BONGA UNIVERSITY

Department of Natural Resource Management

(From Department of Animal Science)

Introduction to Sustainable Agriculture

Prepared by: Seid Mohammed (MSc.)

5. Introduction to Animal Production

5.1. History and domestication of animals

Domestication is the process of hereditary re-organization of wild animals and plants into domestic and cultivated
forms according to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of
wild animals and plants. The fundamental distinction of domesticated animals and plants from their wild
ancestors is that they are created by human labour to meet specific requirements and are adapted to the
conditions of continuous care and solicitude people maintain for them. The most numerous large mammals, apart
from humans are cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and dogs.

The earliest known evidence of a domesticated dog is a jawbone found in a cave in Iraq and dated to about
12,000 years ago. Selective breeding affects a species quite rapidly. The first animals known to have been
domesticated as a source of food are sheep in the Middle East. The proof is the high proportion of bones of one-
year-old sheep discarded in a settlement at Shanidar, in what is now northern Iraq. Goats follow soon after, and
these two become the standard animals of the nomadic pastoralists - tribes which move all year long with their
flocks, guided by the availability of fresh grass and water. Humans in western Asia may first have bred the ox.
From about 4000 BC oxen are harnessed and put to work. India and Southeast Asia use another version of the
domesticated ox, well adapted to hot wet conditions - the water buffalo. The pig is probably first domesticated in
China.

A natural habitat of the wild horse is the steppes of central Asia. Some 5000 years ago, human’s first capture,
tame and breed the horse. The original purpose, as with cattle, is to acquire a reliable source of meat and
subsequently milk. The first domesticated horses are of a size, which we would describe as ponies. Horses of this
kind were still living in the wild in Mongolia until quite recent times. As beasts of burden and transport, camels
occupy an important place alongside horses and donkeys. In the very hot regions of north Africa and Asia two
different species of camel become the most important beasts of burden - the single-humped Arabian camel (in
north Africa, the Middle East, India) and the double-humped Bactrian camel (central Asia, Mongolia). Both are

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well adapted to desert conditions. They can derive water, when none is available elsewhere, from the fat stored in
their humps. It is probable that they are first domesticated in Arabia some time after 1500 BC. Jungle fowl of this
kind are captured and kept for their eggs and their flesh by about 2000 BC in Asia.

The first reason for herding sheep and goats, or keeping cattle and pigs in the village, is to secure a regular
supply of fresh meat. The herdsman, by contrast, has a living larder always to hand and a supply of dairy
products as well. These animals also provide for almost every other need of Neolithic man. While they are alive,
they produce dung to manure the crops. When they are dead leather and wool for garments; horn and bone for
sharp points of needles or arrows; fat for tallow candles; hooves for glue.

Summary on domestication of farm animals

No. Name of the Year of domestication Place of Domestication Purpose

animal
1 Dog 12000 years ago Southwest Asia-Iraq and hunting, shepherding, herding,
Iran companionship, meat
2 Sheep and Goat 10000 years ago Southwest Asia-Iran wool, meat*, milk*, leather,
vellum
3 Cattle (cow) 10000 years ago Western Asia meat, milk, leather, muscle, soil
fertilization
4 Ox 10000 years ago Western Asia meat, leather, soil fertilization,
draught power
5 Pig 9000 BC Central China meat, leather, companionship
6 Buffalo 5000 Years ago India Drought power, meat, milk
7 Horses 5000 years ago/3000BC Central Asia-Ukraine Transportation, meat & milk
8 Honey bee 4000 years ago Egypt honey, wax, pollination
9 Asses/Donkey 3000 BC Egypt transportation, muscle, meat
10 Chicken 2000 BC Central Asia meat, eggs and feathers
11 Camel 1500 BC Arabia meat, milk, transportation,
leather

5.2. Role of livestock production

The livestock species play very important economic, social and cultural roles or functions for rural households
once they contribute to improve income and wellbeing of the farm family. Livestock helps on:
 Food supply,  transport,
 Family nutrition (animal protein),  agricultural traction,
 Family income or cash income  agricultural diversification and sustainable
 Asset savings or savings accumulation agricultural production,
 Soil productivity (fertilizer)  family and community employment,
 Animal draught power,  ritual purposes and social status etc.

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As household income increases, the consumption of protein increases, principally from animal origin, allowing
the substitution of vegetal by animal protein. Besides milk, eggs and meat used as a source of food, other
livestock products are used for domestic consumption and local sale such as skins, hides and horns.
 Generally, livestock have the following purpose including milk, meat, fiber, transportation, leather, soil
fertilization, draught purpose, companionship, wool, vellum, fur etc.

This livestock asset could be seen as "bank account" and it is an important source of family saving that can be
used in years of low crop production, reducing income insecurity and household vulnerability, being an
important source of risk reduction and security increase. Livestock gives social status to its owners once it is
considered a common mean of demonstrating wealth and provides economic status as it facilitates the access to
informal credits and loans to the households. Livestock is also used in traditional rituals, ceremonies, festivities
and is given as a gift in worships (e.g. installation of ancestral spirits, ritual slaughter, and bride wealth). Then
livestock contribute to the sustainable livelihoods and security of more than 800 million poor smallholders as-

Natural Capital (meat, milk, wool, hide, rangeland, and pasture)

Financial Capital (cash, saving, credit, insurance, gifts, remittance); and

Social Capital (traditions, wealth, prestige, identity, respect, friendship, marriage dowry, festivity, human
capital).

5.3. General role of livestock in Ethiopian Agriculture

In Ethiopia, agriculture is the main economic exchange to the country economy activity and more than 85% of
Ethiopian population is dependent on agriculture of which livestock plays a very important role. It is an integral
part of agriculture that contribution of live animals and their products to the agricultural economy accounts for
50%, including the values of draught power, manure and transport of people and products. Ethiopia is a home to
Africa largest livestock population. The recent livestock population of Ethiopia estimates that the country has
about 57 million heads of cattle, 29.2 million sheep, 29.6 million goats and 56.5 million poultry.

- It is the source of many social and economic values such as food (meat, milk, eggs, honey, cheese, butter etc.),
draught power (for cultivation, threshing, transportation etc.), fuel, cash income, security, investment in both
the highlands and lowlands/pastoral farming systems and social prestige.
- On the other hand, livestock serve as a source of foreign exchange to the Ethiopian economy and contributes to
15% and 39% of the total and agricultural GDP, respectively and accounts for 12-15% of the total export
earnings.

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 - Livestock perform a multiple functions in the Ethiopian economy by providing inputs for crop production and
soil fertility management, raw material for industry, promoting saving, social function and employment.
- In the highlands oxen provided draught power in crop production. In addition, dairy production plays
significant role as a source of additional income to the farming community through sale of raw milk, processed
milk products and live animals.
- Therefore, policy makers, development agents, farm households and experts should encourage the livestock
sector to bring the required output from the sector.

5.4. Livestock Nutrition

The livestock industry is one of the largest and most influential industries on the planet. With millions of farms
and billions of animals worldwide, its ultimate goal is to “manage production for optimal yields to ensure
economic viability and to supply sufficient volumes to feed large populations”. The health of large animal
groups directly correlates with the operational stability and overall profitability of a farming operation. Every
livestock operation has unique characteristics that lead to distinct livestock nutrition requirements. Because of
this, it is essential to review the ingredients of livestock feed to understand the nutritional effect it will have on
different types of animals. The level at which each nutrient is required by an animal depend on whether the
animal is being fed for:

 Maintenance

 maintenance + production

 maintenance + production + reproduction

Requirements for maintenance

- is the amount of feed that must be fed to keep an animal at a particular weight without any significant change
in body composition or it is that amount of feed needed to maintain essential body functions such as respiration,
heart rate, eating, keeping warm, etc.

- includes also the feed needed to replace the nutrients that are excreted daily from the body

- tissue of the body are constantly undergoing breakdown and repair, and nutrients are required to replace this
loss.

Requirements for production

- are met after maintenance requirement

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- are the amount of feed needed for growth, meat or milk production

- need large quantities of feed

Requirements for reproduction

- the amount of feed needed above maintenance, for the cow to conceive and produce a healthy fetus and calf.

