h
2
Figure 9.55: Formula of trapezium

Teaching Sample Activity 9.9: Deriving the formula for area of a trapezium.
1. Instruct the students to draw a typical trapezium and label it PQRS.
2. Label the parallel sides as a and b, and the height as h (see Figure 9.56).
3. Draw a diagonal as shown in Figure 9.56.
4. For each triangle, identify the base and height.
Figure 9.56: Height of trapezium PQRS
5. Guide students to write down the relationship between the areas of the
triangles and the trapezium.
Area of trapezium PQRS = Area of ’PRS + Area of ’PQR

1 1
= ( base × height ) + ( base × height )
2 2
1 1
= (b × h ) + ( a × h )
2 2
1
= h (b + a )
2
1
= (a + b ) h
2
6. Students then use the formula to solve some problems.
Extension: Explore the area of various trapeziums using interactive dynamic

software, like the GeometerÊs Sketchpad or Geogebra.

Example 9.18
Figure 9.57 shows the trapezium PQRS. Find in cm2, its area.
Figure 9.57: Trapezium PQRS
Solution:
To find the area of the trapezium.
1
Area of trapezium = [a + b ] h
2
1
Area of trapezium, A = × [14cm + 8cm ] × 12cm
2
= 132cm2
∴ Area of trapezium = 132cm2
Answer: 132cm2

Example 9.19
In Figure 9.58, EFGH is a trapezium. Its area is 150cm2. Calculate in cm, its
height (h).
Figure 9.58: Trapezium EFGH
Solution:
To find the height of the trapezium.
1
Area of trapezium = [a + b ] h
2

1
Area of trapezium, A = [12cm + 18cm] × h
2
= 150cm2
1
150 = × 30h
2
1
or × 30h = 150
2
Multiply by 2 Multiply by 2
1
2 × × 30h = 150 × 2
2
1 1
× 30h = 300 ×
30 30
h = 10cm
Answer: 10cm

Once the students have sufficient practice on solving problems involving areas of
triangles, rectangles, parallelogram and trapezium, the farmerÊs problem in the
beginning of this topic can be solved.
Solving the FarmerÊs Problem:
So, it looks like our farmer has distributed his property fairly to all his children.

9.3.6 Area of Combined Shapes

Geometrical figures can be formed by combining various shapes such as
triangles, rectangles, parallelograms and trapeziums. Students should be able to
calculate the area of a figure that is made up by joining these shapes.
Example 9.20
Figure 9.59 shows a figure that is made up of a right-angled triangle, a rectangle
and a parallelogram. Given that AB = 8cm, HC = 2GF, BG = GE, and area of
rectangle ABGH is 40cm2, find the area of the whole figure ABCDFGH.
Figure 9.59: A right-angled triangle, a rectangle and a parallelogram
Solution:
To find the area of the combined figure.
Area of rectangle = Length × Breadth
1
Area of triangle = × Base × Height
2
Find AH and GC.

Area of rectangle ABGH = 40cm2
AH × 8 = 40
1 1
× AH × 8 = 40 ×
8 8
AH = 5cm
∴BG = AH = 5cm
And, HG = GC = FD = AB = 8cm
1
Area of triangle BGC = ×8×5
2
= 4×5
= 20cm2
Area of parallelogram = 8 × 5 = 40cm2
∴Area of the figure = Area of rectangle + Area of triangle + Area of parellelogram
= 40 + 20 + 40
= 100cm2
Answer: 100cm2

Example 9.21
In Figure 9.60, PQUT is an isosceles trapezium, QRU a triangle, and RSTU a
square. Given that PQ = 24cm, UV = 6cm, and the area of the trapezium PQUT =
102cm2, find the area of the shape RSTUQ.
Figure 9.60: An isosceles trapezium, a triangle and a square
Solution:
To find the area of the combined square and triangle figure.
1
Area of triangle = × Base × Height
2
1
Area of trapezium = (a + b)h
2
Find UT and VQ of the trapezium.

Area of trapezium PQUT = 102cm2
1
× (PQ + UT) × UV = 102
2
1
× (24 +UT) × 6 = 102
2
(24 +UT) × 3 = 102
1 1
× (24 + UT) × 3 = 102 ×
3 3
24 +UT = 34 Minus 24
UT = 34 24
= 10cm
∴UR = UT = 10cm
Figure 9.61: Isosceles trapezium
For an isosceles trapezium, VQ = WQ as shown in Figure 9.61.
Thus, 2VQ + WV = PQ
Minus 10
2VQ + 10cm = 24cm
2VQ = 24 10
1 1 Divide by 2
Divide by 2 × 2VQ = 14 ×
2 2
VQ = 7cm

