SELF

IMPROVEMENT
by

RUDOLF ALLERS, M.D., PH.D.

Professor of Psychology
Catholic University of America

New York, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO, SAN FRANCISCO

BENZIGER BROTHERS
1939
 - Yº Yº Gº!

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PSYCH.

NIHIL obstat : ARTHUR J. std., GHNsor

scaRRARY,
LIBRORUM IMPRIMATUR : STEPHEN J. DONAHUE, PSYOHIN
ISTRATOR OF NEw York, NEw York, JANUARY 235Rf889

SELF IMPROVEMENT, copyRIGHT, 1939, BY BENZIGER BROTHERS.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
-
All rights reserved.—No part of this book may be reproduced in
any form without permission in writing from the publisher.
 PREFACE
THIs book deals with the difficulties man encounters
in life insofar as these difficulties have their origin in
human personality; it aims at showing that much more
of the difficulties and troubles man has to wrestle with
spring from his own personality, or even are of his own
doing, than is generally believed. It deals with the
many reasons why a man may feel dissatisfied with him
self and may desire to become different. And it en

all
deavorsto show that this desire is not at hopeless,

of
that man has many more chances changing and

of
making himself change than common opinion will con
cede.
the following pages are drawn from
of

The arguments
experience. They are not mere ideas derived from some
or on on

philosophical speculative idea human personality.

or

But they are, nevertheless, based definite philosophy.

a

it,
on

of
No treatise human nature, any side can
indeed dispense with such philosophical basis, nor
a

be
does ever, though some authors may not aware
it
of

their starting from definite and general philosophy.

a

Many
of

of

the differences opinion which give rise to

of

such lot controversies psychology and pedagogy

in
a

—not to mention other fields of research—arise not be

of

cause one scholar has got hold facts the other ignores,
but from their starting from opposite platforms, that
from their adhering opposite philosophies.
to
is

on

This book based Christian philosophy and Chris

is

tian morals. They supply the general trend

of

the rea
sonings, but they are not the point from which these
reasonings start. All that explained the following
in
is
on

chapters experience. facts and not

in It

based
is

is

speculation. And these facts may, way, contribute

a

of

prove the general and philosophical point

be to

to

view
be

true and, therefore,

be

the one which will

to

most
helpful arranging our life.
in

M54572
vi PR E FA C E

Its being based on Christian philosophy does not make

this book a treatise on religion, nor even a religious book
in the true sense of the word. Though the introduc
tion of certain notions belonging to theology—e.g., of
grace or Providence or sin—cannot be avoided alto
gether, this book is one of psychology and written from
the point of view peculiar to the psychologist. Nor is
it philosophical, though it is based on a definite philoso
phy and, sometimes, makes appeal to philosophical
is,
the main, one

of
This book practice. Its
in
ideas.
intention make clear things every man may un
to
is

give advice every man may follow and

to

derstand and
show ways accessible everyone.
to

to
One need not
study philosophy
to

become better. is on
its

Nor does being based

Christian morals make
on

this book one morality. argued indeed that the

It

way prescribed by morals not only the best, but also

is

the surest,
is to

we want attain satisfaction and life

if

a
free from friction man. This does
to

allowed
as

as

So
not mean, however, that this book on morals. far
is

morals come in, they

do
of

so

the statements
as

because
they have been found by experience
be
to

useful rules
of human behavior.
of

of
reader desiring the principles
to

know more
A

of

be

the philosophy human nature will disappointed.

psychol
on

on

of

The book not them nor the theory

is

many years
of

of

ogy. observation,
It

the outcome
is

intercourse with many people.

of

of

practice, and
It
of

does not aspire being more than summary

at

these
a

summarizing these experiences many

In

experiences.
on

left out;
be

complete treatise
to

details had the

a

the mistakes made by

on of

of

difficulties human life and

man and the reasons why these mistakes are made,
much larger—if such
be

be

would have
to

task can
a

fully in
of

all. The author

at

done conscious the

is
of

he

completeness his arguments. But also convinced

is
 º
PR E FA C E vii

of fact that the mistakes, or faults, or bad habits,

the
or troubles occurring in every man's life are,

it all
is, of
them, essentially the same nature, and that

of
therefore, sufficient analyze some few

to

to
describe and
help understanding them all.
to

in

Many reader will feel, when perusing these pages,

a
he he

he
that has been told nothing did not know already.
quite right. All the things detailed
be

And will

in
everyone; but
or
this book are, more less, known

to
they are known dim and veiled manner. They
in
a

drawn into the clear light

be

of
to

have consciousness
for the sake becoming helpful.
of

of
The writer these
pages hopes not for more than for just this: that his
state but things known;
to be

words will found they

to

if
be

are known everyone, they will true and they will

tell but some essentials of human nature. Truths have
be

be
told and considered, and not only felt. As
to

to

long these truths are not made fully conscious,

as as

as
long they are not made the very rules guiding our
life, they are rather useless. This book desires nothing
he

everyone that knows already

to

to

more than show

he

what amiss with him and that knows the ways

to is

how improve. By putting these things openly before

its
of

the eyes readers, this book hopes

to

enable them
do

use what they know and what they can.

to

to

We may know perfectly what things are contained

in

dark room, and we may know also how

to

handle
a

do

those things. But we not see them really, nor are we

until the shutters are opened and the
to

able use them

light
in.
of

the day flooding To

open the windows
is

all
of

this book can hope

to

the human soul achieve.

is

RUDOLF ALLERs.
WASHINGTON, D.C.,
Catholic University
of

America.
 CONTENTS
Page
Preface - - - - - - - - - - - - v

PART I
ON THE NEED AND THE CHANCES OF
IMPROVEMENT

Need We Change? - - - - - - - - 1

Can We Change? - - - - - - - - 6
ICan Not—I Will Not - - - - - - - 12

The Difficulties of Self-Knowledge 22

: How to Know Oneself -

On Personality and Character
- -
-
- - - - 38
49

PART II

ON TROUBLES, DIFFICULTIES AND FAULTS

1. Introductory Remarks - - - - - - - 59
2. Difficulties in Social Life - - - - - - 61
3. Difficulties with Work - - - - - - - 89
4. Obstacles to Perfection - - - - - - - 124
5. Handicaps of Religious Life - - - - - 166

PART III
HOW TO HELP ONESELF

1. What to Know - - - - - - - - - 189

2. What to Do - - - - - - - - - - 214
3. Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 250
Index - - - - - - - - - - - - 253
 PART 1

ON THE NEED AND THE CHANCES OF

IMPROVEMENT : :
1. Need We Change? : ' *...*. -

...
.
-

e.
* •
* *
*

* *
: -
***

~
•
*

-
-
-
-

-
-
-
Need we change really necessary be

to
at
all?

Is
it

go
on
May being
or

come different better? we not

what we are and behaving we do? We are not per
as
no

fect, we are surely saints. But for being saint,

as

a
one? They are exceptions—
be

be

who can expected

to

wonderful, admirable exceptions; but we, you and you

exceptions, and so, why
be
to
I,

and we were not born

worry about not being perfect? Surely our neighbors
have many reasons, good ones and bad ones, for finding
fault with us, and we are quite right thinking

do in
in
of

of
the same way them. What they think
us
we
not know exactly; but we can imagine pretty well.
it

Not being perfect, we cannot avoid giving offence

some people. But we manage get
to

to

sometimes and
along with them quite nicely, rule, and
at

as

least
a
no

there plausible reason why we should bother about

is

changing becoming better.

or

There are, however, some rather disturbing facts.

One day friend, maybe someone we are but slightly
or
a

on

acquainted with, will remark our behaving wrongly

will, because
on

he

he

certain occasion; merely

or

is
a

cross or because some words of ours have made him

angry, suddenly reveal thoroughly disap
he
of us

that
to
of

proves certain features our character. We may

get angry too, and oftener than not such scene means
a

friendship or, definite estrange

of

at

the end least,

a

a
1
 2 SE LF IMP R O V E MENT

is,
course, wrong; his

of
ment. We feel sure that he

by
words have evidently been dictated

he
bad temper;
never really understood us; we are quite disappointed
his behaving manner; we are sorry

of to
at

in
such lose

a
him, but after all, perhaps better get rid him,

of to
it
is
So he

be
proved little capable understanding

so
to
--- ..since we

we
think, and try push back the things

to
...as.
:

our mind; but they

of
.he said: into:sgmé remote corner
.
.