- are very important in a cow-calf operation

Factors determining the level of nutrient requirement:

- breed - overall balance of nutrition

- age and sex - stress from the environments

- level of production - hormonal and physiological activities

However, in order to formulate a balanced ration, you first must know the animal’s nutrient requirements and the
nutrient composition of the feedstuffs to be included in the ration.

Feed stuffs: includes Roughages and Concentrate

Roughage feeds Concentrate feeds

are feeds that are high in fiber and low in TDN are feeds that are low in fiber and high in TDN
contain above 18% CF when dry contain below 18% CF when dry

Livestock nutrition is primarily concerned with six different food groups, all of which serve a specific purpose in
maintaining livestock health, weight and product viability:

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and provide energy to animals.

Proteins contain nitrogen that supplies rumen microorganism requirements and provides another source of energy
to animals. The protein allowance should be ample fore place the daily breakdown of the tissues of the body
including the growth of hair, horn, and hoofs. In general, the protein needs are greatest for the growth of the
young calf, gestating and lactating cow.

Fats have a higher ratio of calories per unit of weight than carbohydrates and sugars can increase energy density
in feed portions

Water is a basic requirement for all animals to survive and thrive

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Vitamins are organic nutrients that increase an animal’s resistance to diseases while also help maintain body
functions

Minerals are inorganic elements that aid in maintaining health, and supporting growth and reproduction. They are
essential for optimal animal health. Minerals are divided in to two parts regard to their use.

1. Major elements – include Ca, P, Mg, Na.

2. Trace elements - Cu, I, Mn & Zn.

5.5. Constraints to livestock production and productivity

The livestock industry in Ethiopia has got the chance that there is an ample production of beef, dairy, mutton and
chevon as the country have a large population of cattle, sheep and goat. However, there are a number of
constraints that limit the development of the industry includes:
1. Shortage of animal fodder and nutrition

2. Shortage of better health services and facilities

3. Absence of good livestock management and policy

4. Absences of sufficient and good animal breeds

A. Feed Resources (Animal nutrition): In the lowland pastoral areas, avail label forage is deficient in quality
and quantity for the number of grazing animals particularly in the dry season. In the mixed crop-livestock farming
system of the highlands increasing population pressure and demand for cropland, diminished areas for crop
residues and agro-industrial by-products become the major sources of feed although they are not adequately used.

B. Animal Health: Livestock production is reduced by high incidence of diseases, which cause losses directly
from deaths, reduced growth rate, high costs of control, poor quality and quantity of finished product. The other
effects of diseases are lack of access to export markets and animal product and by product can be condemned due
to those parasite & bacteria. Many of the problems of parasites and other diseases in adapted local animals are
being exacerbate, as un-adapted exotic genotypes are used for crossbreeding to increase productivity. Health
management interventions and extension education approach is also lacking to improve the efficacy of vaccines.
Epidemiological information on the distribution of major cattle diseases and parasites, their seasonal incidence,
proportion of animals affected by age and sex, are not well documented which help in properly planning diseases
control strategies.

C. Livestock production and productivity: Although indigenous livestock in Ethiopia are well adapted to the
local environment, their productivity is low, first parturition in cattle occurs at about four years of age, calving
interval at two years while carcass weight at maturity is 110kg.

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 D. Sociological factors: These include the attitudes of the livestock keepers, which have little or no economic
benefit except prestigious and cultural inclinations. This includes keeping large herds for prestige without
considering productivity. Heavy payments for dowry encourage the keeping of large herds resulting into
overgrazing consequently degrading the land. Livestock keepers have an attitude of banking their wealth as live
animals consequently they are subject to different calamities of nature like deaths.

E. Marketing infrastructure: Proper and profitable marketing of products requires good information on demand
and supply prices, movement of the produces to where the demand is and an organization for the producers so that
they control the market. The infrastructure to send the produce and to get market information is inadequate and
consequently there are losses in weight and live animals in trekking from producing to consuming areas.

F. Technology Transfer: The weakness of linkage between research and extension has been cited repeatedly as
one of the major constraints of under development of Ethiopian agriculture. This weakness became an issue of a
great concern in many of the agricultural for among policy makers, managers, researchers, extension workers and
funding organizations.

Other constraints to development of the sector include:

 Lack of rural infrastructure and services,

 Absence of approved livestock policy

 Inadequate specialist and skilled middle level staff

 Recurrent drought

*Pre-requisites to the future development and success of livestock industry in Ethiopia includes making effort on
the following areas:

 Livestock breeding

 livestock husbandry and management

 livestock marketing

 Production system

 Feed and water especially in arid and semi-arid areas

5.6. Livestock improvement

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Livestock farming is very important in Africa, Asia and the pacific region as a source of livelihood for resource
poor farmers’ provision of food and food products and as a source of income. However, livestock productivity in
many countries is below their genetic potential because of inadequate and imbalanced feeds and feeding, poor
reproductive management and animal diseases aggravate by lack of effective support services, such as animal
husbandry extension, artificial insemination (AI) and/or veterinary services.

 Productivity of the animals is restricted by imbalanced feed e.g. low nitrogen (N) and high fiber content of
the native grasses and crop residues which is exacerbated by the seasonal availability of the feed resources.
 Upgrading of local animals has been undertaken through national cattle breeding programmes, but there is
often a lack of knowledge and lack of procedures to ensure optimum use of the improved offspring from
such programmes.
 Selective breeding has long been used by farmers to improve the quality/potential of livestock. It is the
process of breeding animals for particular physical characteristics, known as phenotypic traits, such as high
quality meat, disease resistance, growth rate, calving interval, increased milk yield and others.
 These traits have a genetic component but are also influenced by environmental factors. The larger the
genetic component of a trait, the higher the chance that desirable characteristics will be passed on from
parent to offspring.
 To meet the ever-increasing human population and their demand, the livestock industry will have to produce
more meat, fish, eggs and dairy products using fewer resources, while protecting animal welfare and
reducing the impact on the environment is the other concern.
 Key challenges for improving livestock includes improving production and efficiency by decreasing the
impact on the environment. Immediate goals for livestock production are similar across sectors, and include:

 improving feed efficiency;

 improving animal health and welfare;

 decreasing the environmental impact of livestock

Modern technologies have also played a role in improving productivity and efficiency in the livestock sector.
Artificial Insemination (AI),

Semen sexing in the dairy industry,

Cloning,

Embryo transfer and

Cryopreservation is some of the technologies that improve livestock sector.

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 6. Livestock Production systems
Criteria used for the classification of livestock production systems are:

– Spatial characteristics of the production system (or land use intensity e.g. extensive, semi-
intensive and intensive)

– Economic objective of the cattle owner (e. g. subsistence, semi-subsistence, semi-commercial or

commercial)

– Geographical considerations (highland, midland and lowland)

– The type of crop or animal (e.g. Coffee based semi-intensive cattle production system)

– Production objectives (such as milk, meat, fiber, wool or draught)

In general, cattle production systems are classified based on land requirement, investment capital (labor, feed and
medication), level of technical inputs/use of improved inputs/services/technologies and improved management as
below,

6.1 Extensive production systems

Extensive farming agriculture (as opposed to intensive farming) is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs
of labour, fertilizers and capital relative to the land area being used.
 Extensive production system is characterized by less controlled production factors and is generally termed
as traditional system of production.
 This production system is practiced in most rural areas of the country and objectives of production are for
household consumption and as source of additional income for the household.
 It is not profitable since it is not market oriented. It contains small flock size per household which is
indigenous breed types mostly depend on locally available feed material as supplement with low health
services and other management practices.
 Under this system, there are further sub divisions such as pastoralism, ranching and mixed agriculture
(Crop-Livestock) production systems.

Pastoralism (pastoral production system): It is subsistence system based primarily on domesticated animal
production (meat, milk, hide, skin) in large area of land important contributor milk, beef, sheep and goat to the
country. Pastoral systems are mainly found in the arid and semi-arid zones (with rainfall less than 600 mm per
annum) of West and East Africa. It is a system of low lands where shortage of rainfall is common where milk is
the major product. The term "subsisting" is intended to exclude those who raise animals strictly for exchange
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value rather than direct consumption. This is practiced due to the insufficiency of resources especially forage and
water; and due to temporary occupation of the land with crops; and also due to swarming insects, parasites and
diseases in the area.