∴ Area of figure RSTUQ = Area of square RSTU + Area of triangle QUR

1
= (10 × 10 ) + × 10 × 7
2
= 100 + 35
= 135cm 2
Answer: 135cm2
Teaching Sample Activity 9.10: Creating and solving problems.
1. Instruct your students to divide themselves into groups of four.
2. Each pair in a group of four will discuss and create a problem that
combines triangles, rectangles, squares, parallelograms or trapeziums.
The problem can be an area problem or a perimeter problem or both.
3. Each pair in the group exchanges problems to solve and becomes the
tutors to the other pair if explanation is needed.
4. Exchange partners in the pairs after every problem.
5. Each group then creates a problem and poses it to the other groups to
solve.
6. Conclude by instructing the students to write about their learning,

problem creation and mathematical communication in their mathematics
journal. The following are examples of prompts to guide journal writing:
(a) What is the most significant thing that you learned in mathematics
class today?
(b) What questions were still unanswered at the end of class today?
(c) How do you feel about yourself, your friends and your class today?

EXERCISE 9.2
1. Figure 9.62 shows a hexagon which is made up of several triangles.

O is the centre of the hexagon. OAB is a right-angled triangle. Find
the following:
(a) Perimeter of the hexagon
(b) Area of the hexagon
Figure 9.62: A hexagon which is made up of several triangles
2. In Figure 9.63, ABCD and BQRS are two equal parallelograms.

Calculate the area of the figure.
Figure 9.63: Two equal parallelograms

EXERCISE9.2
3. Calculate the perimeter and area of the shaded region in Figure 9.64.
Figure 9.64: Calculate shaded region
4. Calculate the area of the trapezium (see Figure 9.65) in mm2.
Figure 9.65: Calculate area of trapezium
5. ABC (see Figure 9.66) is an isosceles triangle and BK = KC. What is

the area of the triangle ABC?

SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Recall the formula for finding the areas of rectangles, squares,

parallelograms and trapeziums.
2. Describe a suitable teaching learning activity involving area that

emphasises mathematical reasoning among students.
• Special parallelograms are as follows:
ă Rectangle: All angles are equal and has two pairs of parallel sides;
ă Rhombus: All sides are equal; and
ă Square: A rectangle and a rhombus at the same time.
• A trapezium is defined as a shape with four sides, two of which are parallel.
• Perimeter is the total length of distance of an enclosed shape.
• Area is the amount of enclosed space that is measured in unit2 on a flat

surface.
• Area of rectangle = Length (L) × Breadth (B).
• Area of square = Side (S) × Side (S).
1
• Area of right-angled triangle = × Base (b) × Height (h).
2
• Area of parallelogram = Base (b) × Height (h).
1
• Area of trapezium = [ a + b] h.
2

Area Rectangle
Parallelogram Trapezium
Perimeter Triangle
Davies, B. (1995). The role of games in mathematics. Square One, 5(2).

Malaysia.

Topic  Solid Geometry
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the common geometric solids;
2. State the properties of cubes and cuboids;
3. Construct models of cubes and cuboids;
4. Draw layouts or nets of cubes and cuboids;
5. Summarise the concept of surface area of cubes and cuboids;
6. Apply the concept of volume of cubes and cuboids; and
7. Solve problems related to surface area, and volume of cubes and
cuboids.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we have discussed the perimeter and area of two-
dimensional shapes. In this topic, we shall deal with surface areas and volumes
of three-dimensional objects, especially cubes and cuboids. Before you proceed,
make sure that your students have already mastered the concepts of area and
perimeter. They must be proficient in operational skills that combine +, ă, × and ÷.

420  TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY
To motivate the students, we can start the lesson by asking them about the
famous structures or buildings that they are familiar with.
The „Burj Khalifa‰ (see Figure 10.1) which is located in Dubai, United Arab
Emirates (see Figure 10.2), rises over 800m and is the tallest building
constructed in the world.
Figure 10.1: Burj Khalifa Figure 10.2: Map of Dubai

Source:http://flashydubai.com Source:www.infoplease.com
In Malaysia, the Petronas Twin Towers (see Figure 10.3) in Kuala Lumpur
stands at 452m. Ask the students if they have visited the towers.
Figure 10.3: Petronas Twin Towers

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org

TOPIC 10 SOLID GEOMETRY  421
Meanwhile, some of the students may be familiar with the „Kaabah‰

(see Figure 10.4). It is located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia (see Figure 10.5). This is the
location where Muslims around the world congregate to perform their „haj‰. It
was built thousands of years ago and has been rebuilt several times since then.
Figure 10.4: Kaabah Figure 10.5: Map of Mecca

Source:http://photobucket.com Source: www.lib.utexas.edu
The following is another famous structure. It is called „pyramid‰ (refer to

Figure 10.6) and it is located in Egypt (refer to Figure 10.7). It was also built
thousands of years ago by the ancient Egyptians.
Figure 10.6: Pyramid Figure 10.7: Map of Egypt

Source: www.guardians.net Source: www.lib.utexas.edu
These buildings or structures are made up of basic shapes which are called
geometric solids. Geometric solids help us explore the three-dimensional space
that we live in.