up go

:::::::wiſſ on-rankling, they will, some quiet hour,

in
and

an
turn again and give rise uneasy feeling

to

to
as
has not been right after all.
he

whether

an
We may also become, without such impulse from
without, suddenly conscious
of
something being amiss
right ac

all
of
with us. The accustomed feeling being
cording generally accepted standards, gives way
to

to
a
definitely uncomfortable state mind, dis

of
of of
state

a
well,
of

may, disapproval,
of

bad conscience. We

of
our conscience, not because

or
in

feel troubled this

that single action—everybody has behaved rather badly

of
of

his life—but because feeling not

in

sometimes
a

being what we ought be, general way;

to

in

more we
a
of

the single more

or

feel ashamed less bad actions we

know; we repent them perhaps. They are surely pain
is,

ful remember, but this pain

so

say, localized and

to

to

of

circumscribed, concerned with well-defined points

our past life, definite days, definite places, involving
of

on. But this feeling

so

certain persons, and uneasi

ness different; general discomfiture and dissatis
is
it
is

faction, pervading our whole being, more troublesome

its

than painful memories are, because

of

of

vagueness,
its

not referring some particular fact; feeling

to

it
is
a

everything were wrong with

us
as

and our whole

as
if

if

thorough
of

personality were cleaning

in

need and
a

rebuilding.
no

There probably one not having felt, one time

is

another, such things, though there are quite

or

few
a
 NEED W E C H A N G E2 3

who are very clever in forgetting quickly these un

pleasant experiences; at least they will not be noticed
until they turn up the next time.
There are other reasons too which may make us wish
for some change of our personality, even though we are
man may, indeed,

it.
not too much dissatisfied with

A
would get along with his fel

he
conceive the idea that

he

he
lows much better were different; may discover
if

he
that many
of

in
the troubles encounters his married
on

on
he

he
life depend the way takes things and how

he
situations; may think that
to

to
reacts certain come

he

be
being may

to
his not well-liked would wish
as

as
on

on
depend himself and not exclusively other people.

it;
Disagreeable though this thought
is,
he

to
has face
of of
he

possibility his own deficiencies

to

has consider the

and faults being his difficulties. The
at

the bottom
him,
he
very moment this idea comes cannot but ask
to

wrong
he

do
to
himself what with him and what can
is

improve things.
is,

furthermore, the fact commonly

of

There what
is

called bad habit. This name covers things widely

of
a

be
of
different nature, ranging from some oddities
havior, which are far rather unimportant, real im
to
so

morality. Some “bad habits” are morally more

or

less
indifferent—an absolute indifference regard
to
to in

morals
neglected, be
be

does not exist—but nevertheless not

they become others and, often
to

cause nuisance
a

enough, serious handicap the person

to

to

addicted
a

of

mention instances: the figure

to

them. Needless the

of

always clearing his throat,

or

man who the other

is

of

who incessantly turns pencil between his fingers;

a

the woman who every second minute opens and closes

the girl who cannot re
of

her bag with loud snap;

a

frain from munching candy during concert and

a
of

of

rustles the paper; the person incapable staying

of

quiet and who steadily fidgets, and the representa

4 S E LF IMPRO W EM EN T

tives of many equally unpleasant types sufficiently well

known.
Bad habits like these make a person appear rather re
pulsive. If a man has some remarkable qualities, people
will put up with his disagreeable habits, though they
will feel them to be as disagreeable as ever. They say
of him: “He is very clever indeed, very instructed,
rather interesting, quite nice, but....” And there will
always be some people with whom the “but” carries
more weight than the rest of the qualities, be they ever
so excellent. Harmless as such a habit may appear to
the one who has it—if he is aware of it at all—it may
become a very serious obstacle to success.
Some habits one would not just call immoral, are
nevertheless a definite part of personality, and they may
influence the relations with other people in a marked
manner. To be a bad loser in play or in sport is not
necessarily a sign of moral inferiority, though it may
denote such a deficiency. The general suspicion aroused
by such behavior is indeed not quite unfounded, though
one has to beware of hasty conclusions. The habit of
on

no

fair play in sport

is,

of
the other hand, guarantee
thoroughgoing morality; ab
be

man may quite well

a

solutely fair sports and very unscrupulous busi

in

in

ness. Being bad loser, however, play gives

or

unfair
in
a

definitely unfavorable presumption and be

to

rise
a

of

good many difficulties

in

comes thus the reason

a

social life.
There are finally habits which are simply immoral.
by

habitual liar; in
be

he

person may knows that

A

dulging only breaking the com

he

this habit not

in

is
of

he

in

mandments ethics but also that gets himself

he of

trouble. He has had this experience quite lot

a

out;
he

be he

be

times;
to

knows that sure found

is

really would prefer sincere and honest, partly be

to

the immorality the thing and partly because

of

of

cause
 N E E D WE CHA NG E 2 5

of the inconveniences arising therefrom. He wants to

become better, but he does not know how to begin. It
is very cheap advice telling him that he simply ought
to speak the truth henceforth and not tell lies any more.
The trouble is that he will drift into his old habit with
out noticing it and without wanting to do so. Before
he has time to reflect, he will give a false answer. And
then, he thinks, it is too late; he must stick to his words
and carry on his lie
long will His lying
as

as
it
last.
do

any good, either

he
others;

or
not him

to

to
does
profit by them;
he

to
does not tell lies because hopes
he tells them because has become habit with him.
it

a
would gladly get rid this habit;
he

he
And of
feels that

do
ought only
he

he

he
change, and would so, knew
to

if
how to tackle this habit.

of
Some people are given quite unreasonable fits
to

flaring off
of

anger; others instead anger, become

in
of

cross; both habits spoil the life these persons and

perfect nuisance others. Certain persons
to

become
a

are subjected quite unreasonable attacks fear; of

to

they discover enemies everywhere and feel surrounded

by dangers threatening themselves
or

their relatives.
Taking offence easily, feeling neglected, misunderstood,
not loved enough, and what not, also rather fre
is

behavior which does anything but

of

quent feature
further happiness.
These qualities are said spring from temperament,
to

an

of
be

and temperament inborn feature

to

believed
is

personality and be, accordingly, immutable, beyond

to

will; people having such

an

“unhappy
of

the grasp
very glad
be

temperament” would they could behave

if

differently; they are, however, convinced that nothing

can be done.
filled by
of
be

Pages and pages could list reasons

a

why
be

But there far

to

man wants different.

is
a

a
be

greater problem which has

to

in

solved the interest

6 SELF I M P R O V E M ENT

of society and of the moral standard. This

general
problem arises from the fact that there are many people
whose character and behavior deserves a strict censure
and who, nevertheless, are quite unduly satisfied with
themselves and ignore altogether their having many,
sometimes very grave, defects.
Human nature is subjected to many self-deceptions.
But if we want to know whether we are on the right
way, we have first of

all

of
get what we

in to
true idea

a
wrong satisfied with our per
be
are. We may being
equally wrong holding the

be
sonality, but we may

in
opposite opinion. The desire for change, for develop
ing another character, assuming another behavior not

is
always the outcome sincere wish for moral improve
of
a

longing for greater effi

of
ment, not even always
a

ciency; seldom springs simply from vanity.

of so

not
it

be
Knowledge one's own self the first

to
said
is
on

step way improvement; know

to

to
the we have
who and what we are first, before finding out whether
what sense we ought improve. The most
to to
in

and
important thing, therefore, get

of
precise idea
is

one's own self.

Can We Change?
2.

all

Though following chapters will demonstrate

the
that we can change, and how far personality and char
be

acter may change and that this change can brought

about by our own doing, seems nevertheless advisable
it

on

make some few preliminary remarks this subject.

to

They appear
be
to

indicated because there rather

is
a

general conviction that character and personality are

essentially immutable. The knowledge being
of

in

need
of

change becomes neutralized and rendered ineffective

by such The prejudice the immut
of

conviction.
of a

ability personality may become strong objection

a
 CAN WE C HA NG E* 7

all

be
against that will This

in
detailed this book.

be
prejudice cannot, true, upheld any more after

it
is
all

of
the facts upon which the arguments these pages
repose have become known; but prejudice may create

a
mind making

of
certain attitude impenetrable, more

it
a

even for very convincing reasons.

is,
or

less so, there

It
on
fore, better say right here some words this topic.
to

People will readily agree that man may behave dif

a
ferently, that
he

may change his behavior even far

so
per

of
change
to

in
make others believe radical his
as

a
sonality; but such change considered, generally,

as
is
a

playing rôle
of

fake, wearing

or
kind

A
mask.
he to as
a

a
man may learn way not

to
in

such shock

as
behave
a

of
his neighbors; may learn adopt the customs
to

the other people do;

to

his environment and

as

behave
doubtful, this very common opinion runs,
so

but
it
is

is,
he

whether may ever really become different, that

whether his being can change.
on

Many people are agreed, the other hand, that

a
thorough change expected only
of

be
to

behavior
is
of

from change being. person adopts

A

behavior
a

his fellows and be

it or

agreeable
to

because useful
it
is

cause not adopting would give many incon

to

rise
upheld continuously; the “true
be

veniences, cannot
of

person
or

nature” leak out sooner

to

such sure
to is
a

later. Men who are able carry through such rôle

a

during lifetime and who are never found out, seem

to
a

exist only fiction but not reality.

in

in

man wanting become different finds himself,

to
A

as

play rôle
of

seems, having either

to
in

the dilemma
it

risk being found out give up becoming dif

or
to

to

and
ferent altogether. The first does not appeal some
to
a

how upright mind, dangerously near

it

because comes
lying, even un
of

being
to

there were not the risk

if

on

all

masked. The second means going suffering the

unpleasantness arising from one's present personality.
8 SELF I M P R O V E M E N T