There are three different forms of pastoralism, which are:

Nomadism: this is non-cyclical (non-seasonal) movement of people with their animals from place to place with
encampments in vast territories, regulated by the customs or the force.

Transhumance: this is seasonal movement of people with their animals synchronizing with the rainfall regime in
order to use the temporary forage and water resources in the high lands.

Sedentary Agriculture: this is characterized by daily movement of certain animal units to certain distance from
the center habitation of the group.

Ranching: is the practice of raising herds of animals on large tracts of land. Ranching systems consist of labour-
extensive enterprises specializing in one or more livestock species and producing mainly live animals for
slaughter (for meat, skins and hides), but also for wool and milk. Management is characterized by grazing within
the fixed boundaries that delimit tenure. Ranches are generally commercial enterprises, with generation of a cash
income as the primary function of the livestock raised on them. In addition to its management and production
objectives, ranching differs from traditional pastoralism in:
 supporting fewer people per land area, since tenure is generally individual (although not necessarily
private),
 providing options for intensifying water and feed supplies. Ranching may take any of the following forms:
o cattle ranching for meat (the most common type),
o dairy ranching,
o sheep and/or goat ranching for wool, meat and skins (e.g. the Karakul breed of sheep)
Ranching systems can either hold both breeding and growing stock or specialize in rearing/fattening animals,
according to environmental and economic conditions. Although found in all the zones of sub-Saharan Africa,
ranching systems are commonest in the arid and semi-arid zones of East and southern Africa and occur only
sporadically in the drier parts of West and Central Africa. A few ranches are also found in the highlands.
Ranches generally exhibit improved herd, pasture and water management. Records are kept, herding patterns are
closely adapted to the needs of different animal groups, and more external inputs are used (labour, purchased
feed, inputs for animal health, etc.). Ranchers commonly raise grazing animals such as cattle and sheep.
Ranching is common in temperate, dry areas, such as the Pampas region of South America, the western United
States,

Advantages of extensive system

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  animals are healthy since they exercise in the open air freely
 there is minimal infection with parasites if enough space is available,
 Less labour per unit area required.
 Animal welfare is generally improved, since the animals are not kept in stifling and squalid conditions.
 Little damage to the local environment and soils usually caused by overuse of chemicals in intensive
farming

Disadvantages of extensive system

 Difficult to control and manage the animal especially the young are easily exposed for predators and
unfavorable weather conditions
 Yields tend to be much lower, growth late slower, time to maturity much longer.
 Animals may damage field crop when looking for feed,
 High diseases transmission and occurrence of high death,
 Less productive

6.2 Semi- intensive Production systems

The system is characterized by relatively small size of holdings, a mixture of subsistence, semi-subsistence and
cash economies, and emphasis is being placed on their use for milk production in many countries, particularly in
the Indian subcontinent, the use of old working cattle and culled milking cows for meat production.

Crop-Livestock Production: It is also subdivided in to cereal and perennial crop livestock production system of
the highland area. It is one in which temporary pastures are rotated with crops, while livestock utilize the pastures
and crop by-products (called lay farming). Pastures are usually grazed for 3-5 years and then ploughed, and the
land being cropped for 3-5 years before bring re-sown to pasture species. Theoretically, this is an excellent system
for the tropics as it helps to prevent soil erosion, maintains fertility and produces a variety of cash crops and
livestock feeds. Integration of livestock and crop production is the realization that crop/livestock integrated
systems can improve productivity per unit area of land.
It has a small house which accommodate feeds and other materials which serves as house for night time. The
fence can be made from mesh wire or other materials and will not allow the animal to escape above on it.

Advantages of semi-intensive production system

 Requires far less land than the extensive system

 Does not require expensive equipment
 Complete control over operations such as useful for record purposes, operational throughout the year,
economic use of land
 Suitable for commercial production (unlike the previous system)

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  Animals and their product can be protected against thieves and predators

Disadvantages of semi-intensive production system

 Requires considerable amount of fencing and more elaborate house than extensive system
 Danger of over stocking and exposure for different disease if the barn is not clean and dry
 Possible buildup of parasites and disease germs in the pasture (mortality increases)

6.3 Intensive production systems

This type of production system use more inputs (feeds and feeding, breed, health, housing and other inputs) than
the above two production systems. It is market oriented and the main objective of production is to get better
profit. The number of livestock involved are relatively high. The breeds used is specialized improved breeds.
They should provide the expected product within that time.

Advantage Intensive production system

 land requirement is minimum,
 proper control of diseases and predators,
 good record keeping and high production
 scientific feeding and management,
 high degree of supervision and minimum labour,
 automation is possible and manure value is increased

Disadvantage of Intensive production system

 Require high capital investment,
 problem of diseases outbreak especially in poultry house
 greater chance of worm and tick infestation

7. Poultry Production and Management

Definition: the word poultry refers to all birds kept for the production of eggs and meat for human consumption.
Examples of poultry species Domestic fowl, Turkeys Ducks, Geese, guinea fowls and other domesticated birds
and economically important species: Domestic fowl (90%), ducks and turkeys.

Poultry science: poultry science deals with the study of principles and practices concerning production,
processing and marketing of poultry and its products. Generally, it deals with management of birds.

Based on purpose of keeping or utility chickens are classified into three groups:-

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 i. Egg type: - Those breeds of birds that are selected for producing high number of eggs. E.g. White Leghorn
ii. Meat type: - Those breeds of birds that have the capacity to fatten with in short period of time E.g. Broiler
can reach 2 kg with in 60 days (8 weeks) Eg. Sussex, Brahma,
iii. Dual purpose type:- Those breeds which are used for both egg and meat. E.g. Rhode Island Red, New
Hampshire.

7.1. Poultry production systems in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, chickens are the most widespread and almost every rural family owns chickens, which provide a
valuable source of family protein and income. The total chicken population in the country is estimated to be 56.5
million with native chicken representing 96.9%, hybrid chicken 0.54% and exotic breeds 2.56%.

 The most dominant chicken types reared in Ethiopia are local ecotypes, and the economic contribution of
the sector is not still proportional to the huge chicken numbers.
 The chicken production system in Ethiopia has characterized by less market oriented, low input, scavenging
and traditional management system consisting of local breeds.
 The indigenous birds are small in body size and low producers of meat and egg. For example, the
productivity of scavenging hens is 40-60 small-sized eggs/bird/year (average 38 g), while the carcass at 6
months of age is about 0.5 kg from a live bird of about 1.5kg.
 Low productivity is also due to low hatchability at about 70% and high mortality. Estimated 40-60% of
chicks die during their first eight weeks mainly due to disease and predators.

*Level of poultry (chicken) production systems in Ethiopia: These are free-range production system, semi-
intensive production system and intensive production system.

7.2 Importance of chicken production

Chicken production and consumption provide different functions for the producer as compared to the other
livestock production. Among the different functions, the following are the main ones:

a. Immediate source of cash income and create job employment: The demand for poultry meat and eggs is
permanent. Eggs are also collected every day and income obtained from sale of eggs comes every week. So in
one obtained is continuous (distributed through out the year). Poultry provide jobs to all categories of people.

b. Poultry meat and egg are essential foods (used for source food): Meat of chicken is higher in protein
content than beef and other meat (like mutton). Poultry meat contains less fat and is highly digestible and
palatable. Eggs are natural, complete and balanced food which contains all nutrients in the correct proportion.
Egg is also contain vitamin especially vitamin A, D, E, K which is fat soluble vitamin, minerals like Iron and
some energy.

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c. Requires low initial capital investment, small land and low labour input: The land requirement is always
less than the requirement of other farms.

d. By-products of poultry have industrial usage: Fertile eggs are used for preparation of vaccine and albumen
part of egg is used for parametrical use (medicine). The eggs also can be used for paints, adhesive, glue (gums)
for leather tanning, for preparation of cake and soaps since used as additive.