10.1 GEOMETRIC SOLIDS

A geometric solid is a bounded three-dimensional figure. A square or a triangle
is a two-dimensional figure because the shape has two dimensions of length and
breadth (or width). These two dimensions allow the shape to have perimeter and
area but not volume. In contrast, a two-dimensional figure like a cube has
another third dimension, representing the height of the object that gives it depth
and thus volume. Let us look at some common geometric solids. Figure 10.8
shows some geometric solids and their names.
Figure 10.8: Common geometric solids
Students should be able to identify various geometric shapes based on their

geometric properties. Based on van HieleÊs Model of geometric understanding,
students should go beyond the visualisation level which is merely seeing the
solids as a whole visual figure without identifying its individual attributes.
Hence, your students should be provided opportunities to enhance their
geometric understanding, to the analysis and deductive levels of the van Hiele
Model.
At this level, students should be able to identify the geometric solids based on the
examination of their properties, as well as the relationships between these
properties. Teaching Sample Activity 10.2 highlights the importance of using
manipulatives to understand geometric properties of objects. In addition, the
inconsistency in defining certain geometric terms highlights some confusion that
students face in describing properties of geometric solids.

Teaching Sample Activity 10.2: Exploring properties of geometric solids.
1. Provide your students with three-dimensional models of cubes, cuboids,

cylinders, cones, pyramids and spheres.
2. Instruct them to search the Internet or in books, to find the definitions of

vertex (plural: vertices), edge and face of a geometric solid. For example:
A vertex is a point where two or more straight lines meet.
An edge is the line segment where two edges meet.
3. As your students work along using the various definitions, ask them to
keep a note of any limitations or problems encountered in using them.
For example, does the definition for vertex apply to cones? Does the cone
have any edges, if the definition above for edges is used?
4. Working in small groups of four, students can examine the solids and
describe the vertices, edges and faces of each one.
5. Students then record their observations in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Examination of Geometric Solids
Description of Description of Description of

Solid Name
Vertices Edges Faces

6. Each group describes the properties of the solids to the class, highlighting
the definitions used and limitations encountered.
Extension: Using digital cameras, students can take photographs of objects

around them that use or show the shapes of the geometrical solids. For each
photograph, students are required to write a short description on how the
geometry of the object is related to that of the solid.
Issues of definition often confuse teachers and students in describing properties

of geometric shapes. For example, if the definitions of vertex and edge as stated
in Teaching Sample Activity 10.2 are used, the cone would not have any edges or
vertices.
You can get some ideas of the issues being discussed at the Math Forum @ Drexel
at the following links:
http://goo.gl/u6ilYL
http://goo.gl/Cvi9c8
10.2 CUBES AND CUBOIDS

One definition of a cube (see Figure 10.9) is:
A geometric solid which has six square faces of the same size and 12 edges of
the same length.
(Cho, Mangai, Suhana & Tiew, 2005).

Figure 10.9: Cube
Similarly, a cuboid is often defined as:
A geometric solid with six rectangular faces and 12 edges.

(Cho, Mangai, Suhana & Tiew, 2005).
The definitions given for a cube and a cuboid are quite similar. Therefore, we can
say that they have certain similar properties.
10.2.1 Properties of Cubes and Cuboids

Let us now compare a cuboid (refer to Figure 10.10) with a cube (refer to
Figure 10.11).
Figure 10.10: Cuboid Figure 10.11: Cube

We can then summarise the geometric properties of cubes and cuboids as per
Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Geometric Properties of Cubes and Cuboids
Properties Cubes Cuboids

Shape Regular Regular
Faces Square Rectangular
Number of faces 6 6
Have edges?  
Have vertices?  
Graphic organisers can be given to students to help them to compare and

contrast the properties of cubes and cuboids. Graphic organisers are great visual
thinking tools that can help students to organise their thoughts and develop their
thinking skills. Figure 10.12 shows a commonly used graphic diagram that
students can use to explore the similarities and differences between cubes and
cuboids.
Figure 10.12: Comparison between cubes and cuboids

Another graphic organiser you can use is one of the thinking maps proposed by
David Hyerle called the Double Bubble as shown in Figure 10.13.
Figure 10.13: The Double Bubble
10.2.2 Constructing a Model of a Cube and Cuboid

Constructing models of cubes and cuboids is an important learning activity for
students. Three-dimensional models are concrete representations of geometric
solids and provide effectives means of displaying their properties visually. Very
often these models can be touched, rotated and viewed from different angles;
thus, allowing a manipulative advantage that aids in the construction of
geometric understanding. In addition, as learners make three-dimensional
models with different materials, they develop problem solving skills,
manipulative skills as well as spatial abilities.
Models can be constructed to represent cubes and cuboids using different

methods. You can make a geometric model of a solid, using one of three
methods: (a) a frame model; (b) a surface model; or (c) a solid model.
(a) In the frame model, the vertices and edges of the geometric solid are used
as the frame to construct the model. The frame can be made from wires,
sticks, straws or even folded paper strips;

