Session 1 and 2 - Introduction To Engineering Geology PDF

Introduction to Engineering Geology
Geology: “the science which deals with the physical structure and
substance of the earth, their history, and the processes which act on
them”
This topic will include,
1. The Earth and its composition
• Interior structure of the Earth
• Dynamics of the earth (plate tectonics)
• Age of the Earth
• Rocks and minerals
2. Structural geology
3. Geological maps
4. Weathering and soil formation
5. Introduction to Australian/Victorian geology
Dr Wasantha, 2020 1
Introduction to Engineering Geology
Why do engineers need to study geology?
• Structures (buildings, roads, dams, tunnels, etc.) are
founded on within ground
• Geomaterials (e.g. rock, soil) are used as a
construction material
• Geological history has a major influence on soil
properties, e.g., strength, compressibility,
permeability
• Much engineering work is concerned with extraction
of the earth’s resources, e.g., minerals, groundwater
• Geological behaviour can influence the behaviour and
environmental safety of many soil/rock situations,
e.g., earthquakes, stability of slopes, contaminant
storage/transport
Dr Wasantha, 2020 2
Structure of the Earth
Some facts…
• Highest mountain above sea level: 8.9 km
• Lowest point below sea level: 11.04 km
• Oceans cover two thirds of the planet’s
surface
• NASA has announced the discovery of 219
new suspected planets outside our solar
system (10 are “rocky” like Earth )
• How deep have people seen the inside of
the earth?
Evidence for this theory…
• direct – e.g., information from rocks brought to surface from upper
mantle via natural processes such as volcanic eruptions
• indirect – from knowledge of earth’s gravitational field and of magnetic
field, heat flow and seismic data
Dr Wasantha, 2020 3
Structure of the Earth ctd…
• Earth’s near surface temperature gradient is about 30o C/km - on this basis,
rocks below about 30 km depth would be molten, if pressures were not so
high
• The crust and upper mantle are basically solid and rigid to a depth of about
100km (i.e., ‘lithosphere’)
• Below this, the temperature and pressure
create a highly viscous low strength “fluid”
to a depth of about 250 km – this can flow
at a very slow rate (this part of the upper
mantle is called ‘asthenosphere’)
• Slow convection currents tend to form in

this layer of the mantle, with hot lower
density rock rising toward the surface and
cooler rock of higher density tending to
sink, thus creating lateral movement Dr Wasantha, 2020 4
Structure of the Earth ctd…
• The continents largely consist of granitic rock (specific gravity, SG =~ 2.8),
with basaltic rock (SG =~ 2.9) underlying them and forming the sea floor - the
upper mantle SG is ~ 3.4
• The continents effectively “float” in the higher SG underlying material
• In order to achieve isostatic balance, mountainous regions must have deep
roots of granitic material, as more denser material must be displaced to carry
the greater weight (consider icebergs, Archimedes, etc.)
• Vertical movement of the continental crust can occur as adjustments take
place to maintain this balance (e.g., parts of the earth’s surface are still rising
to compensate for removal of ice age thick ice caps)
Dr Wasantha, 2020 5
Dynamics of the earth (plate tectonics)
• The lithosphere is divided into 12 large semi-rigid plates (and some sub-
plates) floating (at a rate of cm/year) on the lateral currents generated in the
asthenosphere
• Evidence for this theory of plate tectonics includes
— similar outlines of several coastlines could have once fitted together (e.g.,
Atlantic coast of Africa, South America)
— rocks of particular age, type, and with similar fossils and geological
structures are found in widely-separated continents
— Locations of seismic occurrences
Locations of Earthquakes 2017
Dr Wasantha, 2020 6
Dynamics of the earth (plate tectonics) ctd…
• Types of Plate boundaries
— Divergent boundary (→volcanoes)
— Convergent boundary (→volcanoes and earthquakes)
— Transform boundary (→earthquakes)
Dr Wasantha, 2020 7
Dynamics of the earth (plate tectonics) ctd…
• In a subduction zone one plate moves under another and is forced or sinks
due to gravity into the asthenosphere
• Convergent boundaries are indicated by high mountain ranges, e.g., Rockies,