7.3. Poultry Reproduction

The avian reproductive system is designed to accommodate the risks associated with being a bird.
Another reproductive strategy of birds is to produce offspring that develop outside the mother's body in
eggs. All the nutrients needed for an embryo to fully develop are provided in the egg before it is laid. It
is for this reason that eggs are so nutritious for humans. Poultry lay eggs in clutches. A clutch is a
group of eggs laid by a hen on consecutive days. The reproductive system of a male chicken, or
rooster, includes testicles that produce the sperm and seminal fluid necessary for reproduction. In this
system, the vas deferens carries the seminal fluid and sperm cells to the cloaca. The cloaca is an
enlarged part where the large intestine joins the end of the alimentary canal. The alimentary canal is
the food-carrying passage that begins at the mouth and ends at the vent. The papilla is the organ in the
wall of the cloaca that puts the sperm cells into the hen’s reproductive tract.
The reproductive system of a chicken hen is made up of two parts: the ovary and the oviduct. Ova
(yolks) develop in the ovary. When an ovum (singular of ova) has matured, it is released from the
ovary into the oviduct. This release of the ovum is ovulation. In the oviduct, glands secrete substances
that form other parts of the egg, such as the albumen (egg white) and the shell. The total time a hen's
body takes to transform a yolk into a fully developed egg and lay that egg is about 25 to 26 hours.
Typically, about 30 to 75 minutes after a hen lays an egg, the ovary releases the next ovum. 

Parts of the Female Chicken Reproductive System

As stated, the female chicken reproductive system is made up of the ovary and the oviduct. In almost
all species of birds, including poultry, only the left ovary and oviduct are functional. Although the
female embryo has two ovaries, only the left one develops. The right one typically regresses during
development and is nonfunctional in the adult bird.

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Fig. 1. Location of the reproductive tract in a female chicken and reproductive track in female chicken

Ovary
The ovary is a cluster of developing ova, and is located midway between the neck and the tail of the
bird and attached at the back. At hatch, a pullet chick has tens of thousands of ova, or potential
eggs that theoretically could be laid, although most never develop to the point of ovulation. The
maximum number of eggs a hen can lay is determined when it hatches because no new ova form after
the chick hatches. Each ovum starts as a single cell surrounded by a vitelline membrane. As the ovum
develops, additional yolk forms. The color of the yolk comes from fat-soluble pigments, called
xanthophylls, contained in the hen's diet. Hens fed diets with yellow maize (field corn) or allowed to
range on grass typically produce eggs with dark yellow yolks. The ovum is enclosed in a sac that
ruptures along the stigma, or suture line, during ovulation.

Oviduct
When ovulation occurs, the ovum (yolk) enters the oviduct. The oviduct is a twisted tube that is 25 to
27 inches long when fully developed and is divided into five major sections. These sections are the
infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, shell gland, and vagina. The first part of the oviduct, the
infundibulum (or funnel) is 3 to 4 inches long and engulfs the ovum released from the ovary. Instead,
the released yolk stays in place, and the muscular infundibulum moves to surround it. The yolk
remains in the infundibulum for 15 to 17 minutes. Fertilization takes place in the infundibulum. The
next section of the oviduct is the magnum. It is the largest section of the oviduct, as its name implies
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 (magnum being the Latin word for "large"). The yolk remains here 3 hours, during which time the
thick albumen (egg white) forms. The third section of the oviduct is the isthmus. The isthmus is where
the inner and outer shell membranes form. The developing egg remains here for 75 minutes. The next
section of the oviduct is the shell gland (uterus). In this section, the shell forms on the egg. The shell
largely is made of calcium carbonate. The hen's body mobilizes 8 to 10 percent of body calcium from
its bones to make the egg's shell. Bone calcium provides 47 percent of the calcium required to make a
shell, and the hen's diet provides the remainder. Pigment deposition, if there is any, occurs in the shell
gland. The egg remains here for 20 or more hours. The last part of the oviduct is the vagina. The
vagina does not really play a part in egg formation but is important in the laying of the egg. The vagina
is made of muscle that helps push the egg out of the hen's body. The bloom (cuticle) forms on the egg
in the vagina which is the natural coating or covering on the eggshell that seals the eggshell pores. It
helps to prevent bacteria from getting inside the shell and reduces moisture loss from the egg. The egg
travels through the oviduct small end first but turns in the vagina and comes out large end first.

7.4. Reproductive Differences of Poultry from Other Livestock

Reproduction in poultry differs from reproduction in mammals, yet the differences are small. The
reproductive system of a rooster includes testicles housed inside the body cavity instead of inside a
scrotum. Other important parts of the male reproductive system are the vas deferens, the cloaca, the
papilla. The female reproductive system houses two ovaries and two oviducts, but only the left ovary
and oviduct produce eggs. The oviduct of the hen is composed of the funnel, the isthmus, the magnum,
the uterus, and the vagina.

Reproduction in Poultry Reproduction other livestock

- Embryo of poultry develops inside the egg -Embryo develops inside the female’s body
-poultry only have left ovary and oviduct when - other livestock have both right and left ovary and
mature oviduct
-chicken incubation is 21 days -gestation period of other livestock is more than 3 month
-male testis is located inside the body -male testis is outside the body or in the scrotum

7.5. Incubation and hatchery operation

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There are two methods of chick brooding. These are natural and artificial brooding.

1. Natural incubation (using broody hen): Incubation of eggs with the use of broody hens which is capable of
hatching 8-12 eggs at the same time with hatchability up to 80% and more economic than artificial incubators, as
they only need to be given feed and water.

Local breeds of poultry are good incubators and good mothers. However, modern breeds of poultry are
selected for egg production or are selected against broodiness.

A hen sitting on eggs will provide exactly the right temperature, humidity and ventilation for the eggs to
develop well.

Broody hens have the following signs of broodiness: produce broody sound; her comb shrivels up; she
occupies her nest and refusing to leave it and she may try to gather other eggs from neighboring nests and
pushing them into her own, and if this behavior lasts for two days you can assume that the hen is ready for
brooding.

She should not leave the nest for more than about 15 minutes.

She will often stand up and shift or turn the eggs. This is because the eggs need to be moved about, as the best
and warmest place is in the middle under the hen.

2. Artificial incubation methods: The incubators imitate a hen’s natural brooding abilities by providing an
artificial micro-climate with the proper temperature, humidity, and ventilation, as well as by allowing the eggs to
be turned regularly. It involves the use of an artificial incubator. Incubator has different parts such as heater,
ventilation openings, water container, egg trays, and fans. An incubator is basically a box that holds eggs while
maintaining appropriate environmental conditions. Hatcheries are specialized facilities that receive fertilized
eggs from poultry breeder operations and care for them through storage, incubation and hatching. Egg must store
and incubate them carefully for a successful hatch and environmental conditions, handling, and sanitation are all
important factors when it comes to incubating and hatching eggs. It is best to incubate eggs within 7 to 10 days
of their being laid. Hatchability decreases rapidly when eggs are stored for more than 10 days.

Physical conditions Necessary for incubation: The hatchability of eggs depends on:

1. Temperature: To develop healthy embryo the optimum incubation temperature is found between 37.0-38.0°C,
which is temperature of hen. When temperature high embryos will begin to develop abnormally, weaken, and
die.

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2. Relative humidity levels: The relative humidity in the incubator between setting and three days prior to
hatching should remain at 58-60%, when hatching, the humidity is increased to 65% relative humidity or more.
High humidity can cause condensation to form on the eggshell that clogging the pores can suffocate the embryo.
Low humidity during storage can make the egg lose internal moisture and kill the embryo.

3. Ventilation: Gas exchange during incubation plays a fundamental role in the development and viability of the
embryo, hatch results, growth and physiology of the chick. While the embryo is developing, oxygen enters the
egg through the shell and carbon dioxide escapes in the same manner.

4. Orientation and turning of eggs during incubation: Set the eggs in the incubator with the large end up or
horizontally with the large end slightly elevated. This enables the developing embryo orients the head toward the
air cell, which is in the large end of the egg. If eggs set with the small end upward, a chick’s head can orient
away from the air cell of the egg and not hatch. Turning keeps the embryo centered in the egg and prevents it
from sticking to the shell membrane prevents embryo death and unhealthy hatches. Eggs must be turned at least
five times every 24 hours. Do not turn eggs during the last three days before hatching.

7.6. Poultry houses

Housing is essential to protect against predators, thieves, and rough weather (rain, sun, very cold winds,
dropping night temperatures). Preconditions to be considered before chicken house construction:-

i. The site should not be swampy

ii. The soil should be water absorbent
iii. The site should have access to transport, water, electricity and other infrastructures
iv. It should be far from homesteads
v. It is preferable where there is trees in the surrounding which serve as wind break and as a shade
vi. The site should be good for future expansion

Even though there are different types of chicken house around the world, the following are the main types.