(b) In the surface model, faces of the geometric solid made from flat materials
such as cardboards, are used to construct the model; and
(c) In the solid model, the geometric solids are made from solid or semi-solid
materials like wood, plasticine or clay.
Each of these models has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example,
the frame model of a cube allows the underlying structure of the cube to be
clearly seen through the representation of the vertices and edges. The surface and
solid models provide a „solid‰ feel and its faces are distinctly visible and can be
felt. The volume and mass of cubes and cuboids are also better visualised, when
represented by surface and solid models.
10.2.3 Making a Frame Model of a Cube and Cuboid

Teaching Sample Activity 10.3 is an example of making a frame model of a cube
and cuboid.
Teaching Sample Activity 10.3: Making a frame model of a cube and cuboid.
Instruct the students to bring drinking straws and paper clips to class.
1. In order to construct a cube, each student must have:
(a) Twelve drinking straws of equal length
(b) Eight modified paper clips
2. In order to construct a cuboid, each student must have:
(a) Four drinking straws, each 8cm long
(b) Four drinking straws, each 6cm long
(c) Four drinking straws, cut 4cm long
(d) Eight modified paper clips

Before we start, we must first modify our paper clips.These clips will be used to
hold the straws together when we construct our models.
Step 1: Students must have a paper clip ready as shown in Figure 10.14.
Figure 10.14: A paper clip
Step 2: Straighten the clip as in Figure 10.15.
Figure 10.15: Straightened paper clip
Step 3: Form three equal loops which are perpendicular to one another, as in
Figure 10.16.
Figure 10.16: Three equal loops which are perpendicular to one another

Step 4: Repeat Steps 1, 2 and 3 for the other seven clips.
(a) Join all the straws of equal length to form a cube model as shown in
Figure 10.17.
Figure 10.17: Cube model
(b) Use the modified clips to hold the straws together at the vertices.
(c) Join all the straws of 8cm, 6cm and 4cm lengths to form a cuboid model as
shown in Figure 10.18, using the same methods as that of the cube.
Figure 10.18: Cuboid model
(d) Do not forget to use the clips to hold the straws together at the vertices.

10.2.4 Making a Surface Model of a Cube and Cuboid

Now, let us continue with the next teaching sample activity.
Teaching Sample Activity 10.4: Making a surface model of a cube and cuboid.
Instruct each student to bring:
1. Two pieces of manila card
2. A pair of scissors
3. A roll of cellophane tape
4. A ruler
5. Pen/pencil
In order to construct a cube and cuboid from manila card, follow the steps below:
Step 1: Draw a layout of a cube, according to the dimensions in Figure 10.19, onto
a manila card. Make sure that each side of the cube is 5cm.
Figure 10.19: Layout of cube
Step 2: Use the scissors to cut the layout out of the manila card.

Step 3: Fold the card along the dotted lines as in Figure 10.20.
Figure 10.20: Fold along the dotted lines on the layout
Step 4: Join the edges of the layout with cellophane tape and a cube will emerge,
as in Figure 10.21.
Figure 10.21: Cube

Step 5: Repeat the above steps, but this time using different dimensions, as in
Figure 10.22.
Figure 10.22: Layout with different dimensions from the cube
Step 6: Fold the edges as indicated in Figure 10.20 and join the edges. A cuboid
will emerge as in Figure 10.23.
Figure 10.23: Cuboid
Figure 10.20 and Figure 10.22 are „nets‰ that when folded, form a cube and a
cuboid respectively. There are 11 nets that can be folded to form a cube. Can you
identify them?

Teaching Sample Activity 10.5: Investigating nets of cubes.
1. Provide your students with the nets as shown in Figure 10.24.
Figure 10.24: The nets

2. Instruct them to make a prediction as to which nets can be folded to form

a cube and those that cannot.
3. Students can then check their predictions by cutting out the nets and
folding them to form the shape of a cube.
Extension: Students can be asked to investigate how many different nets they
can make for a 2 × 1 × 1 cuboid, a 2 × 2 × 1 cuboid and a 1 × 2 × 3 cuboid.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. What are the similarities and differences between a cube and a
cuboid?
2. Think of ways to construct a cube or a cuboid.
To stimulate studentsÊ thinking, pose the following problem to them:
You put a gift for your mother, into a cube box. How much gift wrapping
paper is needed to cover all the faces of the cube box? What concept of
measurement is involved in determining the amount of paper needed?
If the cube box is measured as 8cm × 6cm × 10cm, what is the minimum
amount of wrapping paper needed?