Andes, Himalayas
• Most of the world’s active volcanoes are located close to main subduction
zones or spreading ridges
• Major transform boundaries occur in California (San Andreas fault), the Dead
Sea fault zone, and in Iran and Turkey
• Most of the world’s most destructive earthquakes occur near subduction

zones or along transform boundaries (note however that there can be
(usually smaller) earthquakes within plates, e.g., in Australia)
Dr Wasantha, 2020 8
Age of the Earth
• The earth is thought to have formed about
4,500 million years ago
• The oldest known rocks are about 3900
million years old, but the vast majority are
< 600 million years old
• Working out the age of rocks is part of the
process of identifying them and
understanding their properties
• The stratigraphic column is a graphic way
of showing the geological time scale with
its various eras, periods and epochs, and
the corresponding life forms which existed
• Note that the 3 Era boundaries denote
mass extinctions of living things
Dr Wasantha, 2020 9
Rocks and Minerals
• Earth’s crust consists of about 95%
• Three main types of rocks, igneous rocks, and about 5%
— Igneous rocks sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
— Sedimentary rocks • However, 75% of the rocks exposed
— Metamorphic rocks to weathering at the surface are
sedimentary
• Rock cycle – a group of changes
• In order of proportion of area
covered, the most important rocks
are:
— shales (sedimentary): 52%
— sandstones (sedimentary): 15%
— granites (igneous): 15%
— limestones / dolomites
(sedimentary): 7%
— basalt (igneous): 3%
— others: 8%
Dr Wasantha, 2020 10
Rocks and Minerals ctd…
• Most rocks are mixtures of minerals, which are naturally occurring elements
or chemical compounds with a definite chemical composition (and formula)
and an orderly arrangement of atoms
• Although some minerals are simple e.g., gold (Au), diamond (C), calcite
(CaCO3), rutile (TiO2), most have complex formulae with 4 or more elements
• The most common mineral forming elements are oxygen (O), silicon (Si),
aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K) and
magnesium (Mg)
• Detailed mineral properties can be found in most texts dealing with
minerals/physical geology
• The basic “building block” of most rock forming minerals is a tetrahedron
comprising a central (small) silicon atom surrounded by four (larger) oxygen
atoms at the vertices - this has the formula SiO4 (Silicate)
• The major rock-forming silicate groups are
— quartz (SiO2) - one of the commonest minerals, essential
component of acid igneous rocks, common in sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks; hexagonal crystals; harder than
steel, colorless or white when pure (but often tinted)
— feldspars - complex silicates, (commonest plagioclase Na
and Ca, and orthoclase K), estimated to make up almost
half earth’s crust, light-colored, shiny, about as hard as
steel
— micas - complex silicates, cleave into thin, shiny flexible
sheets; occur as muscovite (white/transparent) or biotite
(black/brown mica) - common in more acid igneous rocks
— ferromagnesian minerals, i.e., amphiboles, pyroxenes,
olivine - complex silicates of Fe and Mg, dark in color,
softer than steel, common in more basic igneous rocks
• Other non-silicate rock-forming minerals include
— calcite (CaCO3) - common in sedimentary / metamorphic rocks, main
component of limestone, typically white / colourless, “fizzes” in dilute
acid
— gypsum - hydrated form of calcium sulphate
• Soils are generally formed by rock weathering, therefore the common rock
forming minerals are often present in soils, although often in changed form,
e.g., feldspars, pyroxenes and amphiboles are converted to the clay minerals
found in clay soils; quartz on the other hand is hard and chemically stable
• As an example, basalt weathers to form basaltic clays, whereas granite
weathers to form granitic sands
Igneous rocks
• Those which have cooled and solidified from magma (magma vs Lava?)
• When magma “oozes” its way through cracks and other local weakness zones
in the country rock, it forms dykes, sills and veins (minor intrusions), where the
rock cools more quickly to form smaller crystals
• Extrusive rock – magma that reaches the