1. All side open chicken house

2. One side open chicken house

3. All side closed chicken house

7.7. Poultry management

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Poultry management is the art and science of combing resources, capital and labour to produce and market
poultry meat and eggs. It also includes the profitability of the farm.

Brooder management: Newly hatched chicks need a source of heat that will prevent their body temperature
from falling too low, because chicks do not have feathers; therefore, they cannot maintain body temperature till
the feathers grow. Body temperature of chicken is 42°C which is more than that of other animals and humans
(37.8°C). To maintain the chickens’ heat, brooder is use as heat source for the period of growth of chicks from 0
day (Day old) to 4 weeks and after 5 week they maintain their body temperature. Under natural brooding mother
hen will ensure that they are kept warm by protect them against the cold. However, in artificial brooding, heat
sources for chicks are brooders/Heaters. Distribution of chicks around and under the brooder indicates status of
heat conditions. Accordingly, when the temperature is too cold, the chicks chirp sharply and huddle together
under the brooder. If the chicks move away from the brooder, pant, and are drowsy, the temperature is too warm.
Feed placed on a few feeder lids under each brooder encourages the chicks to start eating sooner.

Grower management: Growers are chickens at the age of 8-18 weeks for egg type of chickens and broiler
parent. Grower chickens need good quality food, even better than that of the hens. If the weather is good and the
place is safe from predators like rats, large birds and dogs, it might be a good idea to let them pick at some
vegetation in addition to their normal concentrated feed. Protein is needed for growth, keeping up a good health
status, for maintenance, production, to grow feather, etc. Protein source feeds are obtained from both animal
origin (grounded blood, grounded meat and bone, and fish by product such as fish meal) and plant origin (oil
crop by products (contain high fat and protein nutrients), oil factory by products such as cakes). Major energy
source feeds include cereal grains such as maize, sorghum, rice, wheat, barley, finger millet, industrial/cereal by
products such as wheat bran and wheat middling.

Layer management: Layers are these poultry between the age of 20-80 weeks and lay eggs during this time.
The intake of dietary energy by laying hens is related to their rate of egg production. Laying hens consume 20%
more food on egg forming days than days when eggs are not formed. Laying hens should have easy access to
calcium rich food that may be supplemented by calcium-rich sources such as crushed snail or egg shells. Provide
nests in the hen house for laying makes it easier to collect eggs and they can be kept clean. Nests should be
placed inside the chicken house and preferably above the ground. A nest box will typically measure 30 x 30 x 30
cm. The laying nest prepared by this size is enough for 5 layers. It is advisable to place the laying nests in the
dark part of the house to prevent exposure to the sun.

Broilers management: Broilers are chickens that are raised (reared) for meat production. If the broilers become
too hot or chilled, growth will be retarded. If the heat is above the optimum then broilers the broilers try to lose
more heat through panting. Provide all-night light for broilers. Making light (natural and artificial) available 24
hours a day allows broilers access to feed at all times and increases their body weight. It is absolutely essential
that broilers be fed a high-quality broiler feed containing at least 20 percent protein. Broilers must have access to
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clean, fresh water at all times. Good sanitation program prevents parasite problems. Remove the litter after each
flock of broilers. The beak of broilers should be trimmed (removed) 1/3 of the top beak and a small part of the
bottom at 6-8 days old usually by mechanically operated blade. Beak trimming is used to reduce the incidence of
serious physical injuries or cannibalism.

8. Apiculture
Apis is Latin word for bee and culture means cultivation or keeping, and therefore apiculture is the science and
practice of bee keeping.

8.1 Beekeeping in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is home to some of the most diverse flora and fauna in Africa. Its forest and woodlands contain diverse
plant species that provide surplus nectar and pollen to foraging bees. Ethiopia, having the highest number of bee
colonies and surplus honey sources of flora, is the leading producer of honey and beeswax in Africa. Ethiopia
produces about 60,000 metric tons of crude honey per year, thus shares 23.5% of Africa and 2.5% of world's
honey production. This makes the country rank 1 st in Africa and 10th in the world. Honey and beeswax play a big
role in the cultural and religious life of the people of Ethiopia. Another very important contribution of
beekeeping is through plant pollination and conservation of the natural environment. Beekeeping is
environmentally sustainable activity that can be integrated with agricultural practices like crop production,
animal husbandry, horticultural crops and conservation of natural resources.

Why we need to beekeeping?

 It helps for pollination  It requires little land or it is exclusively

 It does not compete with other non land activity, So land less farmers
agricultural activities for resources can practice beekeeping
 It requires low investment  It requires low technological inputs
 It can be done by any age and sex  The products are not perishable if kept
 It serves as source of supplementary properly
food  It creates job opportunity
 It is source of income

8.2 Types of bee castes

Bees that produce enough honey to make harvesting worthwhile belong to two sub- families honeybees
(Apinae) & stingless bees (Meliponinae). The three (3) castes (see the picture below) in a honeybee colony each

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member have their own specialization for particular function and differs in morphology, physiology and
behaviour.

(1) The queen: is a fully fertile female specialized for producing eggs. The queen affects the colony by
producing chemicals called “Pheromones” that regulate the behaviours of other bees. She is the mother of all
other individuals in the colony. A queen honeybee is readily distinguished from both worker and drones. Her
curved sting used only in battles against the rivals queen (when there is more than one queen in the colony). Her
movement is slow under normal condition. Queen has well developed spermatheca, which holds sperm from
drone.
(2) The worker bees: are reproductively underdeveloped females that do all the work of the colony. A colony
may have 50,000 - 80,000 worker bees. The only difference between workers and queen is the quality of the
larvae diet i.e. a special food called “Royal jelly”. They are female honeybees and obtained from fertilized eggs.
As their name implies, the workers perform almost all the tasks in the colony, only reproduction that is beyond
their task. The activities that worker honeybees perform are related with their age.
1. Nurse Bees / House bees/: are those workers bees who spent most of their time by performing activities inside
the hive. This starts from the first day of emergency up to 21 days. Body cleaning, cleaning nest, brood feeding,
Comb construction, Queen Tending /Taking attention for queen/, cell capping and colony defence. Defensive
mechanisms includes stinging. E.g. Man, cattle; biting with their mandibles. E.g. Ants. fanning their wings. E.g.
ants; kicking with legs. E.g. Ants
2. Forager bees/Field bees: Forager bees are those worker honeybees, which perform their activities outside the
hive. This high labour has an effect on their age and the age of worker honeybees is shorter than queen and
drone. The maximum age of worker bees is 42 days. But they can live up to 60-90 days even up to 10 months
(these are exceptions). The age of worker bees is determined by the activities they perform.
(3) The Drones: -are male honeybees, which are bigger than the workers but not as big as the queen. Produced
from unfertilized eggs. Exists only to mate queen. Performs no works for the colony and is feed by the worker.
Drone mate only once in his life time and die soon since much of endophallus break off from drone is left in the
queen during copulation.

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8.3 Beekeeping systems
There are three different types’ beehives i.e., Traditional, transitional and Modern hive.
Traditional (local) hive: are hives made from locally available materials. Traditional hive is one of the oldest
and primitive hives in the history of beekeeping. It is not clearly known where and when it was started.
However, traditional bee keeping is an intermediate between honey hunting in forest and keeping bees in totally
managed environment. It is also said to be a fixed comb hive. There are different types hives based on locally
available materials used to construct it,
Log hives: - it is made up by splitting the log in two pieces first and then chop out the inner stuff thus finally
forming a hollow or cylinder when they are put together
Bark hive: - it is mainly made up of barks of big trees, eucalyptus and others plants can be used, but finally
plastered with either straw or animal dung.
Bamboo hive: - the main material is bamboo. In general the bamboo strips webbed first and finally plastered
with either straw or animal dung. It is commonly used local hive in every place of the country.
Woven straw hive: - it is made up straw and webbed by rope finally plastered with animal dung
Clay hive: - made up of clay with only one opening however covered with other material leaving a small bee
entrance
False banana hive :- The whole hive is made up of false banana leaves put together in a cylindrical form
Animal dung hive :- It is made up of Animal dung completely it has one opening, but narrower at neck.