10.3 SURFACE AREA OF CUBES AND CUBOIDS

Let us continue our study by looking at the surface area of cubes and cuboids.
10.3.1 Concept of Surface Area

The learning of surface area for geometric solids involves distinguishing the
concept from the concept of area of two-dimensional shapes. Although area and
surface area both describe the amount of space enclosed within a closed shape,
there are subtle but important differences between the two that students should
understand.
Teaching Sample Activity 10.7: Developing the concept of surface area.
1. Show the students a picture of a cube, to represent the gift in the problem
posed in Teaching Sample Activity 10.6.
2. Carry out a discussion with the students to inculcate their ideas and
opinions. The following questions can serve as a guide:
What kind of an object is a cube?
(Three-dimensional object.)
What kind of shapes make up the faces of a cube?
(Squares.)
What is the difference between a cube and a square?
(A square is a two-dimensional figure whereas a cube is three-
dimensional figure.)
If you have two pieces of wrapping paper, and one is larger than the
other, what does it mean in mathematical terms in relation to the topic at
hand?
(The larger piece has a bigger area than the smaller piece.)
If the pieces of wrapping paper are square shapes, how do you determine
the area of each one?
(Find the dimensions of length and width, then multiply them.)

Does a cube have area(s)? Why?

(Yes, because there are faces that are squares and we can find areas of
squares.)
If you want to find the areas of all the square faces in a cube, how would
you do so?
(Find the area of one square face and then multiply by six since there are
six square faces in all.)
How is this total area the same as the area of a square?
(Both are measured in cm2. Both measure amount of space or wrapping
paper needed. Both measurements are within a boundary.)
At this stage the teacher will bring in the term „surface area‰ as denoting
the total area of all the faces of the cube. Teacher explains that it is
incorrect to say the „area of a cube‰ because a cube is made up of six
two-dimensional square faces.
How is the surface area of a cube different from the area of a square?
(Surface area measures the total surface of the cube whereas area measures
the particular square face.)
3. Instruct the students to summarise the discussion by comparing and
contrasting the concepts of surface area and area using the Double Bubble
thinking map shown in the previous Figure 10.13. Figure 10.25 shows an
example of the comparison.
Figure 10.25: Double Bubble thinking map of the comparison between the
concepts of surface and area

10.3.2 Surface Area of a Cube

Let us begin this subtopic with Example 10.1.
Example 10.1
You are given a three-dimensional cube in Figure 10.26. One of its edges is
7cm. Calculate, in cm2, its surface area.
Figure 10.26: Three-dimensional cube
Solution:
To calculate, in cm2, its surface area.
Area of square = Side × Side
Its layout (or net) would probably be like this:

Let us consider the shaded area in Figure 10.27.
The area is 7cm × 7cm = 49cm2
Figure 10.27: Shaded area
How many squares are there?
There are altogether six squares of equal size in the figure.
∴The surface area of the cube = 49cm2 × 6 squares
= 294cm2
Answer: 294cm2

Example 10.2
Figure 10.28 shows a cube. One of its edges is 70cm. Calculate, in m2, its surface
area.
Figure 10.28: Cube
Solution:
To calculate, in m2, its surface area.
Area of square = Side × Side
100cm = 1m
∴ 70cm = 0.7m
Area of 1 square = 0.7m × 0.7m
= 0.49m2
Surface area = 0.49m2 × 6 squares
= 2.94m2
Answer: 2.94m2

Teaching Sample Activity 10.8: Deriving the formula of surface area of a cube.
After the students have successfully solved a few problems on finding the
surface area of cubes, guide them to derive a general formula for a cube, with
an edge of a units.
Area of a square face = Side × Side
= a×a
= a2 unit2
∴Surface area of cube = 6a2 unit2
10.3.3 Surface Area of a Cuboid

Now let us see an example to find the surface area of a cuboid.
Example 10.3
Figure 10.29 shows a three-dimensional cuboid with dimensions of 10cm × 4cm ×
7cm. Find, in cm2, its surface area.
Figure 10.29: Three-dimensional cuboid

Solution:
Its layout (net) would look like that of Figure 10.30.
Figure 10.30: Layout of a cuboid
First, there are six rectangles as shown in Figure 10.31.
Figure 10.31: Six rectangles on the cuboid

Now, let us find the area for each rectangle in Figure 10.31.
   
[7cm × 4cm ] [7cm × 10cm] [7cm × 4cm] [4cm × 10cm]
 
[7cm × 10cm] [4cm × 10cm]
We can simplify these to:
 +  +  +  +  + 
28cm2 + 70cm2 + 28cm + 40cm2 + 70cm2 + 40cm2 = 276cm2
∴The surface area of the cuboid is 276cm2.
Answer: 276cm2
Example 10.4
In Figure 10.32, the cuboid measures 100cm by 40cm by 70cm. Find, in m2, its
surface area.

Solution:
To calculate, in m2, its surface area.
100cm = 1m
There are six rectangles in the layout.
Now, let us find the area for each rectangle in the layout, using the same method
as that of Figure 10.29.
   