But this conviction of character being immutable is

not so general as it is believed to be. Even persons who

it;
openly profess this opinion do not act according to
man were indeed fully convinced the immut

of
if
a

ability never would try

of

he
personality,

or
character
influence other people and make them different;
to

to
but mankind believes, and did always believe, educa

in
of
tion. Education means, course, more than merely
imparting knowledge and teaching

of
certain kind

a
also, and even mainly, formation char

of
behavior;
it
is

acter. There are indeed some who declare that there

is
no

such thing education; that man

in

truth as
essen

is

do
tially uneducable and that the only thing we can

is
certain way and teach him
to

to to
train him refrain
in
a

from actions which become disadvantageous society

and, therefore, have painful consequences for the in
dividual. But even these people behave, when they have
educate others, they held quite the opposite
to

as

if

Notwithstanding the professed unbelief

in
view. the
of

power educational influence, the general attitude

proves that the opposite conviction too deeply rooted
is

destroyed by such pessimistic

be
to
in

human nature
ideas.
Contrary “progress” pre
of

what some advocates

to

tend, there always some truth the old and general

in
is

indeed highly improbable

of

mankind.
It

convictions
is

utterly wrong idea should have persisted

an

that
throughout the innumerable centuries since man made
on

of

his appearance earth. The admirers “progress”

all

do

like declare that the ideas they not approve of,

to

by

even though they were believed mankind for

so
of

many thousands years, are mere “superstitions” and

“illusions.” But these people never care explain
to

why mankind became the prey

of

such astonishing
superstitions. quite true that common opinion
It
is

at is

truth; but
of
an

not absolutely reliable sign

it
is
 C. AN WE C HA NG EP 9

least a reason for inquiring whether

a statement man
believed and believes in may not be true. That this
statement is not in accordance with some very “pro
proof

its
all

of
gressive” ideas is not at being not true.

a
The fact, then, that man always believed and still
character education, reform, improve
in

in

in
believes
ment—and, of course, change for the worse too

in
a
let

—may suspect that there

us

some truth

in
this

is
will become clear afterwards that there are
It

idea.
some very strong, even convincing reasons for accept
ing this statement. Experience shows that changes

of
brought about

be
character occur and that they may
by

natural influences. Among these influences man's

own will and endeavor play quite prominent part.

a
The opposition against this idea does not arise from
en

of
an
facts and from experience but from sources
tirely different nature.

of
We need but open our eyes
to

become aware the

personality are quite common oc
of

fact that changes

History and biography tell many of
us

currences.
which some person became changed thor
so
in

cases
oughly that
he

appeared indeed
to

have become another

of

personality. We know that certain habit life may

a

become—even had been adopted consciously and

if
it

for first—a man’s “second nature,”

at

definite end
a

and that this second nature may replace the first one
totally and make disappear altogether. There the
it

is

experience pro
of

of

fact conversion; there the other

is

ducing thorough change

of

personality. The exis

a

tence of these facts cannot be denied. But these cases

are regarded “exceptions”;
such things exist indeed,
as

man will say, but they are exceptions; exceptions

a

be

prove the rule, and for my part, cannot aspire

I,

to

un
an

however, logically
is,

exception. This argument

sound and untrue from the point
of

an of

view psychology.
Nobody can know whether “exception”
he

such
is
 10 SE LF IMPRO VEM EN T

or not, before having tried to be one. The contention

of not belonging to these “exceptional” cases is but a
pretext for not trying to be one.
The idea of being incapable of any change is itself
part of the character which is in need of change. Every
one feeling in need of change knows by instinct, as it
were, that changing is a difficult and a painful task; and
un

is all
ſ’ human nature tends to escape, as far as possible,
\pleasantness. Paradoxical though may seem, just

it

it
change which ought
of

this conviction not being able

to

do
supply strong reason for attempting
to

to
so.
a

Why, how, and that human nature, rather per

or
sonality, can change will be
the subsequent

in
shown
chapters. They have indeed no other intention but

to
be

prove this change possible and show the ways

to

to
is,

promising success. therefore,

to
not necessary
It

the reasons for holding this

of

mention here more

opinion. Only one fact may
be

to

If
alluded here.
very great
of
human character were not susceptible
very strange indeed that many
be

changes, would of so
it

psychologists, pedagogists and philosophers today

their writings just with the problem
of
in

deal character
During thirty years
or
so

education. the last numerous

on

treatises have been published this topic. scarcely

It
is

an

probable that scholars devote time and attention

to

altogether fruitless endeavor and that the public eager

is
no
of

hear about things

to

at

use all.
the immutability
of

of

This conviction character has

become more general only during the last century. This
curious, because the psychologists
of

the nineteenth
is

century neglected rather the problems connected with

personality and character. One may look through the
on

many psychology—and there

of

indexes treatise
a

them—published between, say, 1870

of

are quite few

a

and 1900, without coming across the terms

of

character
Psychology was
of

of

the single features

or

character.
 CA N W E C HA NG E * 11

in those years interested too much in the “elementary”

facts of mental life, to care for the complicated
phenomena of behavior, character, or personality. The
conviction of character being immutable is not, there

its
fore, derived from the facts psychology collected by

its
experiments and work done the laboratories. This

in
of

of
conviction more the result general idea human
is

a
an

of of
nature, idea born certain philosophies.
The philosophers the nineteenth century,

or
at
least great part utterly enthralled by
of
them, were

so
a

of
the enormous and indeed amazing progress science
only way

it of of
they
to

that had come believe science the

understanding reality. This unlucky overrating
an
already earlier time, but
on at
in

science had set

gained decisive influence general mentality only
a

during the last century, after the results scientific re

of
everyone by the progress
to

search had become visible

by
of

technique. Science, however, has proceed

to

the
by

way
of

of
analysis, discovering the last “elements” by
the complicated phenomena we observe and reducing

In
the most elementary and simple factors.
to

these of
be

man the elementary factors seemed

to

those the
biological order, the more physiology hoped under
as

of to

by
of

stand human nature means physics and chemis

try. physics, however, are immutable; they
of

Laws
it by
be

cannot influenced human will. Human nature

its
all

depends manifesta
in

immutable
if

becomes
of on

inorganic matter. This

of

tions the immutable laws

thought could not but give rise
of

trend
to

the idea
personality being the same man
in

human immutable
But this philos
so.

thought
its

be
to

ner basis was

as

ophy overlooked very important and even essential

They had
be

rediscovered, were, and this

as
to

facts.
it
of

process rediscovery which has set about the year

in
its

yet
to

not end. Modern science had

at

1900
as
is

rediscover the human soul, human liberty, the essential

12 SE LF IMPRO V EMEN T

differences existing between a living organism and dead

matter, or between mere organic life and the life of the
mind. A steadily growing number of scientists, of
psychologists, of philosophers turn away from the con
victions cherished by the nineteenth century. Though
there are still many who will go on believing in the
catchwords of those bygone times, those who have be
come aware that mankind has been ensnared by false
hoods and mistakes gain in influence.
It is not for these pages to describe this change of
general mentality to a greater extent and to detail the
reasons which have brought it about. But it had to be
pointed out that the idea of human personality being
essentially immutable is not the result of observation or
of experience, much less even of scientific research, but
the outcome of very general, and indeed philosophical,
ideas. This had to be pointed out the more, because the
following chapters will have to allude to general ideas
and philosophical views more than once.

/
3. I Can Not—I Will Not

Very often a person will know quite well that he

ought to reform or to change and declare himself unable
to do so, because of the weakness of his will. This weak
ness is believed to result from inborn dispositions,
physical constitution or immutable temperament. Such
a person is quite willing to change—at least he tells us
all

he is—but his attempts encounter the insurmount

of

able obstacle his will being too weak.

of

Exact observation these people, however, discloses

rather strange fact. The very same person whose
a

will allegedly too weak for seriously attempting and,

is

even more so, for carrying through any improvement

of

his moral personality, becomes, under certain circum

an
of

of

stances, quite capable persistence and often

 I. C. AN NO T-I W I LL N OT 13

amazing power of endurance for hardships. Of this

there are many instances. There is a man whose will is
so weak that he gives way to every unpleasant feeling
resulting from the fatigue and monotony of work; be
cause of this unpleasant feeling he deserts work and pre
fers the life of the jobless, the vagabond or the beggar;
such a life is anything but an easy one and to support
it one doubtless needs quite a strong will. There is a
boy who has no strength of will when he ought to con
centrate on his homework, but his will proves to be
strong enough
to make him the head of a gang of
youngsters. Some people have no energy so long as
there is question of work, but they have enough will
left when they have to go through a long and tedious
training for some sport.
From such facts we may gather that strength of will
is not a constant and, as it were, given quantity; it de
pends very much on the goals proposed to the will. In
St. Augustine's Confessions there is a passage very

all
worthy of becoming the matter of contemplation for
of

it of

those who complain such weakness their will.

a

This passage doubly interesting, because not only

is

is
of

piece unrivalled psychology, but also because

it
is
a

apparently the first attempt psychological analysis

of at
a

the history
of

will known psychology.

in
be

quote this passage

“I

will well full:

to

in
It

did
willing
of

many things,
as so

then the which was not the

do

do

them, and yet did not

be

that
to

to

same able
I

which pleased me incomparably more, and which

do I
do

might
be

ever had the will

to

to

soon
as

as

able
I

had the will

it.

Because, soon ever should

as

as

I
I

willing, and here the ability

be

doubtless the same

as
is

the will, and the very willing doing, and yet was
is

it

not done; and the body more easily obeyed the slender
the soul, by the motion
of

of

est will the limbs, accord

ing procuring
its

beck, than the soul obeyed itself

to

in
14 S.E. L. F IMPRO V EMEN T

obtained by only willing

its
which might

be
pleasures,
1t.