surface (→fast cooling)
• Intrusive or plutonic rock – magma that
does not reach the surface (→slow cooling)
• Dykes – wall-like masses, with steep
(perhaps vertical) and near parallel sides
• Sills – sheets of rock lying roughly
horizontal, and parallel to the bedding of
sedimentary rock into which it is extruded
• Veins - Thin and irregular intrusions
Igneous rocks ctd…
• Common terms/rocks associated with volcanic activity
— Pyroclastic: refers to material blown out by an explosive volcanic eruption
— Tuff: rock formed from smaller pyroclastic particles and ash (<20 mm),
usually blown further away from the cone
— Agglomerate: rock formed from pyroclastic particles generally > 20 mm
diameter, and falling closer to cone
— Pumice: highly vesicular acid pyroclastic rock
— Scoria: vesicular basic pyroclastic rock
• Relative size/arrangement of minerals corresponds broadly with the method
of rock formation
• Some properties and identification tips
— Plutonic (intrusive) rocks - deep slowly cooled → easily visible coarse-
grained (e.g., quartz crystals) 2-5 mm long (NB: medium grain size 1-2
mm, fine grains < 1 mm)
— Extrusive rocks - rapid surface cooling → often glassy/vitreous surface
texture (no visible crystals), or part glassy/part fine grained texture
(within flow) – trapped expanding gas bubbles → vesicles and vesicular
texture (e.g., pock-marked basalts)
• These rocks are generally used in building construction, for roadworks and
aggregate (crushed rock of various sizes used for concrete, road pavements,
etc.)
• Can be problems with breakdown and loss of strength in particular
environments
Basalt Granite
Gabbro Pumice
Scoria Andesite
Sedimentary rocks
• Are formed from,
— accumulation of particles from breakdown of older rocks
— remains of plants and animals
— evaporation of water and precipitation of soluble minerals
• Composition and texture depend on particle size and method of diagenesis (i.e.
the conversion of sediments into rock), the environment in which deposition
occurred, and weathering after uplift
• The three main deposition environments are,
— continental: formed on land, resulting in desert, piedmont (at base of
eroding steep mountain slopes), lacustrine (in lakes), alluvial (along rivers)
and glacial deposits
— continental shelf seas: deposits typically formed from pebbles, sands, mud
and calcareous (rich in CaCO3) material
— deep sea: widespread clay and calcareous particle deposits
Sedimentary rocks ctd…
• These rocks are generally classified as
1. Detrital (clastic), or
2. chemical and biochemical/organic
• Detrital (clastic) rocks
— result from fragments of rock worn or broken away from parent material,
carried by gravity, wind, water or ice to another place, and deposited in
layers or beds (strata)
— high pressures due to thick overlying deposits, plus some cementing
(perhaps) by minerals dissolved in ground water → consolidation of the
materials into rock
• Some Detrital (clastic) type sedimentary rocks
— Conglomerate – cemented mixture of more-or-less rounded grains, generally
> 2mm
— Breccia – cemented mixture of angular fragments, generally > 2mm
— Sandstone – non-interlocking sand grains, mainly 0.06-2.0 mm, pressure
cemented by deposits of silica, iron oxides or carbonates from groundwater -
simple mineral composition, has bedding planes
— Siltstone – cemented silt (0.002-0.06 mm) deposits
— Mudstone – cemented mud (mixture of silt and clay (<0.002mm) sizes) - not
laminated, but fragmental
— Shale – compacted mud, typically laminated (very thinly bedded) and fissile
(splits along bedding planes)
— Limestone – consists mainly of CaCO3 with some MgCO3 and quartz grains
(typically formed by deposits of shells/skeletons of small sea creatures)
— Chalk – a very fine-grained, friable pure limestone
• Chemical and biochemical/organic rocks
— typically formed in place by chemical precipitation, biological activity, or from
animal / vegetable matter
Important types include,
1. calcareous deposits (e.g., coral, algal and crinoidal (coral-like animals)
limestone, oolitic limestone (CaCO3 deposits around seed particles), and
dolomite (CaCO3 / MgCO3 mix))
2. evaporites (e.g., gypsum, anhydrite (CaSO4) and rock salt (NaCl) formed
by evaporation of water from shallow sea basins)
3. carbonaceous deposits (e.g., coal, formed by burial and compression of
rotting vegetation)
4. ferruginous deposits (iron may be precipitated as primary mineral, or
locked into crystal lattices during diagenesis)
— Sedimentary rocks are generally characterized by stratification (clearly

distinguishable beds / strata)
— Many are brightly colored due to weathering of hematite (red / brown),

limonite (yellow) and manganese (black) compounds contained within them
— Some contain fossils, which can be used to date them
— They vary considerably in texture, depending on the size, shape and

arrangement of the materials from which they were formed
— Possible engineering uses need to be carefully considered due to potential for