[0.7 m × 0.4 m ] [0.7 m × 1.0 m] [0.7 m × 0.4 m] [0.4 m × 1.0 m]
 
[0.7 m × 1.0cm] [0.4 m × 1.0 m]
 +  +  +  +  + 
0.28 m2 + 0.70 m2 + 0.28 m2 + 0.40 m2 + 0.70 m2 + 0.40 m2 = 2.76 m2
∴The surface area of the cuboid is 2.76m2.
Answer: 2.76 m2

Example 10.5
Figure 10.33 shows a cuboid. Its surface area is 5,200cm2. Find, in cm, the value
of x.
Figure 10.33: Cuboid with a surface area of 5,200cm2
Solution:
There are six rectangles in the cuboid.
Now, let us find the area for each rectangle.
   
[80cm × 20cm] [80cm × 20cm] [80cm × xcm] [80cm × xcm]
 
[20cm × xcm] [20cm × xcm]

 +  +  +  +  + 
1,600cm2 + 1,600cm2 + 80xcm2 + 80xcm 2 + 20xcm 2 + 20xcm 2 = 5,200cm2
∴The surface area of the cuboid is 2.76m2.
3,200cm2 + 200xcm2 = 5,200cm2
or 3,200 + 200x = 5,200
3,200 ă 3,200 5,200 ă 3,200
3, 200 + 200x = 5, 200 2,000 ÷200

200 ÷200
200x = 2, 000
x = 10
Answer: 10cm

Teaching Sample Activity 10.9: Deriving the formula for surface area of a
cuboid.
1. After the students have successfully solved a few problems on finding

the surface area of cuboids, guide them to derive a general formula for a
cuboid with dimensions of a × b × c units.
2. Instruct them to draw the layout or net for the cuboid as shown in
Figure 10.34, and to label all its sides. They should also label all its
rectangular faces.
Figure 10.34: Layout of the cuboid
3. Instruct the students to use the formula of calculating the area of a

rectangle to derive the general formula for the surface area of a cuboid as
follows:
Surface area of a cuboid = Area of rectangle A + Area of rectangle B +

Area of rectangle C + Area of rectangle D +
Area of rectangle E + Area of rectangle F
= ac + bc + ac + bc + ab + ab
= 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
= 2(ab + ac + bc) unit2

Teaching Sample Activity 10.10: Calculating of surface area and area of cubes
and cuboids.
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Figure 10.35 is of a cube which has sides of 8cm each. Calculate its
surface area, in cm2 and m2.
Figure 10.35: Cube with 8cm sides
2. A cuboid measures 60cm by 30cm by 15cm. Find, its surface area, in

cm2 and m2.
3. The length of a box is 20cm, its breadth is 10cm and its height is
5cm.What is its surface area? State your answer in cm2 and m2.
4. The area of a face of a cube is given as 150cm2. Find, in cm2, the area
of its surface.
5. A cuboid has a length of 80cm, breadth 30cm and a height of ycm.

Given that its surface area is 7,220cm2, find in cm, the value of y.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. How many different layouts (nets) can be folded to form a cube?
2. What are the formulae to calculate the surface areas of a cube and
a cuboid?

10.4 VOLUME OF CUBES AND CUBOIDS

Let us move on to learning how to find the volume of cubes and cuboids.
10.4.1 Concept of Volume of Solids

Volume is an important mathematical concept as it is related to many concepts
widely used in scientific inquiry and learning. A solid understanding of volume
ensures effective learning of scientific concepts such as pressure, displacement,
density and many more.
Volume is often defined as the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional

object. How do you illustrate this idea? Explaining measurement concepts like
that of volume, is best communicated by activities involving measuring using
non-standard units and followed by measuring in standard units. Teaching
Sample Activity 10.11 shows the importance of concrete representation to
illustrate volume by measuring in non-standard units.
Teaching Sample Activity 10.11: Developing the concept of volume and

measuring volume in non-standard units.
1. Instruct your students to bring boxes of various sizes to class.
2. Ask them to examine the empty space within each box. Question them:
Which box do you think has the largest amount of space inside?
(The largest box.)
Which box do you think has the smallest amount of space inside?
(The smallest box.)
If you are comparing two boxes that are almost the same size, how do
you know which one has more space within?
(By measuring the space.)
How can we measure this attribute, that is, the amount of space in the
box?
(We can fill them with objects and count the number of objects.)

3. You can then explain that the attribute to be measured is the amount of
space occupied in the box and this measurement is called volume.
4. Inform them they are to find and compare the volumes of these boxes by
filling them with marbles.
5. Provide an activity sheet as shown in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Activity Sheet
Estimated Actual Volume

Box
(No. of Marbles) (No. of Marbles) (in Marbles)
6. Instruct them to estimate how many marbles can be filled in each box and
then check their estimations by comparing these with the actual number
of marbles. Record the findings in Table 10.3.