.
.
.
“Whence this monstrous thing? And why it?

is

is
The soul commands the body, and presently obeyed;

is
the soul commands itself, and opposed. The soul

is
be
moved, and

so
commands that the hand should

it
is
quickly executed, that the command can scarce dis

be
tinguished from the obedience: and yet the soul

is
a
spirit, and the hand body. The soul commands that
is
a

be
the soul itself should will thing, and yet, though

it
a
the same soul, doth not what commanded. Whence

is
it

it?
this monstrous thing, and why commands,

if It
is

I
say, that should will thing, which did not will
it

it
a

already would never command, and yet that not

it

is
done which commands.
it

it,
“But does not entirely will and therefore
it

it
does
not entirely command. For far only
so
commands

so as
it

wills, and that which not done,

in
commands
it

it

is

does not will. For the will that com

as

much
it

it
is

will, not any other will

a be

mands that there should

a

but itself. not then full will that commands,

It
is

and therefore that not done which commands;

it
is
it

full will, there would

be

for there were no occasion

if

will, for
be

for commanding that there should

it
a
no

monstrous thing,
be

would already. therefore

It
is

partly willing and partly not willing,

be

that one should

the soul, which, being
of
or

but sickness
it

weakness
is
a

weighed down by evil customs does not entirely arise

when lifted up by truth, and therefore there are two
wills, because one
of

them not entire, and the one

is
is

supplied with what the other needs.”

St. Augustine state,
of

These words the main, two

in

facts: first, that will and execution are merged one

so

into the other that practically impossible say

to to
it
is

where will ends and action begins; this amounts say

ing that willing—real willing—and doing are but two
 I CA N NO T-I WILL N OT 15

sides of
one and the same human act.) Second, that
weakness of will is in truth an illusion or self-deception
of the mind, resulting from man's striving for two—or
even more—goals at the same time; what is called weak
ness of will is due not so much to lack of energy as to
lack of unity of the will. The trouble lies more with
purpose than with will. –
Pursuit of two goals at the same time is practically
impossible. It becomes pure nonsense when the two
goals are quite incompatible with each other. It is al
ready a nearly absolute handicap even when the two
goals belong to the same class. All the purposes or aims
of man can indeed be grouped into two great classes;
man either strives to realize something because it is
good in itself, or he does so because it is good for him.
The first group comprises more than what is commonly

all

of
called altruistic ends; altruism applies to kinds
good referring other persons; there are, however, non
to

do

egoistic ends which have nothing with persons,

as
to

for instance scientific research. There also definite

is

things;
of

kind man may, for instance,

to

behavior
a

quite patient with people and very impatient with

be

things;
he

may swear lock not opening, lose his

at
a

temper with his studs, become furious because some

other thing does not obey. No other person will gain
anything by his giving up these habits, nevertheless
he

right trying
be

get his temper hand, not

to

would
in

in

only because thus might improve his personality, but

he
of

the respect due things.

to

also because
an

This imaginary case illustrates important fact.

2
at to of
be

One and the same goal may pursued because

Y,

differ-
ent reasons. The man mentioned may try change
wrong impatient all;
he

be

he

thinks
to
it

because
might sometime behave
he

may fear that

in

this fashion
of

he

presence stranger; may consider what has been

in

just called the respect due things. The effect

to

the
is
 16 S ELF IMP R O V EM EN T

same, though the reasons are very different. Fear of

having to be ashamed and consideration of the feelings
of others is surely not a bad motive; but it is not an
ideal one, nor is it such as ought to prompt our actions.
It is still better than mere vanity and the fear of losing

is,
reputation. The sameness of behavior however, but
an

apparent one. Closer observation will always reveal

behavior, however subtle, correspond

in
some difference
ing motivation. The way

of

of
is to

the differences the

of
vain not quite the same the one the considerate;

as
the man following an
impulse towards moral perfection
differently from the one who only wants

to
behaves
keep up appearances.
The passage quoted from St. Augustine refers two

to
wills, one aiming what reason recognizes right
at

and

as
true, another which “custom” draws the mind down.
to

Knowledge
of

of
objectively better higher

or
what
is

a
indeed not sufficient motive for action. There
is

/value
to of

* are more people quite capable discerning values, than

there are who act according this knowledge.
*-
Even
/
who try
do

very often meet not success but

so
to

f those
failure. They accuse the weakness their will, the
of

overwhelming power
of

of
habit, the unfavorableness
circumstances, the insufficient education they received
things—but not themselves.
of

—all kinds Summariz

ing
all

the obstacles which are opposed

to

the realization
of

be

what they believe their real aims, these people

to

declare: simply can not.

I

Few words, however, are liable

so
to

much misuse
will.” Thinking
of
“I

“I

saying:
or

the two can” and

as

do

that,
of

will not yet sure sign real will.

or

this
is

a
AI

may will,
to
so

man say and believe himself and

nevertheless have not more his mind than just wish,
in

yearning that the thing thinking might be

of
he
is
a

he

come real. He may even picture himself how glad

to

would be, this thing came pass; but not more

to
if

is
it
 I CA N N OT-I WILL N OT 17

than a dream which creates the illusion of willing, but

which has nothing to do even with only the first steps of
a true voluntary act. Awakening from his dream, such
a man will sigh and be sad, because his dream did not
come true, and he will say: Surely it would have been
wonderful, but—I can not. -

How does he know of this “I can not”? He has not

even really tried, and so he is not able to know for sure
whether he can or not. And it is not enough to have
tried once or several times; one has to try over and over
again, because there is always the chance of some open
ing suddenly being offered to us. This may be the ef
fect of training; it may be also that we overlooked a
possibility which had been present since the beginning
of our attempts. A new light may dawn on us, and
we may be surprised by suddenly being able to do what
until now was much too difficult to accomplish. Says
Aristotle: “One becomes a mason only by laying bricks
and a sculptor only by handling the chisel; even so one
acquires a virtue only by exercising it.”
The effects of training and exercise are in truth very
mysterious, though we usually take them for granted.
Common opinion thinks that the fact of our becoming
capable of doing something which we could not do be
fore, by training, is “self-evident.” But it is with this
as it is with many other things we call self-evident,
simply because we are accustomed to them, while in
all

truth they not evident at

are but rather amazing and
mysterious. we would but care think, we would
to
If

of

discover among the most trivial things quite lot

a

training repeti
of

reasons for wonder. The effect and

-
of

tion one these things.

is is

indeed quite wonderful that by going over the

It

all,
or

same passage we first did not understand

at

at

over mathematical demonstration, we suddenly come

a

it;

equally wonderful that by doing

to

understand
it
is
18 SEL. F I M P R O V EM ENT

something we are not able to do perfectly we come to

many

of
In
it.
know how to do these cases we have
been tempted declare that we “can not” understand

do to
the thing; for some reason we went on,
or
“can not”
achieve what we thought impossible.

to

It
and—came
indeed rather rash to decide that one can not before
is

of
one has tried quite lot times.

a
Man makes many mistakes the opposite direction

in

do
of
too. He often feels sure being able something

to
Notwithstanding
he

never tried before. his self-con

he

fidence fails. We overrate easily our capacity for

work and for mastering new situation. Our impres
a
be
sion that “we can” may

as
unreliable the other
that we can not. Failure often lack of knowlas

to
due
is
insufficient training. But we fail quite fre
or
to

edge
no

quently also where special training necessary, for

social relations. Of these persons failing is

to
in

instance
establish satisfactory social relations quite few “feel”
a
no

beforehand that good will come from their attempts.

Others however are fully convinced
to of

their being
charming and lovable, and they expect get with on
their fellows quite nicely. Notwithstanding their con
viction they are amazed finding themselves isolated,
at

touch, perhaps respected but not liked, moving

of

out
on

were the outskirts and not penetrating into the

as
it

intimacy
of

the set they want belong to. Both types

to

the very outset

of

declare, either their attempts,

or
at

later on, that they “can not” get really touch with
in

They
or

others. accuse either circumstances the lack

amiability factor,
of

others, perhaps
or
in

the else some

having
of

their own personality, but never

in

the sense
made mistakes they could and ought
to

have avoided.
them are probably wrong. There are
of

of

Both course
irresponsive people and there are unfavorable circum
stances; but they are less frequent than these people
will be shown
in

who “can not” care

to

It

admit.
a
 I CA N NO T-I W I L L N OT 19

later chapter how great the rôle of personal attitudes

is in these things.
The phrase “I can not” is equivalent very often to the
other: “I will not”; but this fact is unknown to the per
son who feels that he is not able to achieve this or that.
The decisive influence of will, though it may be a will
hidden to the consciousness of the subject, becomes
visible in certain instances. Many people feel that they
“can not” say or do things they “want” to say or do.
Some person “can not” tell something, not because he
is bound to secrecy, but because of some inner inhibi
tion or barrier which does not allow the words to be
proffered. The mere physical act of speaking is doubt
less the same whatever a man has to tell; it is not more
difficult to say: “I have committed murder,” than it is
to say: “I had yesterday two dry Martinis.” It is the
consequences which are different. But there are situa
tions in which no consequences of any kind are to be
feared; what is told in the confessional is sure to remain
there and it is the same with the office of a physician.
People, moreover, find it impossible to tell things much
lessimportant than a crime. When one gets such a
all

on

person to tell after his mind,

or

what when
is
it,

one very often wonders

to

one has been able guess

he

no

why did not simply speak out, since there rea

is

be found for his reticence.

to

son Sometimes such

a

person feels quite glad having told his secret, and

at

very often himself does not understand why

he

had
it

divulge
it.
so

difficult
to

been
There must be, however, some reason for this reluc
tance against telling certain things; this reason not
is

vanity which recoils from tell

be
to

found
in

common
ing things detrimental the idea others have—or are
to

supposed have—of this individual’s personality.

of to

be

There are, course, many things man will ashamed

a

telling about himself. But the feeling these reticent

of
20 SEL. F IMPR O V EM EN T

people have is more one of repugnance than of shame.