erosion, dissolution by acidic waters, potential for caving (in limestone), etc.
Sandstone Mudstone
Conglomerate Shale
Breccia Limestone
Metamorphic rocks
• These are rocks which have undergone chemical and physical alterations
resulting in a change in texture and mineral / chemical composition (their
constituent minerals have been recrystallized)
• The original rocks may have been igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic
• The main agents of change are heat and pressure
• There are basically 3 types of metamorphism
1. contact or thermal: temperature rise is main factor - occurs next to

igneous intrusions (where an aureole is developed), or when sediments
are down folded – e.g., siliceous rocks (e.g. sandstone) are converted to
quartzite, limestone is converted to marble
Metamorphic rocks ctd…
2. dynamic or dislocation: due mainly to stress, as in belts of shearing in the

crust – e.g., when movement occurs along faults, rock is broken/crushed
→ breccia (new rock)
3. regional: where high temperature and/or pressure occur over a large

region - different combinations → different rocks
shale → slate (under lower temperatures, but high stress)
basic igneous rocks → schist, a medium to coarse grained rock containing

substantial mica (under moderate temperature and pressure)
granite (generally) → gneiss, a coarse-grained rock (under high temp, low

stress)
1. Slate, schist and gneiss are all foliated, i.e., have parallel bands /layers of
flattened or platy minerals - quartzite and marble are non-foliated
2. Where only heat occurs, crystals can grow in any direction haphazardly,
giving the hornfels texture
3. If hot gases or liquids pass through rock, mineral changes and ore deposits
occur due to pneumatolysis
4. Mica and chlorite grow as thin plates at right angles to the direction of
maximum stress
5. Amphiboles (e.g., horneblende) grow in prismatic crystals with their
length perpendicular to direction of maximum stress
6. Rock fabric may be isotropic (same in all directions) e.g., hornfels, or
anisotropic (structure varies in different directions) e.g., schist (with
crystals parallel)
Gneiss Quartzite
Slate Marble
Schist Phyllite
2. Structural Geology
• Structural geology relates to larger scale features in sedimentary and other
rocks resulting from crustal movements and deformation processes, e.g.,
bending/crumpling and cracking of strata (which may thus be at significant
angles to the horizontal, and displaced across crack lines)
• As previously noted, 75% of rocks exposed at the earth’s surface are
sedimentary (mainly shale, sandstone and limestone). Thus, structural
geology primarily deals with sedimentary rocks
Some basic definitions
1. Outcrop – an area of rock lying at the earth’s surface (although possibly
concealed by a thin soil cover) – layer outcrops are shown on geological maps
2. Exposure – part of an outcrop of rock which can actually be seen at the
ground surface (e.g., in road cuttings, cliff / quarry faces, bare rock on
ground)
3. Bedding planes – the surfaces between rock layers or strata
4. Strike – a horizontal line drawn across the face of a sloping stratum – it is
given as a compass bearing, but may be quoted looking in either direction
(either whole circle with angles measured clockwise from north, e.g., 55o
or 235o, or quadrant, with angles measured from north or south, e.g., N 55o
E, S 55o W)
5. Dip – →has two versions
5.1. True dip – the angle to the horizontal at which a stratum slopes most
steeply – it is measured normal to the strike
5.2. Apparent dip – is the trace of a bedding plane on a vertical rock face
(e.g., in a cutting) which is not at right angles to the strike – it must be < the
true dip
Relationship between true and apparent dips
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝒂 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 × 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
where 𝜷𝒂 = apparent dip, 𝜷 = true dip, and 𝜶 = angle between vertical planes
on which the true and apparent dips are measured
Dip and strike illustrations
6. Stratigraphic Thickness (ts) – of a rock stratum is measured normal to the
bedding planes
Relationships between ts and exposure length w on the ground surface at a
slope s measured downwards from the horizontal are as shown below
Sometimes it is necessary to find vertical or horizontal thickness of the bed –

this can be done simply using trigonometry
Landforms/features related to sedimentary rocks
1. Tabletop/mesa formation
Sedimentary strata vary in hardness – a horizontal stratum may form an erosion
resistant cap over softer strata
2. Escarpment and hogback