7. Discuss with the students on the effectiveness of using marbles to

measure the volume of the boxes.
What would happen if we use marbles of different sizes?
(Difficult to compare the volumes because bigger marbles occupy more

space but fewer are needed to fill the box.)
Do you think the number of marbles represent the amount of space

within the box? Why?
(No, because there are empty spaces which are not filled up by the
marbles.)
8. You can illustrate the limitation of non-standard units of measures as

shown in Figure 10.36, to give them a visual representation of the
limitation.
Empty
spaces
Figure 10.36: Limitation of non-standard units of measures
Measuring volume with non-standard units of measures should be followed by

teaching and learning activities involving measurement with standard units such
as the one in Teaching Sample Activity 10.12.

Teaching Sample Activity 10.12: Measuring the volume of cuboids

in standard units.
1. Provide your students with various nets drawn on a 1cm grid paper to
create open boxes as shown in Figure 10.37.
Figure 10.37: Nets on 1cm grid paper to show open boxes

2. Instruct them to cut out the nets and construct the boxes.
3. Provide students with another 1cm grid paper and instruct them to make
50 unit cubes using the net as shown in Figure 10.37.
4. Working in small groups, students should estimate and then determine

how many unit cubes can be filled in each box, as shown in Figure 10.38.
Figure 10.38: Unit cubes to be filled in each box
Table 10.4: Estimation and Actual Number of Unit Cubes
Estimated Actual Volume

Box
(No. of Unit Cubes) (No. of Unit Cubes) (in Unit Cubes)
6. Discuss with students on the effectiveness of using unit cubes to measure

the volume of boxes.
Which is a better representation of the volume of the boxes ă number of

marbles or number of unit cubes? Why?
(Number of unit cubes, because all the spaces are filled up.)
7. Then go on to introduce the standard units of measuring volume. For

example, if the unit cubes have dimensions of 1cm × 1cm × 1cm then each
unit cube measures, one cubic centimetre or 1cm3.

10.4.2 Volume of Cubes

If a cube is given with sides a unit as shown in Figure 10.39, the volume is
calculated as follows:
Figure 10.39: Cube with sides of a unit
Volume a cube = Side × Side × Side

= a×a×a
= a3 unit3
Example 10.6
Figure 10.40 shows a cube with each side measuring 5cm. Find, in cm3, its
volume.
Figure 10.40: Cube with sides of 5cm
Solution:
To calculate, in cm3, its volume.
Volume of a cube = Side × Side × Side

= a×a×a

= a3 unit3
Volume of a cube = 5cm × 5cm × 5cm
= 125cm3
Answer: 125cm3
Example 10.7
Figure 10.41 shows a cubic box with a side of 10m. Inside this box is a smaller
cubic box with a side of 3m. What is the amount of space left in the bigger box?
Figure 10.41: Cubic box with a smaller cubic box inside
Solution:
To find the amount of space, that is, volume.
Volume of a cube = Side × Side × Side
=a×a×a
= a3 unit3
Find the volume of the bigger box and smaller box. Then subtract.

Volume of a bigger box = 10m × 10m × 10m
= 100m3
Volume of a smaller box = 3m × 3m × 3m
= 27m3
∴Amount of space left = 100m3 ă 27m3
= 73m3
Answer: 73m3
10.4.3 Volume of Cuboids

When the dimensions of a cuboid are given as shownin Figure 10.42, the volume
can be calculated as follows:
Volume of a cuboid = Length × Width × Height
= l×b×h
= lbh unit3

Example 10.8
Figure 10.43 shows a cuboid with a length of 6cm, width of 8cm and height of
10cm. Find, in cm3, its volume.
Solution:
To calculate, in cm3, its volume.
Volume of a cuboid = Length × Breadth × Height
Volume of a cuboid = 6cm × 8cm × 10cm
= 480cm3
Answer: 480cm3

Example 10.9
A cuboid container has a base area of 68m2, as shown in Figure 10.44. If the
volume of the container is 884m2, what is the height of the container?
Figure 10.44: Cuboid container
Solution:
To find the height of the container.
Volume of a cuboid = Length × Breadth × Height

= Base area × Height
Find the height by dividing its volume with its rectangular base area.
Volume of a cuboid container = 884m2
Rectangular base area × Height = 884m2
Divide by 68 68 × h = 884 Divide by 68

68h 884
=
68 68
h = 13m
∴Height of container = 13m
Answer: 13m

The formulae for cubes and cuboids can be derived inductively by students,
using the method similar to finding the area of triangles as described in the
previous topic. Using this method, allows the students to develop inductive
thinking in a more hands-on and constructive approach to learning mathematical
formulae.
Teaching Sample Activity 10.13: Deriving the formula for the volume of a
cuboid.
1. Use the same cuboid boxes as that of Teaching Sample Activity 10.12. The
students can use the results of measurement from the activity to conduct
their investigations for this one.
2. For each cuboid box, instruct the students to determine how many unit
cubes are needed to fill the length, breadth and height of the box as shown
in Figure 10.45.
Figure 10.45: Cuboid box with unit cubes inside