But there is a kind of shame which has nothing to do
with vanity or even the legitimate desire of hiding
things endangering one's social position. This kind of
shame springs from the natural and indeed praiseworthy
respect for privacy; to reveal certain things without
some really cogent reason would justly be called indis
creet. A definite respect is due to our own personality
as to the personalities of others. But the things
well as
people feel unable to tell do not always belong to the
class of those discretion forbids to make public; there
no
is,

furthermore, reason for not telling those things

under certain conditions, for instance, as the con

in
To explain this re
of

sultation room the physician.

search for still other reasons.
to

luctance one has

Before attempting discover these reasons, one does
to

well remember another phenomenon, which very

to

is
frequent and which can
be

paralleled with the reluctance

just mentioned. Here too the attitude
of
the person

to is
expressed by the phrase: can not. not easy
It
is
I

give this phenomenon Its nature

to

definite name.
a

will, however, become clear by some examples.

appointment
an

woman teacher has been promised

A

larger school and, accordingly, much higher sal

at
a

very grateful for

of
be

an

ary. She would increase

to of

income, since she has

to

take care her old mother.

but one condition; she has
an

There pass examina

is

tion elementary mathematics. The matter she ought

in

study neither large nor difficult nor altogether new

to to

is

her; one would think that this examination presents

no difficulty all. But the girl declares that she
at

is

comply with the conditions, since she “can

to

unable
not” understand even the simplest mathematical demon
stration. Though she once had
all

these things
in
of of to

learn
school, she has forgotten
all

them and she has lost,

During
all

she alleges, understanding them. series

a
 I CA N NO T-I W ILL N OT 21

of conversations she had, for some other reason, with a

medical psychologist he got her, by some trick, to dis
cuss a problem of mathematics. The question of the
eventually impending examination was not mentioned of
course. She showed quite a normal understanding. It
became manifest that her incapacity of dealing with
mathematics existed only in her own imagination. The
reasons for not accepting the job offered to her were in
fact quite of another nature. The lack of understand
ing was but a pretext, but one the girl herself felt to
correspond to truth. What she really dreaded was not
the examination nor to have to study mathematics, but
that at her new place she would have to face older girls
whose criticism she feared very much. She came from
a rather low social class; the school where she was ex
pected to teach was attended mostly by girls belonging
to the upper classes. She was not aware of this fear,
nor would vanity allow her to become aware of

it.
man, by profession lawyer, was very fond

of
A

literature and used devote most of his leisure read

to

to

ing every newly published book

he

could get. He never

mention this hobby
he

society; feared that

to

in

dared
might forget the name
on he he of
he

an

author and thus make

very bad impression;
to

were tell about book

if
a

author, appear stupid.

its

to

and not know feared

This fear made speaking books impossible him,
to

knew the author's name quite well;

“I
he

even when
simply can not,”
he

said. The reason for this strange

inhibition was indeed fear; but the thing
he

really
feared was not having forgotten name. He was very
a

knew that his knowledge and judgment

he

ambitious;
an

literature was but amateur's and not equal that

to
of in

be he

the specialist. What did utter his ideas on

if

literature and there would present one who really

knew about these things? He had any cost
he at
to

avoid
of

the possibility such discomfiture; but had also

a
 .

22 S.E. L. F IMPR O VE MENT

to hide this fear before his own consciousness, because

his vanity would suffer by acknowledging the imper
fections of his knowledge and judgment.
These two observations have been told here for mak
ing clear one important fact. What a person feels that
he “can not” may not be the thing he does not want to
do; the feeling of an absolute barrier between desire and
execution may result from another thing not being
willed. Contrary to what is generally supposed the
idea of “I can not” is not always so simple a phenome
non. Even letting alone cases verging on pathological
inhibition, the inner situation is sometimes much more
complicated than one would assume at first sight.
There is a difference between a person who “can not”
do something he ought and he wants to do on one side,
and a person who “can not” leave things undone he
ought not and wants not to do. In a way, it seems
easier not to do things, to leave them undone. To do
something one needs a special act of will, and nothing
can—at least in a normal mind—compel the will to will.
Experience teaches, however, that many people find it
at least as difficult not to do certain things as to do
others. Reference is made often to the power of habit;
but even habit, or “custom,” as St. Augustine says, is
not an invincible force. Nor is it an absolutely suffi
cient motive; even habit has, to be kept up, to be based
on reasons. A man, therefore, who feels it impossible
not to do certain things, needs must have some reason
for doing them, even though he may not be aware of
this fact. These reasons have to be discovered, else no
attempt to get rid of the habit will prove successful.

4. The Difficulties of Self-Knowledge

Having conceived the idea of improvement being de

sirable, a man very often will find himself at a loss how
 D IF F I C U L TI ES OF SE L F - KNO W L E D G E 23

to proceed. He does not know where to start. He is

ignorant of the means he may employ for realizing his
aims. He often does not even see which side of his
personality is most in need of reform. He has, if he
really desires to make progress, first of

all
find out

to
all

of
things, get

to
about these then clear idea the

a
ought pursue, finally
he

goals discover the ways

to

to
which promise success.
commonly said that better knowl
It

man has
of is

a
a
edge himself than any other person ever can have,
and that he knows himself better than he knows others.
This statement one sense and wrong an
in

in
true
is

of
everyone, course, knows
It

other. true insofar

as
is

on

going

of
what his mind. He thoughts
in

aware
is

is
he

carefully
of

he
not care express, feelings
to

does
not divulge, things
of

of
he

hides, wishes dares which

others remain ignorant. But the idea our knowing
of
perfectly our self wrong insofar
as

at
there are ideas
is

work our personality, attitudes influencing our be

in

havior, motives regulating our actions,

of

which we not
seldom know nothing all, and which, nevertheless,
at
be

may quite visible others. There are indeed some

to

good reasons for believing that man may know more

a

his own, and that,

of

of

another's true personality than

accordingly, another may have
of

better idea this

a

man's true nature than he has himself.

Apollo Del
of

The entrance the famous temple

at
to

an

phi old Greece, bore inscription which read

as
in

follows: “Know thyself!” Whoever inscribed those

words there must have had quite deep insight into
a

human The words implied that self-knowl

nature.
of

edge not matter course, not something man

is

simply possesses, but something

he

acquire,
or
to

has
strive. The words implied further
he

for which
to

has
more that special conditions are necessary for acquiring
do

of

this virtue. We not arrive real knowledge

at
a
24 SEL. F I M P R O V EM ENT

ourselves as long as we move in the turmoil of every

day life; not while transacting business, not while at
tending to some work, not while studying microscopic
slides, not when merged in the eddy of social inter
course, nor amidst the manifold impressions and activi
ties of average life can we hope to get a look at our

all
true personality. We have to withdraw from this,

of
retire into solitude, seek for peculiar state
to

to

a
mind and for congenial surroundings for becoming cap
The ex
of

able discovering the truth about ourselves.

hortation greeting the visitor seemed imply also that

to
one has first know oneself before entering the temple
to

praying
of

of
the deity, with the intention asking

or
for something. Many the pilgrims who thronged
of

around the temple had come there get prophecy,

to

a
an

on

advice, revelation the future; but the inscription

a

right for you inquire from

all

say:
to

to
It

seemed
is

your plans,
of
the god about the future and the chances
but much more important that you know yourself.
it
is

Far away we are from these bygone pagan times,

as
do

paying some attention

to

we still well
in

the wisdom
old, not only because Greek speculation
of
of

one
is
on

the pillars which modern civilization rests, and not

only because the Christian Fathers and the Schoolmen
of of

the Middle Ages very much appreciated the work

in

their heathen predecessors, but also because was

it

fact old Greece that the human mind became first

in

its
of

conscious greatest everlasting problems.

The Gospel too suggests that self-knowledge not
is

of a
of

course, not knowledge such

as

matter we have
a

our body and

its
of

visible and tangible things

or

sen
sations, not even knowledge
like the one we may
a
of

well-known passage
A

have another man’s faults.