Dipping strata can lead to the formation of an escarpment (shallow dip) or
hogback (steeper dip)
Landforms/features related to sedimentary rocks ctd…
3. Outlier and inlier
Outlier is an “island’ of rock left by erosion of surrounding strata and now found
surrounded (in plan) by older rocks [How would contours appear in plan?]
Inlier is an area of older rock entirely surrounded (in plan) by younger rocks
4. Unconformity
Occurs where younger rocks are formed above an older rock series, with rocks
from intervening geological time missing – dips are typically different above and
below the unconformity
A typical sequence leading to an unconformity would be deposition of older
sedimentary series, followed by folding and subsequent erosion, and then
coverage by new sediments and/or igneous (lava) flows
5. Fold
Bend in rock strata caused by compression/crumpling – has change in dip on
either side of a hinge line, which may be horizontal or inclined (plunging)
6. Anticline, Syncline and Monocline
Anticline is a fold where strata turn down from a highpoint
Syncline is a fold where strata turn up from low point
Monocline is a fold where strata are inclined in same direction after change in dip
• A plane of symmetry which bisects the angle between the limbs of a fold is
called the axial plane, and its points of intersection with each bedding plane
trace out the axis of the fold
• Folds may be open or tight, symmetrical or unsymmetrical, with sharp
(chevron) or gentle angles
7. Fractures
can occur in rock strata due to,
• relief of stress (e.g., after a reduction in loading)
• tensile stresses in the rocks following folding
• relative rock movement resulting from earthquakes, etc.
8. Joints
are fractures where no relative movement has occurred between the two sides of
the fracture (e.g., shrinkage cracks in igneous rocks after cooling)
9. Faults
are fractures where relative displacement of the two sides of the break has
occurred - the
• plane of movement is called the fault plane
• ground level outcrop of the fault is called its trace
• shearing zone width may range from almost nothing to > 1 km, and is typically
characterized by broken rock and/or rock powder and clay fragments mixed
with water (gouge)
9.1. Normal and Reverse faults
the fault plane angle with the horizontal > 45o, and often is near vertical – relative
movement occurs in the up-down direction
9.2. Thrust fault