The advantages of traditional hive The disadvantage of traditional hive

 It is very cheap  It is small in size
 It can be constructed easily from  High tendency of swarming and
locally available materials absconding of bees
 It does not require skilled man  Low quality and quantity of
power products (except wax)
 There is high production of wax  can be easily destroyed (less
from local hive durability)
 It helps to trap swarm  It is not water proof – It allows
moisture bulled up
 It harbors insect
 No possibility of supering

Transitional hives: is one of the methods of keeping bees using top bar hive. It is an intermediate between
traditional and modern beekeeping.
Types of top bar hive 1. Kenyan top bar hive (KTBH) 2. Tanzanian top bar hove (TTBH) 3. Mud hive and
others.

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Generally, top bar hives are any size or design in which the bees build their comb from top bar (on the bars)
instead of attaching comb on the ceiling of the hive. Each hive accommodates specially designed 27-30 pieces
of bars 3.2 cm wide and 48cm. long and are arranged across the hive. The line of bar is smeared with bees wax
at the centre (mid rib) for the purpose of Right positional construction and for good smell.
The advantage of top bar hive
 It can be opened easily and quickly
 The bees are guided in building parallel combs which does not break usually
 The top bars are easily removable and this enables the bee keeper to work fast
 The top bars are easier to construct than farms
 Honey combs can be removed from hive for harvesting with out disturbing brood combs in the hive
 High production of wax and honey
 The hive can be suspended with wires / ropes this gives protection a against predators
The disadvantage of Transitional hive
 They are more expensive than traditional hives
 Combs suspended from top bars are more apt to break off than those, which are built with frames and
this makes transportation difficult on bad roads
 Less quality honey than frame hives; as honey, pollen &broods are filled on the same comb.
 It can simplify stolen by thief
Improved (modern) hives: These are the movable frame hives such as Langstroth, Zander hive etc.
The advantages of modern hives
The amount of honey produced is high 15-20 kg per hive on averag. The quality of honey is much better than
honey from tradition and transitional beekeeping this is due to Queen excluder, centrifugal honey extractor and
honey strainer are used.

8.4 Bee products and their uses

Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies by humans commonly in hives for their honey and other
product such as beeswax, pollen, propolis, venom, bee brood, bee bread , royal jelly etc.
a. Honey: is a natural food made by the bee with nectar, pollen and other substances. It is considered natures
most completely nourishing food as it contains nearly all nutrients required by humans. Proteins, free amino
acids, vitamin B complex and folic acids are some of the major nutrients found in honey.
 Honey, when mixed with eggs and some reducing fatigue in the process and boost
flour, is an effective skin moisturizer and energy,
facemask.  Immune System Booster and
 Honey contains Hydrogen peroxide  Sore Throat treatment
facilitates your wound’s healing faster,  Colon Damage Prevention
 Honey’s glucose content will be absorbed  Parasite Remover
by the brain and in the bloodstream,  Remedy for Burns
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  Relaxant for Anxiety and Nervousness  Diabetic Ulcer Remedy
 Cancer and Heart Disease Prevention

b. Beeswax: The wax is formed into scales by wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments of worker
bees, which discard it in or at the hive. The hive workers collect and use it to form cells for honey storage and
larval and pupal protection within the beehive. It uses for cosmetic and skin care products such as moisturizers
Lip balm, Eye shadows, eye liner, hair pomade/hair sleek. Beeswax are used to prevent moisture lose and
pathogen attacks in fruit and vegetable, used in controlling bleeding from bone surface, to making of Candles,
tooth paste, crayon and water prove leather.
c. Propolis: Honeybees collect sticky resins that ooze from the buds of some trees and conifers. It is used in
ointment for healing wounds and cuts, prevention of constipation, prevents mouth and gum disorder such as
gum recession; and decrease blood sugar level in patience with type two diabetes.
d. Royal jelly: is a blend of secretions from the salivary glands of the worker bee and contains a high
concentration of vitamins B5, B6, and amino acids and is believed to be a potent antioxidant, a special
rejuvenating substance that promotes tissue growth, muscle and cell regeneration and it is believe to be anti-
ageing product.
e. Pollen: is considered by many health experts to be a perfect food due to its high levels of nutrients, vitamins,
protein, and amino acids. In fact, bee pollen contains more protein, high in vitamins A, B1, B3, and B12, as well
as fatty acids, carbohydrates, trace minerals, and at least 22 amino acids essential for muscle growth. High levels
of vitamins, antioxidants, and essential minerals give the body a needed boost to ward off infections, and
increase immune system functioning. In addition, high levels of antioxidants help repair cellular damage caused
by foreign pathogens and other free radicals, Cardiovascular Health, An antioxidant found in bee pollen known
as Rutin, has been shown to increase the strength of blood vessels, capillaries, and improve circulation, it proven
effective in lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels, both which contribute to good heart health. Other uses
of bee pollen include Cancer Fighting Properties, Allergy Inhibitor, Energy and Strength Enhancement, and
Weight Loss.
f. Venom: It is used in therapy against bee sting allergy. It use in apitherapy, especially for treatment of
rheumatism and arthritis.
g. Bees brood: the bees brood is made up of the eggs, the larva and the pupae. In a few world areas, people eat
the brood (eggs, larvae and pupae) of honeybees. It is feed to all larva except those that are selected to become
queens; the queen larvae are fed royal jelly instead. Comprised of all essential amino acids, high contents of
vitamins especially vitamin K, enzymes, and flavonoids; bee bread is made of pollen mixed with bits of honey,
bee wax, and bees' digestive enzymes which is known to be useful in treating anemia, hepatitis, insomnia, stress,
failing memory, cholesterol and digestive tract disorder. Nowadays, in the shop you can find bee bread
specially made for promoting kids' physical and mental growth. Bee bread helps children in improving memory,
weight gain and fights obesity.

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9. Fishery
Fisheries or aquaculture is the practice of collecting & hunting of aquatic animals for any commercial
purpose.

9.1 Fishery resources

About 10 percent of global fish production comes from aquaculture: approximately 7 million tons from
freshwater aquaculture and 5 million tons from mariculture. At present growth rates, production by the
end of the century should have almost doubled. In areas of high production, environmental problems
are already apparent and will affect further growth in the sector.

Ethiopia is a land-locked country and depends on its inland water bodies for fish supply for its
population. According to different sources of information, the bulk of the fish catch (approximately 75
percent of the total) originates from the six main water bodies: Tana, Ziway, Langano, Awassa, Abaya
and Chamo. The remaining production (approximately 25 percent) originates from minor lakes (Hora,
Beseka, Ligo, Hyke, Hashengie, and Small Abaya), reservoirs and dams (like Koka). The rivers
include the Abay or Blue Nile, Wabi Shebelle, Awash, Genale, Dawa, Omo, Tekezé, Gibe, Mereb,
Baro, Akobo, Angereb and their tributaries. Ethiopia fish potential is estimated at between 45,000
Metric ton and 51,000 MT per year. According to recent documents, annual fish production in Ethiopia
has estimated 30,000 MT per year. There is a critical lack of data on fisheries in Ethiopia, which may
lead to different conclusions. Moreover, irresponsible fishing practices, habitat loss and degradation,
water abstraction, drainage of wetlands and pollution have led to substantial changes to many inland
water bodies. It is rich in Nile Perch, perhaps the largest remaining in Africa, as well as Tilapia

25
species, catfish and tiger fish. Fishers are many in this isolated region of Ethiopia and mostly dry and
smoke fish due to a lack of available cold chain. Fish are mostly destined for local markets.

Ethiopia fishery is undeveloped due to low level of economy absence of fisheries legislation, in
effective and ministration set up and lack of experience. Fisheries management in Ethiopia would have
great contribution to the economy. Chemical pollution, even at low levels, may influence fish
production in numerous ways. They include reduction of stocks by mass mortality; gradual decline or
change in species composition of fish populations or entire ecosystems; increased occurrence of
disease; deterioration of the food quality of fish and reduced growth rate. Sustainable development is
particularly relevant to fisheries since it implies increasing the benefits from aquatic resources without
decreasing the resource or stock beyond some optimal and sustainable level.