St. Matthew reads: “And why seest thou the mote
in

that thy brother's eye; and seest not the beam that
in
is
 D IF F I C U L TI ES OF SE L F - KNO W L E D G E 25

all
is in thy own eye?” We know this passage, but

it
to it.
be
can not said that we act according

us to
The words just quoted admonish

of
beware

on
hasty judgments our neighbors. We are reminded
that we may have faults much greater than those we

is,
of
others. This course, first line moral
in

in
detect

a
on
truth. But statements morals, like this one, very
often imply psychological truth too. the human

of If
a

easily
so
mind becomes aware much more the defects
own,
its
of

of

others than then true that self-knowl

to is
it
knowl
of is,

edge rule, more difficult attain than

as
a

a
by
edge other people. not stated the Scriptural
It
of is
text that our knowledge others more reliable than

is
of

the knowledge every sense; Christ did

it in
ourselves
not teach psychology. But averred, very def

in
to is

a
inite manner, that regard defects our knowledge
in

pre
of

ourselves insufficient and unreliable. But

it
is

is
cisely about our defects that we have know much
to

as
possible, improve
to

we want all.
at
as

if

There are still other facts which prove that self

taken for granted, though com
be

knowledge may not

mon opinion thinks Children become aware
to

be.
it
of

of

the feelings, attitudes and the character other

people long before they are capable forming def
of

At
of

an

inite idea their own personality. age when

all

on

they are still far from reflection their own ego,

by

pick out, often quite surpris

an

they know how

to

ing intuition, the persons who will behave kindly and

understand child’s way; and they avoid others whom
a

unkind though these may try

be

they feel
to

to

behave
very friendly manner. The child’s mind sees,
in

as
it
a

were, through the façade and discovers behind gruff

very sweet mien
or

ness kind soul behind callous

a

personality. We have conclude that the human mind

to

gift atti
of

has the perceiving immediately the inner

another personality,
or
at
in

tudes least some essential

26 S ELF IMPRO V EM EN T

it,
though this faculty may lose edge by

byits
features of

by
not being cultivated being outweighed train

or

a
ing

of
an
opposite direction. The existence this kind
in
of

of
intuition children proves that knowledge

in
other

a
an
be
persons may developed age where self-knowl

at
thought of.

be
edge cannot yet

as
children,

of
This knowledge others, existing not

in

is is
on
of

of
course based conscious analysis data; not

it
a

of
intellectual, but the effect intuition. you ask

If

a
child why
he

likes this man and dislikes that one, the

child will simply tell you the one nice and the second

is
not. The child does not know the reasons for his
is

likes and dislikes.

This intuitional knowledge becomes less when the
child grows up; may even disappear altogether, though
it

only for
no

truth faculty ever disappears really,

in

it
is
training. This loss
of

gotten of
to or

out intuition due

to is
partly environment, partly
of

the influence that

education. Of
of

environment, because the child soon

discovers that his sympathies and antipathies are not
always shared by his elders; the child admires them and
it, be

like them and accordingly puts, without

to

wishes
his

noticing
of

their judgments the place

in

own
he
He has been, furthermore, told
so

ideas. often that

does not understand, that his ideas are wrong; there
he

begins ready accept

byto

fore
to

distrust them and

is

persons Educa
in

those cherished his environment.

development preserva
in or

tion does not favor the the

intuition;
of

of

tion the child trained the use the

is

on

rational faculties and taught rely

to

observation and
only so-called objec
of

he

analysis facts; trust

to

learns
tive truth, that statements the majority approves
is,

of

and facts others may verify. Discursive reasoning,

syllogistic deductions and inductions become more and
thinking, and intuition ac
of

more the usual way

is

cordingly more and more disregarded. But the fact

of
 D IF F I C U L TI ES OF SE L F - KNO W L E D G E 27

the intuitional faculty in children is nevertheless a

strong argument in favor of the primacy of a knowl
edge of others.
The loss of this faculty is not parallelized by a corre
sponding development of self-knowledge. The orig
inal understanding of others is not replaced by a grow
ing understanding of one's own self. Man becomes, of
course, more and more self-conscious during later child
hood and adolescence, but he does not acquire a real
and reliable knowledge of himself. His understanding
of his own behavior and his own motives—the real ones,
not those he believes to determine his actions—remains
rather poor.
Only one sideof the original power of intuition is
still cultivated also in later years—the ability of becom
ing aware of the faults of one's neighbor.
Another fact which shows our self-knowledge to be
rather insufficient is that we are so often surprised by
our own actions and thoughts; everyone, probably, has
been amazed sometimes by strange thoughts occurring
to him and by his acting in a way he never expected to
follow. We say in such cases: Well, I never thought
myself capable of this. Immoral impulses may arise
in our minds and make us afraid of ourselves; we may
have imagined that we were quite incapable of hate, and
suddenly hate rushes over our mind like a wave. One
may feel sure that one will never love or never love
again, and suddenly one discovers that one is already in
love with someone. More surprising still than the dis
covery of unthought of feelings is the awareness which
sometimes dawns on us of motives we never suspected to
be at work in our minds. We believe some action to be
altogether unselfish, and suddenly the conviction springs
on us that we were prompted by very egoistic motives,
or that we did but gratify our vanity when we thought
28 SE LF IMPR O V EMEN T

we were obeying objective reasons or striving for objec

tive values.
In such moments we become aware that our knowl
edge of ourselves is very imperfect. We become ap
prised, unawares, of forces whose existence we ignored,
of motives we deemed out of question, of wishes we re
coil from; there are hidden, in some dark recess of our
mind, forces for good or for evil of which we knew
loose, amaze and terrify

let
nothing and which, when
by their unsuspected violence.
us

Considering these facts—and there are many

so

it
would be tedious
to

mention them here—we must needs

.
of
conclude that our knowledge

or
our own mind our
own personality curiously limited and incomplete and
is

that we are indeed very far from “knowing ourselves

best.”
Self-knowledge, for self-improvement,
as
it

needed
is

of
be

knowledge that single

or
to

has more than this

a

imperfection faulty inclination. Char

or

or

bad habit
up

acter and personality are not built from single bits

up

from single small stones.

or of as

mosaic built some If

is
a

the right color

of
in

the stones such mosaic are not

a

have become cracked, the workman can take them

out, throw them away, and replace them by others
of

has only
in he

he

the same size;

to

consider the one stone

do

just putting and the others not concern him.

is

no

There real connection between the single stones.

is

different with structure like human personality

It
is

human character. To describe their peculiarity mod

or

of

ern psychology uses the term “whole.”

The essential feature the close interrela
in

whole
is
a

They
intimately linked up
its
of

parts.
so

tion are
correctly
be

with each other that they can not even

called “parts.” part has some possibility
of

separate
A

of

existence; single leaf torn out book still some

is
a
a

by

thing and exists itself, though contains often but

it
 D IF F I C U L T I ES OF SE L F - KNO W L E D G E 29

a meaningless fragment.
pencil mark on a page
And a
or even an inkblot does not destroy the book to which
this page belongs. But in a true whole, there is such
an intimate connection between the various sides—a
term to be preferred rather than “parts”—that none
in

of all
can suffer any influence without the rest being

by
fluenced too, and none capable existing itself,

is
independently the rest. Because they exist only
of
bear the coin

all
within the whole they belong to, they
of

age, were, this whole. Intelligence, for example,

as
it

of
not something which exists outside person whose
is

a
is;

an
intelligence and since every person abso
it

is
lutely unique being, every individual’s intelligence

is
individualized too. Psychology describes the general
of

qualities and properties intelligence; but cannot

it
grasp the peculiarities which characterize the intelligence
of

of
distinguished from that
as

Paul Peter.
in do

of

Nowhere these properties whole become more

a

“in
an
human personality.
A

visible than man is

dividual” quite specific sense. Individual signifies
in
a

of

of
that which not capable being divided. heap
A
is

no true individual, since divided with

be

can
it

stones
is

it an

identity. plant
its

individ
of

out losing
A

more
is

ual; but possible, many cases,

of to
in

in

divide such
it
to is

way the parts cut off

as

preserve
the existence
a

from the whole; we may plant twig

or

leaf and
it
a

will grow roots and develop into new plant. There

a

are lower animals which we may cut two parts and

in
go

living and become

on

com
of

each these parts will

a

This faculty
of

plete organism. regeneration missing

is

more highly developed animals. The lizard may

in

grow new tail, but the tail does not grow into new
a

power
In

lizard. birds and mammals even this limited

this re
of

regeneration missing; these animals are,

in
an is

individuality than the lower organ

of

gard, more
isms. Indivisibility and, accordingly, individuality be
30 S ELF IMP R O V EM E N T

come more and more marked as we pass from the lower

levels of life to the higher.
Individuality

its
highest, far

so
at
is at this

as
least
tangible world concerned, who, being

in
man besides

is

is,
living organism, also person, that free and

is
a

a
being master, up certain extent,

to
reasonable that

is

a
its

own nature. Personality—in the sense

of
of

being
person—is an
attribute which belongs man alone;

to
a

the per

of
no animal has personality, and our speaking
horse has but figurative mean
of

of
sonality dog
or
a

a
ing. This peculiar faculty forming

of

of
being capable

all
and moulding himself, which man alone among

all
of
animals possesses, indeed the basis self-education
is

of
self-improvement. truth

in
and Because this man

or is
his char
he

responsible for what personality

is.