is a reverse fault where the fault plane angle with the horizontal (i.e., fault dip) <
45o
9.3. Strike fault and Dip fault
If the fault plane strike and strata strike are roughly parallel →Strike fault
If these strikes are approximately at right angles → Dip fault
10. Graben and Horst
Some regions of land can be divided by normal faults into relatively elevated or
depressed blocks – this process is known as block faulting
Horst – elevated/upthrown blocks may be plateaus or long ridge-like block
mountains
Graben - Fault blocks depressed below their surroundings form fault troughs
3. Geological Maps
• Show a plan view of the geology in an area, and often one or more cross-
sections along lines drawn on the map
• Maps may show solid geology,
i.e., only the rock, as if all soil
deposits were removed, or may
show drift, i.e., material
deposited during the quaternary
period, as well as solid rock
outcropping at the surface
• Residual soils (formed in place by
rock weathering, etc.) are
considered as part of their
parent rock
• Typical scales on maps covering Melbourne and Victoria are 1:63360 and
1:250000, but other scales, e.g., 1:25000, 1:50000 are available for some
areas – these scales are therefore often small, and rock boundaries etc. can
only be approximate Dr Wasantha, 2020 39
3. Geological Maps
• To get information from a map, one must read the legend (symbols, etc., such
as arrows/numbers representing strata dips) and stratigraphic column
(Download and check Melbourne Geological Map from http://earthresources.efirst.com.au/)
• Properly-interpreted maps allow a first estimate of the underlying rocks/soils
at a site – more detailed follow-up site investigation is usually necessary
• Vertical sections are particularly useful in providing info on hidden
(subsurface) strata, and can usually be drawn based on the information in plan
on the map
• Reasons for estimating location of such strata include
— to determine the geological history/rock ages at a site
— to find ground conditions for foundations, tunnels, etc.
— to investigate slope stability for proposed excavations
— to estimate the position of coal or mineral seams in order to decide where
to locate mine shafts and drives
— to predict strata outcrops elsewhere on a site
3. Geological Maps
Geology Map of Melbourne (West)
3. Geological Maps
• Steps to construct a vertical section
A vertical section through the ground along a line drawn on a geological map can
be constructed by following these steps
1. Draw the ground (NS) profile along the line of the required section
[e.g., do this by laying a grid line on a folded sheet of graph paper along the line
and marking contour line intersections on the graph paper – then drop vertical
lines from these intersection points to give relevant NS levels at these points]
2. Locate the geological boundaries on the ground profile
[done in similar way to above, but geological boundary intersections rather than
contours are marked]
3. Extrapolate the geological boundaries downwards at their angles of dip
[apparent dip will have to be calculated if section is not in the plane of the true
dip]
3. Geological Maps
• Steps to construct a vertical section ctd…
3. Geological Maps
Principles for using geological maps to infer relative age and history
• Superposition: in sequence of relatively flat rock layers, it is reasonable to
assume that the oldest rock layers will be at the bottom and the youngest at
the top
• Cross-cutting relations: igneous intrusions and geological fractures (e.g.,
faults) will be younger than the rocks they intersect
• An intrusion will also be younger than adjacent sedimentary rocks if a
metamorphic aureole is present
• Sediments overlying an intrusion but with no metamorphosed zone present
will be younger than it
• Inclusions: a rock is younger than another if it contains fragments of the latter
(e.g., conglomerate contains fragments of older rocks carried and later
deposited by river flow)
4. Weathering and Soil Formation
Weathering:
The breakdown of rocks and sediments by physical disintegration and chemical
and/or biochemical reactions at or near the earth’s surface
• Enables rocks to be more easily removed by erosion processes, and is a
necessary factor in soil formation
• Major factors influencing type and rate of weathering include rock
type/texture, fracture density, climate (and industrial pollution), topography,
flora/fauna
Types of Weathering
1. Physical (or mechanical) weathering
caused by changes in stress resulting from,
• rock unloading/pressure release → horizontal cracks
• crystal growth, e.g. mineral salts
• plant growth and expanding root systems
• diurnal temperature change and freeze/thaw cycles
• impact of rain
• abrasion by wind blown particles Dr Wasantha, 2020 45
2. Chemical / biochemical weathering
is associated with reactions (oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation) and
the effects of organisms, leading to swelling of rock mass, decreases in density
and greater solubility
Typical examples include penetration of water containing O2, CO2 and (say) SO2
into cracks in rock. e.g.,
• if basalt, minerals can be changed to clay minerals
• if limestone, CaCO3 dissolves → underground streams, caves
Residual and Transported soils
• If broken-down particles are not removed (i.e., remain in place), a residual soil
is formed - this may have angular particles and rock fragments through profile
• Transported soils – formed from rock which was
— weathered and eroded at one site,
— transported by gravity, water, wind, or ice to another site
— deposited (e.g., by settling) at the new site
Geomorphological processes
The study of continual shaping and reshaping of the land surface, which occurs
over millions of years, is called Geomorphology
Some major Geomorphological processes are;
1. Downslope mass movement/Landslides
• Perceptible downslope movement of
earth/rock masses – includes rock
avalanches, rock/debris slides,
mudslides, earthflows and soil creep
• Movement may be rapid or very slow,
affect different size areas, and have
minor to catastrophic consequences,
e.g., loss of life, destruction of
structures, roads, services
• Could be due to natural or human
activity causes Dr Wasantha, 2020 47
Geomorphological processes ctd…
2. Fluvial processes - (associated with running water)
Typically involve,
• erosion of rocks / fragments by water moving as sheet flow, in rills or gullies,
or in creeks and rivers
• transport of eroded material
• deposition of this material as layered sediments on valley floors (e.g., after
flooding), further downstream, or in lakes or the sea (i.e., lacustrine or marine
sediments) Material deposited by rivers is called alluvium
• coarser particles (sand, gravel, boulders) can
only be moved by fast flowing water and will
be dropped out in the higher reaches of a
stream, whereas finer particles (silt and clay)
are carried further downstream until the
flow slows down
• alluvium can be very variable, with a mix of
particle sizes Dr Wasantha, 2020 48
3. Aeolian (wind-driven) Processes
• Landforms produced or affected by wind are often found in deserts and in
coastal areas – they include sand dunes, blowouts and deflation hollows
(where loose surface material has been blown away) – fine material can be
blown substantial distances
• Aeolian deposits are very sensitive to disturbance, e.g., removal of
vegetation, damage by dune buggies/bikes, and strong winds can easily give
rise to major dust storms
• Deposits of wind-blown silt/clay particles are
called loess soils - are often cemented, have
high porosity, and considerable strength
when dry - however they are easily eroded,
and lose strength when saturated due
dissolving of cementing agent → foundation
problems in buildings, collapse of excavation
walls, etc. Dr Wasantha, 2020 49
4. Glacial Processes
• Glaciers are very slow-moving ice “rivers” which move down valleys (at
perhaps cms/day) to produce distinctive erosional/depositional landforms
• They generally excavate deep valleys with U-shaped cross-sections (cf V-
shaped valleys cut by streams in mountainous country)
• Glacial deposits can have a wide range of particle sizes, from boulders down
to silt
5. Karst Landscape Formation
• Karst landscapes occur over limestone formations, and are typically
characterized by scattered depressions ranging in size from small surface
potholes to large and deep sinkholes
• Weakly acidic rainfall (due to CO2 in solution) percolates down through
joints/fractures and dissolves the limestone, thus enlarging these and creating
holes of varying size, underground channels and eventually large cave systems
• Streams can often disappear underground in