9.2 Economic importance of fishery

1. Providing the products of fish for human food. Today fish provides more than one billion poor
people with most of their daily animal protein. Fish provides nutrients and micronutrients that are
essential to cognitive and physical development, especially in children, and are an important part of a
healthy diet. As an affordable animal source of protein in some of the poorest countries, fish is the
primary source of nutrition, creating growing demand for this staple.

2. Providing some industry material (marine capture fishery), such as fish meal/flour.

3. Fishery is also practiced for re-stocking of the natural water bodies, or for the production of
ornamental fish. A sustainable approach to fisheries and aquaculture will help to protect our natural
resources and ensure that fish stocks are available for future generations. Currently, overfishing,
ineffective management practices, industrial development and agricultural pollution have reduced fish
stocks.

4. Providing immense job-potential. Globally, more than 250 million people depend directly on
fisheries and aquaculture for their livelihoods and millions are employed in fisheries and aquaculture
value chains in roles such as processing or marketing.

5. A farmer can often integrate aquaculture into the existing farm to create additional income and
improve water management on the farm. Aquaculture, in particular, has tremendous potential to
enhance food security and be environmentally sustainable. Small-scale aquaculture is especially
26
important for meeting the world’s growing demand for fish. As fish require a smaller environmental
footprint than other animal source food, aquaculture is a more environmentally sustainable option for
meeting the world’s food needs than other animal source foods.

6. Fish growth in ponds can be controlled: the fish species raised are the ones the farmer selected.

10. Site-specific Management of Farm and Decision Support Systems (DSSs)

10.1 What is site-specific management?

Site-specific management (SSM; also called, Precision Agriculture) is the management of agricultural
crops at a spatial scale smaller than that of the whole field. On the other hand, it is a management
system that is information and technology based, is site specific and uses one or more of the following
sources of data: soils, crops, nutrients, pests, moisture, or yield, for optimum profitability,
sustainability, and protection of the environment. The variable management of inputs to soils and crops
to identifiable locations within fields with the goal of optimizing profitability.
•  Doing the right thing, in the right place, at the right time, in the right way.
Sources of “within-field” variability

A.  Natural B. Man-made

–  Parent material –  Previous nutrient application patterns
–  Topography –  Land-leveling and Erosion
–  Soil formation and deposition processes –  Cropping patterns
–  Consolidation of small fields

Site-specific management is a two-step process

A. Assessing variability –  Sampling density and pattern

–  Variability must be non-random –  Variability must be sufficiently large

27
–  Must be in a responsive range –  Appropriate recommendations
B. Managing variability –  Precision application needed
–  Delineate management areas

Precision agriculture tools

•  Differential GPS
•  Variable-rate application: Computer interface with variability maps, Applicator capable of changing
rate on-the-go
•  Sensors: Equipment mounted, Aircraft of satellite
•  Yield monitoring and mapping

10.2 Driving forces behind SSM

The main driving force behind precision agriculture has been the economic return to the farmer. Many
people recognize that precision agriculture, in some instances, may also have a positive environmental
impact. Some of the primary impacts are :-
-cost reduction and more efficient use of production inputs;
-use of information technology to increase the size and scope of farming operations without increasing
labor requirements,
-improved site selection and control of production processes that help in the production of higher value
or specialty products,
-improved recordkeeping and production tracking for food safety, and environmental benefits.
From the farmer’s perspective, precision agriculture is primarily driven by economic return but, in
many cases, site-specific management provides a positive environmental impact. Soil and water quality
benefits can result from reduced or targeted application of inputs such as nutrients, pesticides, and
irrigation water. When used to precisely control where equipment travels in a field, precision
agriculture can also reduce soil compaction and erosion. Precision agriculture methods help farmers
recognize areas that have productivity and environmental problems and to select the best solution for
each one. At the extreme, precision agriculture may help a producer identify land that should be taken
out of the current production system because of economic and environmental considerations. Precision
agriculture can produce large amounts of data.

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-Precise nutrient applications can provide signifcant economic and environmental benefts. The goal
is to apply only the nutrients that the plants need and can use.
-Precise pesticide applications.
-Variable rate irrigation
The building blocks of a precision agriculture system
In general, to be successful with precision agriculture from both an economic perspective and
environmental perspective, farmer should have the following basic components:
• background data
• a recordkeeping system
• analysis and decision making process
• specialized implementation equipment
• evaluation and revision

10.3 Why do we need Decision Support System in Agriculture?

A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based application that collects, organizes and analyzes
agricultural data to facilitate quality agriculture decision-making for management, operations and
planning. A well-designed DSS aids decision makers in compiling a variety of data from many
sources: raw data, documents, personal knowledge from employees, management, executives and
business models. DSS analysis helps companies to identify and solve problems, and make decisions.

We are faced with decision making every day. From something as simple as deciding what to wear in
the morning, to something as complex as deciding what career to follow, decision making invokes
certain similar cognitive processes. Decision making is based on a combination of experience,
empirical data, and analysis of the situation at hand. The process is diagrammed in Figure 1.

29
We make decisions based on a qualitative approach, a quantitative approach, or some combination of
the two. A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based program that assists with the decision
making process. These programs are important because agricultural production and processing systems
are complex due to the many biological, chemical, and physical processes involved, and require a great
deal of information to be processed for proper management. A tool that helps assist with the decision
making process will reduce the amount of guesswork involved, as well as increase the likelihood that
proper information is considered. These support programs are computer-based because in many cases,
large amounts of data, as well as complicated calculations and numerical procedures, are required to
provide high-quality and relevant decision recommendation. Most system analysis techniques are
quantitative, relying on mathematical formulations and numerical input for proper execution. However,
some techniques, such as expert systems, rely on the capturing of experts' judgment, experience, and
logic processes. These types of decision support tools utilize qualitative input to come to a
recommendation. This is based on experience, judgment, and heuristics ("rules-of-thumb"), the
information gathering will be primarily qualitative. A DSS that processes non-numerical information
to make a decision is called an "expert system". DSS can provide invaluable information to decision
makers.
A DSS (Decision Support System) helps you make decisions by presenting information relevant to
your critical questions in a configuration that’s easy to understand:
 Integrated data
 Consistent methodology
 Better, faster, more efficient
 Helps answer “what if” questions

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DSS applications are used in many diverse fields, including medical diagnosis, credit loan verification,
evaluating bids on engineering projects, business and business management, agricultural production at
the farm and policy levels, forest management and railroad (for evaluation of defective rails). DSS are
software-based systems that gather and analyse data from a variety of sources. Their purpose is to
smoothen the decision-making process for management, operations, planning, or optimal solution path
recommendation. In the agricultural sector, it helps farmers to solve complex issues related to crop
production. As tools for diagnosis, risk assessment and reasoning assistance, DSS use agronomic
models and calculations based on water, climate, energy and genetic data but they also take into
account other factors such as human and economic inputs.

5R rule: “applying the Right input in the Right amount at the Right time in the Right place and
in the Right manner”.

11. Sustainable Agri-business

Agribusiness is the business of agricultural production.

 It includes agrichemicals, breeding, crop production (farming and contract farming), distribution, farm
machinery, processing, and seed supply, as well as marketing and retail sales.
Agriculture is crucial to poverty alleviation and wealth creation.
In Africa, agriculture accounts for 65 % of total employment and 32 % of GDP while in Ethiopia it accounts
74 % employment and 50% total GDP.
It is key to fighting food insecurity, not only because it stimulates increased production but also due to its
potential to create wealth for smallholders and rural communities.
Although it is recognized that environmental issues must be considered in order to ‘sustain’ the natural
resources used to produce food.
The agribusiness sector, which comprises the business activities performed from farm to fork, is a major
generator of employment and income worldwide and contributes to food security and nutrition.
 It covers the entire value chain, including the supply of agricultural inputs, the production and
transformation of agricultural products, and their distribution to final consumers. The relevance of
agribusinesses is underlined by the fact that they:
• are often the main source of off-farm employment in rural areas of poor countries;
• have positive effects on poverty reduction and women’s empowerment in countries
• create off-farm employment opportunities in agro-industrial firms located in rural areas, improving the income
of rural households through wage employment and

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• help to forge the necessary link between the agriculture and manufacturing sectors, which in turn can catalyze
the development of broader manufacturing industries by providing material inputs for food processing, textiles
and biofuels.