His
simply

he
given him like things

to
acter are not
to

has
accept they are; they are entrusted things
to
to as

him

as
up

Of
he

complete, build
to

to
has and embellish.
be

this, however, more will have

to

in
said later

a
chapter.
Individuality penetrates, say, deeper
into the
to
so

human person and imbues more thoroughly than

it

a is
all

living Every
of
the case with other beings. side
it,

man's person own,

to
so

more his express than the

is
an

“parts”
it.
of

another kind belong

of

individual
to

integration peculiar
or

The unification
to

human nature
having any
of

far that we are not conscious

so

goes
parts; though we speak
of

our memory
or

as

our limbs
of

these were distinguishable parts ourselves, we never

if

an

indissoluble unity.
be

our whole being

to

theless feel
We may say: “My leg hurts me,” but we may express
do on

the same thing by saying: have hurt myself

“I

the
leg.” We say: “My memory fails me,” but we not
imply that our memory part
of

our self,
to

mean
is
a

from this. The phrase “my

be

which could separated

memory” has quite another connotation than one
 D IF F I C U L TI ES OF S E L F - KNO W L E D G E 31

such as “my pencil.” We never say: “My memory re

members” or: “My reason understands”; it is our own
self that remembers and understands.
It
is the same with features of character. Though
we say this man's sense of duty or that other one's pride,
we do not mean to imply that sense of duty or pride are
things which could be separated from the person we
credit with these qualities. The pride of one man is
not the same thing as the pride of another; every char
acter-trait, though we have to call it by the same name,
is something quite individualized, something peculiar,
something personal, to say the least, in every single per
sonality.
The many terms language puts at our disposal are
general names. We cannot name an individual as such.
If we want to give it a name we have either to choose a
proper name—of a person, a town, a mountain—or find
as:
it,

some other way of designating the tailor

at
the
corner, the mountain we climbed together last summer,
Illinois. Proper names
of

of

the capital

or
the state
by

their substitutes correspond gestures which we

to

point out thing point thing. Proper

or

at

the names
a
of

be

character,
to

fact “demonstrative”
in

are used
a

point thing
or

whenever we are not able

at
to

the the
mind. All names which are not proper
in

man we have
be

an

names may connection with

in

used also indefinite

article: mountain, town, general name
A

man.
a
a

as an

can never exhaust the peculiarities

of

individual.
we try
all an

Even individual completely

to

describe
if

by

its

possible enumerating properties, something

as

very important still remains unsaid, namely, the mys

terious quality,
be

called, which
or

to

whatever else
it

has
unity and in
of

of

an

makes out this union properties

a

by

dividuality. Individuals cannot

be

expressed words,
philosophy tells us.
of

Because this fact that individuals are inexpressible

32 SELF I M P R O V EM EN T

and because every quality of an individual bears the

quite unique stamp of the same individuality, these
qualities elude equally full expression in language.
Peter's pride is not the same as Paul's, as has been re
marked before.
These statements seem to be rather abstract and very
theoretical. They have nevertheless an immediate bear
ing on very practical questions. The considerations on
individuality lead to a very important conclusion which
may be expressed this way: there is no “dictionary of
symptoms.” That is to say that the “same” quality or
the “same” feature of behavior may have quite a dif
ferent signification when observed in one person and
when occurring in another. It may even assume a dif
ferent meaning in one and the same person at different
periods of his life.
We do not perceive directly the features of character.
We become aware of them by observing the behavior of
do

a person and by interpreting not see vanity,

it.

We
but certain actions we believe result from vanity.
to
do

By calling man proud we not imply that we are

a

his hair, but

of

see his pride we see the color

to

able
as
of

that certain derive from pride.

to

his actions seem

on

our judgment
In

character there always great

is

interpretation. This ought not forgotten,

of

be
to

deal
though unhappily often neglected.
it
is

sad fact that most men are conscious of these

It
is
a

facts whenever being may result disadvantageous

so

in
a

opinion others, but not when may give rise

to
in

of it

more lenient judgment. We hear kind action, and

a
we
it,
of

of

being glad begin

to

instead doubt whether

has been really kindness which prompted the deed;
it

action we disapprove of, and we are quite

of
an

we hear
no

sure that there other explanation. We remember

is

be

but too well that appearances may deceiving

in

the
 D IF F I C U L TI ES OF SEL F - KNO W LEDGE 33

case of but we are generally oblivious of

a good action,
this principle when judging an apparently bad action.
It will be shown later that behavior or some feature
of it is liable to many explanations and that, great as the
similarity of the behavior of different people may be,
the motivations giving rise to this behavior may be not
all
of

the same kind the single instances.

in
at
therefore not enough for man wanting im

to
It
is

a
he he

he
prove that knows what mistakes usually makes,
what faults given committing, what bad habits
to
is

indulging in;
of he

but the beginning

all
know
to

this
is

is

of
self-knowledge. But true knowledge one's self
means also, and even particularly,

of
knowledge the

So
motives behind the single undesirable qualities. long
does not grasp fully the background his be

of
he
as

havior, will hardly

of
he

be

get rid
to

able his faults.

why many people who are fully
so

This the reason

is
of

their bad qualities and sincerely wish get rid

to
aware
do

not make any noticeable progress.

of

them
not always easy find out about the real rea
to
It
of is

sons behavior. To understand these difficulties, one

by

recall that every action—whether by

or
to

has deeds
im
its

words—has threefold meaning. means first

It
a

a an

mediate object: sentence means what says, action

it
a

what say: rainy

to

If

intended
achieve.
it

it
is

is
I

day, the fact that there are clouds the sky, that the
in
air

my
of

damp, the soil wet, etc., the meaning

is

is

wind up my watch, going the next day,

is its
If

words.
I

supplying the knowledge my

of

I of

time, the meaning

do

But speak and

in

in

action. the words the deeds

I

do, Partly
or

what say
in

there another side too.

is

partly act, my whole inner

or

speak
in

the manner
I

attitude, the mood this very moment, find their

in

am
I

expression. Speech and action change, for instance,

hurry, angry, tired; they are dif
or

or
in

when am
a
I

am paying careful attention

to

ferent when them and

I
34 S ELF IMPR O VE MENT

when I
behave in a more casual way; different when I
feel depressed or when I am in good spirits. Our actions
and words disclose to an attentive observer a good deal
of our inner life. They are, besides meaning a thing or
being directed towards the realization of an aim, ex
pressions of what is going on in our mind. In some
cases, which are not the rule but nevertheless very fre
quent, we become conscious of our actions and words
“betraying” our feelings or our intentions; we have to
be careful so as not to let another guess at our true
state of mind. We may also make use of this fact and
let another know what we are feeling or thinking with
out having to put this into words; the inflection of the
voice, the position of the head, the expression of the
face, etc., may convey a perfect intelligence. But hu
man actions have still a third side. Nearly

all
our words
are spoken and many in
of

our deeds are done with the

eliciting some answer
of

or

tention some reaction from

another person. Professor Buehler, the distinguished
Vienna,
of

psychologist
to

whose ideas this discussion

on

be
of
signification largely indebted, calls this side
is

havior, especially
of

of

speech, the one “appeal.” When

of

we tell friend what we think certain matter, we

a
a

share our opinion or, inter

be

expect him least,

at
to

to

ested; when we ask him question, we expect him

to
a

answer; when we utter wish, we expect him act ac

to
a

cordingly. Most human actions are determined by

course there are many which
of

man's social nature;

are not immediately connected with being member
a

family, country
of
of

belonging
or

to

citizen
a

human society some religious community.

or

But
to to

some relationship, other people, even though indirect,

absent; way which will gain ap
in

never we act
is

proval
be

discreditable,
or

we avoid acts we know

to

common opinion.
of

of

and thus take account Most

our work brings directly indirectly
or

touch with
us

in
 DI FFIC UL TI ES OF SEL F - KNO WLEDGE 35

other people; it is destined for them, paid by them, ar

ranged according to their wants; it has to satisfy them,

is,
The majority

of
that elicit response approval.

to

a
of all our actions has therefore be considered from

to
view; we have

of
three different points distinguish

to
meaning, expression and appeal.
of

of
action gives rise

to
Each these three sides

a
mis
of

be
peculiar kind misunderstanding. We may
catching

of
meaning

or
words the true
in

taken the
con
of

aims actions; we may misinterpret the expression

veyed by them; we may react manner not corre

in
a
of
sponding the person speaking

or
to

the intentions
acting.
All very fre
of

three kinds misunderstandings are

quent and become easily the source many troubles and of
Not
be

understood, because can not

to

difficulties.

I I
make my meaning sufficiently clear, because can not
make the other person see the point, because un
he
is
my thoughts,
or

follow detect the true mean

of to

to

able
ing my actions,
as

troublesome not understand

as
is

ing him. Mutual understanding

of

the basis society

is

and co-operation. Sometimes two people behave

as
if
they spoke different languages, though they both use
plain English.
It

has been said that men are islands

of

shouting misunderstanding.
to

each other across sea

a

This quite few cases, though there are

in

indeed true
is

plenty
of

exceptions too.
These misunderstandings are, however, not fre
as

quent and not dangerous arising

as

from
as

those
a

wrong interpretation regard expression. The

to
in
be

words may simple that

so

so

clear and the actions

another car not fail grasp their meaning; but we can
to

always ask whether this meaning corresponds really

to
of

or

speaks. We
so

what the mind him who

in

acts
is

be

may always
at

what “behind” them.

to
to as

loss
is
a

by

hardly necessary illustrate examples the

It
is
36 SELF I M P R O V E M EN T

manifold interpretations which one simple fact may

suggest. A man is sent on an errand; he of course sur
mises that the thing he is told to do has to be done or

it;
is needed by him who sent for

he
but may also think
the way for

of
be
that the other wanted him out

to

is,
less disreputable reason. Jealousy for
or
some more
instance, very much inclined seek for the second in

to
terpretation, and wrong oftener than not. Some

is
it
room whose two occupants cease speak

to
one enters
a

that very moment; this may

be
mere accident;
at

it
a
is be

may because they discussed confidential matter the

be
third not entitled know; may that the topic
to

it
they had chosen quite uninteresting for the uniniti
is

ated; but also possible that the newcomer had

it
is

furnished the topic

on of

their conversation. The inter

his fellows de
of
pretation one places the behavior
on

pends nearly exclusively prejudices;

or
one's ideas
objec

do
they determine one's opinion much more than
tive facts.