this type of country, and emerge some
distance from their entry point
• Sometimes caves are left with thin roofs
which eventually collapse, possibly with
catastrophic consequences if roads or
buildings etc. have been constructed above
them
Soil behavior and Clay minerals
• Soil behavior is often heavily influenced by the presence of fines – this
influence increases as the clay fraction increases, and depends greatly on the
clay minerals present
• Clay minerals form small crystals (usually < 2-3 μm), with flat shape and large
surface area, usually with a -ve electrical charge – the electrochemical forces
on these surfaces play a major role in determining engineering properties
• Clay minerals are all hydrous aluminosilicates containing Al, Si, O, OH (and
other) ions arranged in parallel sheets/layers – they are called sheet silicates
(or phyllosilicates)
• Sheets are basically composed of silica tetrahedra (as discussed previously),
or octahedra comprising Al, Mg (or other elements, eg, Fe) surrounded by six
hydroxyls
Soil behavior and Clay minerals ctd…
Major groups of clay minerals
1. Kaolinite: 1:1 sheet structure – (has Si, Al, O and OH ions in stacks of
alternating tetrahedra and octahedra - hydrogen bonded with no inter-unit
water)
2. Mica/Illite: 2:1 sheet structure – (units keyed together with K ions →
reasonable bond (Al replaces some Si in tetra., Fe/Mg some Al in octa.) - some
water between units,)
3. Smectite / Montmorillonite: 2:1 sheet structure – (Ca or Mg and water
between units, weakly bonded (Al, Fe and Mg replace some Si in tetra.))
Soil behavior and Clay minerals ctd…
Effects of clay minerals on engineering properties of soils
• Compressibility: if clay has lot of montmorillonite, stress increases will cause
large volume decrease as water layer thickness within crystals is reduced
• Swelling/shrinkage: as above due changes in water content – effect is worse if
Na dominates in adsorbed layers (shrink/swell potential increases in the order
of Kaolinite → Mica/Illite → Smectite / Montmorillonite)
• Shear strength: packing particles more closely increases interference between
adsorbed layers → more particle contacts (therefore decrease in void ratio
increases shear resistance)
• Compaction: related to both shear strength and permeability – can compact
illite → low permeability, but kaolinite is difficult to compact (relevance to
clays for landfill liners)

Session 1 and 2 - Introduction To Engineering Geology PDF

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Session 1 and 2 - Introduction To Engineering Geology PDF

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Introduction to Engineering Geology

• Slow convection currents tend to form in

• Convergent boundaries are indicated by high mountain ranges, e.g., Rockies,

• Most of the world’s most destructive earthquakes occur near subduction

• Extrusive rock – magma that reaches the

• Some properties and identification tips

— Sedimentary rocks are generally characterized by stratification (clearly

— Many are brightly colored due to weathering of hematite (red / brown),

— Some contain fossils, which can be used to date them

— They vary considerably in texture, depending on the size, shape and

— Possible engineering uses need to be carefully considered due to potential for

• The original rocks may have been igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic

• The main agents of change are heat and pressure

• There are basically 3 types of metamorphism

1. contact or thermal: temperature rise is main factor - occurs next to

2. dynamic or dislocation: due mainly to stress, as in belts of shearing in the

3. regional: where high temperature and/or pressure occur over a large

shale → slate (under lower temperatures, but high stress)

basic igneous rocks → schist, a medium to coarse grained rock containing

granite (generally) → gneiss, a coarse-grained rock (under high temp, low

Sometimes it is necessary to find vertical or horizontal thickness of the bed –

2. Escarpment and hogback

9.2. Thrust fault

• Streams can often disappear underground in

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