A. Value add: is the extra value created over and above the original value of something.   It can apply to
products, services, companies, management, and other areas of business.  In other words, value-added is the
enhancement made by a company/individual to a product or service before offering it to the end customer. Or
value added means adding value to a raw product by taking it to at least the next stage of
production.
Example: Rather than selling coffee bean; roasting, grinding and packaging before offering in the international
market.

B. Product certification or product qualification: is the process of certifying that a certain product has passed
performance tests and quality assurance tests, and meets qualification criteria stipulated in contracts, regulations,
or specifications (typically called "certification schemes" in the product certification industry). Most product
certification bodies (or product certifiers) are accredited to ISO (International organization for Standardization).

C. Organic inspection: Organic Farmers & Growers (OF&G) is a leading organic certifier and the first body
approved by the Government to inspect and license organic production and processing in different countries.
Organic inspections are carried by highly qualified Global Inspectors. Organic growers able to inspect and
certify the following on-farm activities:
 Food processing, abattoirs, wholesale and retail
 Import of organic products from EU Member States and third-world countries
 Animal feed compounding
 Production, such as approved fertilizers and composts
 Processing of non-food products, such as organic textiles

D. Finding buyer: A buyer is any person who contracts to acquire an asset in return for some form of
consideration. Or buyer is a person who purchases finished goods, typically for resale, for a firm, government,
or organization. In product management, the buyer is the entity that decides to obtain the product. A buyer's
primary responsibility is obtaining the highest quality goods at the lowest cost.

Buyers generally fall within 3 main categories:

Financial buyers: Financial buyers are interested in your business's cash flow. They'll usually be individuals or
another business with money to invest. This type of buyer is likely to examine your financial records very
closely. They'll be looking for a healthy business with recorded growth that requires little change or intervention
to continue operating successfully.
Strategic buyers: Strategic buyers are looking to acquire your business to make it work as part of their own
business strategy. For example, a buyer who runs a similar business to yours in a different area may want to
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acquire your business to remove competition. Strategic buyers are usually the buyers prepared to pay the most
for your business. The more your products are aligned with or compete directly with theirs, the higher the price
they're often willing to pay.
Business insiders: These buyers are people you know - family, friends or employees. This type of buyer knows a lot about
your business already and could have personal reasons for wanting to see it continue. They might be willing to pay more for
your business than an outside financial buyer.

E. Marketing: is the action or business of promoting and selling products or services, including market
research, advertising, selling, and delivering products to consumers or other businesses. Marketing is defined as
"the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings
that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. The process of marketing is that of bringing
a product to market, which includes these steps: broad market research; market targeting and market
segmentation; determining distribution, pricing and promotion strategies; developing a communications
strategy; budgeting; and visioning long-term market development goals. A firm in the market economy can
survive by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy.

 The four Ps 'product', 'price', 'place' and 'promotion', referred as marketing program, represent the basic tools
which marketers can use to bring their products or services to market.
 Product includes product design, new product innovation, branding, packaging, labeling and supporting
elements such as warranties.
 The price is the cost that a consumer pays for a product. Place refers how the product gets to the customer;
the distribution channels and intermediaries such as wholesalers and retailers; and
 Promotion includes public relations, personal selling, product placement, branded entertainment, event
marketing, trade shows and exhibitions.
Product life cycle
1. Introduction: In this stage, a product is launched onto the market. To stimulate growth of sales/revenue,
use of advertising may be high.
2. Growth: The product's sales/revenue is increasing, which may stimulate more marketing communications
to sustain sales.
3. Maturity: A product's sales start to level off, and an increasing number of entrants to a market produce
price falls for the product.
4. Decline: Demand for a good begins to taper off, and the firm may opt to discontinue manufacture of the
product.

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F. Collaborative marketing: Collaboration Marketing is the process of aligning your company’s interests,
resources, and marketing muscle with other like-minded companies to accomplish much more than you might
be able to do on your own. The concept has existed for a long time in advertising. You can open any airline
magazine to find collective ads that promote Top Steakhouses, Top Seafood Restaurants, or even Top Plastic
Surgeons.
Cooperative marketing: Cooperative marketing can be defined as an agreement between two companies to
promote or sell each other’s product while selling their own. The products can either be complementary or might
have different seasonal cycles.

12. Innovations for Sustainable Agriculture

There are a numbers of innovations and methods to make sure sustainable agricultural development. This
includes planting of fertilizer tree, cultivation of perennial crop, growing of cover crop, keeping small livestock
such as shoat, applying integrated crop-livestock production and others.

Fertilizer Tree: are used in agroforestry to improve the condition of soils used for farming. They capture
nitrogen from the air and put it in the soil through their roots and falling leaves. They can also bring nutrients
from deep in the soil up to the surface for crops with roots that cannot reach that depth. Fertilizer trees are
further useful for preventing fertilizer erosion, soil degradation and related desertification, and improving water
usage for crops.
For example: Sesbania and Tree Lucerne are known as fertilizer trees. Tree lucerne or tagasaste is able to fix
more than 587 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year. It can increase maize yields from 1 ton per hectare per year to
more than 10 tons ha/year. Fertilizer trees are used to prevent the expansion of desert, and to keep agriculture
viable in arid lands in many African countries

Perennial Crops: are crops that unlike annual crops don't need to be replanted each year. After harvest, they
automatically grow back. By eliminating replanting, perennial cropping can reduce topsoil losses due to erosion,
increase biological carbon sequestration due to reduced soil-disturbing tillage, and greatly reduce waterway

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pollution through agricultural runoff due to less nitrogen input. Some of the advantage of perennial crops
includes;
 Erosion control: Because plant materials (stems, crowns, etc.) can remain in place year-round, topsoil erosion
due to wind and rainfall/irrigation is reduced.
 Water-use efficiency: Because these crops tend to be deeper and more fibrously-rooted than their annual
counterparts, they are able to hold onto soil moisture more efficiently.
 Nutrient cycling efficiency: Because perennials more efficiently take up nutrients as a result of their
extensive root systems, reduced amounts of nutrients need to be supplemented, lowering production costs while
reducing possible excess sources of fertilizer runoff.
 Light interception efficiency: Earlier canopy development and longer green leaf duration increase the
seasonal light interception efficiency of perennials, an important factor in plant productivity.

Cover Crops: a crop grown for the protection and enrichment of the soil. It is planted to manage soil erosion,
soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem—an
ecological system managed and shaped by humans.
 Cover crops may be an off-season crop planted after harvesting the cash crop.
 A cover crop is a plant that is used primarily to slow erosion, improve soil health, enhance water
availability, smother weeds, help control pests and diseases, increase biodiversity and bring a host of
other benefits to your farm.
Small Livestock Productions› Small livestock includes sheep, goat, poultry and others. Sheep and goats both
require ample quantities of forage. If forage is of sufficient quantity and quality, most sheep and goats will not
need any supplementation except for salt and minerals. Sheep and goats are versatile animals and produce many
highly valued products. Some of the primary advantages of small ruminants (sheep and goats):
,

• Small size
• Quick return on investment
• Low cost for initial animals
• Easy expansion of herd or flock
• Many possible products
Because of their small size, sheep and goats are child- and elder-friendly, comparatively easy to handle and not
as threatening as cattle.

Crop-livestock (mixed) production systems ፡ Mixing within crop and/or within animal systems refers to
conditions where multiple cropping is practised, or where different types of animals are kept together, mostly
on-farm. Grazing of livestock under plantation trees such as Coffee, Enset or others is a form of crop-livestock
integration that is often found in Ethiopia.

Policy- Accessing Product to Market ፡ Market access refers to the ability of a company or country to sell goods
and services across borders. Market access can be used to refer to domestic trade as well as international trade.

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Market access is not the same as free trade. The ability to sell in a market is often accompanied by tariffs, duties
or even quotas, whereas free trade implies that goods and services flow across the borders without any extra
costs imposed by governments.
Needs: Something necessary for people to live a healthy, stable and safe life. When needs remain unfulfilled,
there is a clear adverse outcome: a dysfunction or death. Needs can be objective and physical, such as the need
for food, water, and shelter; or subjective and psychological, such as the need to belong to a family or social
group and the need for self-esteem.

Wants: Something that is desired, wished for or aspired to. Wants are not essential for basic survival and are
often shaped by culture or peer-groups.

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