3. Record all results in Table 10.5.
Table 10.5: The Results
Relationship
Length (L) Breadth (B) Height (H) Volume (V)
Box between V,
(Unit Cube) (Unit Cube) (Unit Cube) (Unit Cube)
L, B, and H
A
B
C
D
Conclusion: The volume of a cuboid is given by: V =
4. After the students have completed the information, instruct them to write
a mathematical equation that shows the relationship between the length
(L), breadth (B), height (H) and volume (V) of all the cubes.
5. If your students have difficulties seeing the relationship, lead them by

questioning but do not provide them with the answers. For example:
What operation or operations can you apply to the values of the length,
breadth and height in Box A that makes them equal to the value of the
volume?
Does your operation(s) apply to Box B also? Box C? Box D? If not, think of
another operation.
6. Instruct them to test out the relationship between L, B, H and V by

making another cuboid box E on the grid paper and examining whether
the relationship holds.
7. Students can then draw a conclusion by writing the general formula for
finding the volume of a cuboid.
8. Discuss with the students how the formula can be modified for volume of
cubes.
9. Students can now proceed to use the formula to solve problems.

Most textbook problems are routine calculation problems. It is important that

students should also solve non-routine problems because this will enable them
to develop problem solving skills, creative thinking and communication skills,
especially if the problems are solved cooperatively together with their peers.
Teaching Sample Activity 10.14: Solving non-routine problems.
To encourage solving of non-routine problems, give the following exercises to

the students for them to solve.
EXERCISE 10.2
1. You have 12 cubes, each with sides 1cm long. How many different
cuboids can you make using all the cubes for each? Figure 10.46
shows one cuboid with the dimension, 2 × 2 × 3. Find the rest and
describe them.
Figure 10.46: Cuboid with the dimension of 2 × 2 × 3
2. You are given 125 cubes, each with sides of 1cm in length. Find the
surface areas of all possible cuboids formed by using, all the cubes.
(i) Which cuboid has the smallest surface area?
(ii) Find the surface area: volume ratio. Which cuboid has the
largest ratio?
3. A cuboid water tank has a rectangular base of 12m by 15m and a

3
height of 24m. When the tank is full, what is its volume of water,
4
in m3?

4. A farmer takes one day to dig a cuboid hole that is 3.5m long, 1.5m
wide and 4m deep. At this rate, how long will it take the farmer to
dig a hole that is 7m long, 3m wide and 8m deep?
5. Figure 10.47 shows a net of a cube. If the net is folded, draw a

possible view of the cube in Figure 10.48.
Figure 10.47: Net of a cube Figure 10.48: Folded net
• Volume is the amount of space that an object or substance fills.
• A cube is a geometric solid which has six square faces of the same size and
12 edges of the same length.
• The surface area of a cube can be calculated by this formula:
Area of 1 face × 6
Unit used: Unit2
• The volume of a cube can be calculated using: Side × Side × Side
Unit used: Unit3
• A cuboid is a geometric solid with six rectangular faces and 12 edges.
• The surface area of a cuboid is: Sum of area of rectangular faces.
Unit used: Unit2

• The volume of a cuboid can be calculated using this formula:

Length × Breadth × Height
Unit used: Unit3
Cubes Framework
Cuboids Properties

Malaysia.

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MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
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OR
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(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Prof Dr Lim Tick Meng

Moderators: Prof Dr Abdul Razak Habib

Goh Thian Hee

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, April 2008

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2016, HBMT3303

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Whole Numbers 1

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Topic 3 Decimals 114

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Topic 4 Percentages 141

Topic 5 Algebraic Expressions 162

Topic 6 Basic Measurements 190

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6.4 Time 219

Topic 7 Lines and Angles 243

Topic 8 Polygons 298

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8.2 Concept of Symmetry 317

Topic 9 Perimeter and Area 360

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Topic 10 Solid Geometry 419

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Explain the concepts, definitions, rules and principles related to operations

2. Apply mathematical concepts involving whole numbers, fractions,

3. Use the mathematical processes involving representing, connecting,

4. Discuss the importance and beauty of mathematics; and

5. Acquire skills and knowledge to teach mathematics constructively for Form

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Topic 2 covers the topic on fractions beginning with an understanding of the

Topic 3 provides learners with thorough explanation on the concept of decimal

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Topic 5 introduces the concept of unknowns as the basis to understand algebraic

Topic 6 covers the basic concept of measurements involving length, mass

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Topic 9 covers the concept of perimeter and area of triangle, rectangle,

Topic 10 will guide understanding about geometrical solids as three dimensional

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum. (2002). Integrated curriculum specifications:

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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1.1 THE BASICS OF WHOLE NUMBERS

1.1.1 Numeration System and Place Values

(b) Positional or Place Value

Figure 1.1: An example of place values

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(c) Multiplicative Principle