all
Preconceived ideas, which quite often are not

at
extent gen
an

conscious, influence human behavior

to

erally very much underrated. They determine the atti

politics, faith, against
of

of

people
on in

in

tudes matters
much,
of

their neighbors,
so

behalf their convictions

that one not seldom doubts whether objective opinions
of

all. The rôle prejudice

at

exist indeed enormous.

is
do

Everybody would well, for that matter, peruse

to
on

carefully Cardinal Newman's remarks prejudice and

on

on

assumed principles (in his Lectures the Present

England, Lectures VI and VII).
of

Position Catholics
in

study ought
of

prove very useful

to

The these passages

for understanding other people and ourselves.
in of all

In all

all

Man judges things, actions, events from his

personal point many
he

view. respect does not

a

fact stands. His “standpoint” hid

he he

know where
is
see

it,

he

on

him; cannot standing

to

den because
is
 D IF F I C U L TI ES OF SE L F - KNO W L E D G E 37

very important
know exactly where one
it.
But

to
it
is
things depends not

of
stands, because the view one gets

on

on
only their shape, but very much the perspective
they present when looked from particular point.

at

A
a
landscape, building, every object may look quite dif
a
ferently when viewed from one side

or
from another.
the same with mental things, with ideas, with
It
is

of
opinions, with the image we form our neighbor's
actions and character. the same with the idea we

It
is
of

have our own personality. We can walk around

a
building and get the impression makes when viewed

it
sides; we may try

an
all

from get objective image

to
by

all
conscientiously going over
of

man's behavior
a

it;

do
interpreting
of

possible ways but we can not the

same thing with our own personality. We can not
walk, were, round our own self. We carry the
of as
it

on

point view, the point which we stand, with us; we

may discover many things, but not this point. Even by
changing our point
or of

of
view we can never sure be
having got be
of

better clearer image ourselves,

a

the point
of

cause we never really know the peculiarities

on

which we stand and, accordingly,

of

the view it
affords.
In

every attempt self-knowledge

at

the observer and

the observed are one and the same; the actor
at

the
is

same time the public. This the tremendous difficulty

is

self-knowledge.
of

and the great danger

We have look into mirror for the sake of dis
to

covering what our face like. But we never see, unless

is
of

special arrangement, our face

as

we make use
it
is
a

it,

and the others see because the mirror shows on our

as

No
on

right side what fact the left and vice versa.

in

is

body's face symmetrical that

so

remains unaltered
it
is

by exchanging
is,
its

halves. This for that matter, the

by

reason why most people feel dissatisfied pictures

de
of

which have been taken them, even when others

38 S E LF IMPRO VE MENT

clare these pictures to be perfect as to likeness. No

body is used to seeing himself as the lens pictures him;
for knowing whether the picture is right or not, one
has toput it before a mirror. We see ourselves indeed
“through the looking-glass,” that is in a rather unreal
manner.

5. How to Know Oneself

To know oneself is not easy. This may seem a rather

paradoxical statement, since according to general be
lief everyone knows himself best. But one needs, in
fact, quite a technique and, as it were, a special train
ing, if one really wants to know oneself.
That this is the case has been known to the wizards
of the in
all

of
Mention has been made already
ages.
scription Delphi. Another fact worthy

of
considera
at

tion the following. have been, and be,

to

to
It

seems
is

of
general conviction among the teachers true wisdom
a

attain perfection man has

or
that find
to

to

teacher

a
a
of

leader who controls the steps the beginner, warns

of

he

him makes, and points out him the

to

the mistakes
pitfalls besetting his way progress. Progress not
to

is

possible without self-knowledge; but this,

to

attain the
be
of

technique seem
to

advice master and special

a

“spiritual director”
of

indispensable. The idea not

is
a

peculiarity Catholicism, though, con

of

of

course,
a

Chinese, Mahommedan In
as

to or
is.

fession sacrament
a

dian wisdom recommends that man desirous ad

a
on

progress ought
to

to

vance the road choose

a

“director.”
This advice implies the idea, alluded
to
in

the last
chapter, that another person may eventually know more
about one's personality than does this person himself.
The first thing for attaining real and reliable self
be

knowledge seems, therefore,

to
to

that one learn

 H O W T O KN O W O N ES E L F 39

look at one's own self in the objective and dispassionate

way of another person.
The observer cannot perceive immediately what is
going on in the mind of the person he studies. All he
observes are this person's behavior, his actions, his ges
tures, his words, the inflections of his voice, the expres
sion of his face. All this he sees, it is true, not quite in
the same way as he sees the other visible things, because
he knows beforehand that every word and every action
has a definite meaning and that it is an expression of
what is going on in the mind. The things he observes
are more than just visible facts, they are “signs” of
something else. This we know without having accumu
lated any previous experiences; this knowledge is part
of our original endowment. A certain understanding
of signs found already in some animals, especially in
is
those living in groups or herds. But this faculty is very
limited and there are but very few and simple signs.
Knowing something for a sign and understanding what
it,

is signified by are, however, two very different

achievements. There are some signs whose significa
in
be

tion we cannot well mistaken; for example, gesture

a

pointing something generally understood. But

at

is

first sight seem

be

even signs which quite univocal

at

to

may have, according circumstances, several mean

to

given quite another signification by

be

ings, they can

or

some slight modification. To grasp this fact one has but

remember the many shades
of

laughter and smile:

to

joy, disappointment, irony, malice, triumph, shame,

despair, doubt and some other sentiments too may find
by

expression laughing smiling.

or

The peculiar process by which we become aware

is of
of

the meaning sign has been alluded already;

to

it
a

Its

called interpretation. right, they may

be

results may
quite wrong.
of
be

good many
A

also the difficulties

of

we experience dealing with other people and

in

the
40 S ELF IMPRO V E MENT

troubles which make life a burden arise from wrong

interpretations. It is indeed sometimes not easy to dis
cover the real meaning of a person's behavior. To un
derstand a person thoroughly one has to be able to look
at the world, at things, at people, at situations exactly
from the point of view this person holds; to know this
point of view one has to be very well acquainted with
this person’s history, his antecedents, his nearer and his
farther goals, his momentary mood and his habitual
temperament. This being the case, one rather wonders
at the lightmindedness and rashness of some people who
pass judgments on their fellows without caring for suffi
cient information. Our opinions of other people are,
moreover, very much influenced by our own prejudices,
preferences, likes and dislikes, by our own interests and
moods; they are therefore often very far from being
objective and reliable.
no
is,

There therefore, guarantee that the opinions

of

our own personality are true

so
others have formed
trustworthy idea
of
us

far what we are.

to

afford
as

of

his acquaintances what

If

man would ask several

a

they believe him be, the answers would be—provided

to

they are sincere—very different. Notwithstanding

on
of

these drawbacks, the opinions others ourselves

only
be

may useful,
to

rather we know them.

if

came
of

of

Generally we are not apprised what others think

us; but when we become, by chance, aware
of

their
do

opinion we
be

not believe true, especially when

to
it

diverges much from what we think

or

when not
it

it
is

of

complimentary enough. People tell what they think

each other usually only
fit
of

temper; and this may

in
a

indeed distort their opinion.

By paying some attention
of

our
to

casual remarks
fellows we may, however, guess their opinions. We
at

will probably disbelieve them, feel offended by them,

badly treated—
of

think misjudged and

as

as

ourselves
 HO W TO KNO W O N ES E L F 41

seldom will we feel that they overrate us—we will call

them clumsy idiots, incapable of true understanding,
yet it is worth while to give their ideas some considera
tion. We might at least ponder on them a little and
inquire whether there is not a grain of truth in them.
Distorted as our image may appear in this mirror, there
will still be something of our shape to be discerned.
More reliable than their remarks is the general be
havior of our neighbors. It reflects the impression our
own conduct makes on them. They do not, as a rule,
trouble to analyze our character, or to make a special
do

study of They not even have, very often, clear

it.

a
of

idea what we are. But they have one nevertheless,

dim, according which they fashion their
or

to

clear
behavior.
Strange though may appear first sight, the be
at
it

on
of

havior our neighbors depends much more our real

on

and unspoken motives, even motives we ourselves are

not conscious of, than on those we believe work be
to

at
be

our minds. This can gathered from the same

in

kind of observations on children which were used al

original intui
of
an

ready before prove the existence

to

child still naïve, natural,

of

tion another personality.

A
by

of

conventions, possession his unspoiled

in

untainted
will, for instance, make friends with
to

instincts refuse
may try very hard
he

be

stranger though
to

kind and
a

friendly; the child somehow sees through such man's

a

to

behavior and feels this kindness and friendliness be

only perfunctory, untrue,
be
to

mere mannerism and

a

hiding fact callous and unkind personality. Or

in

a
a

gruff
of

child will seek the company man apparently

a

truly
of

and cold, because the child’s intuition aware

is

kind mind hidden beneath the rough surface.

Education and the observance of the rules of social
life indeed overlay, were, this natural and primi
no as
it

tive intuition. But original faculty disappears really;

42 S ELF IMPRO V EM EN T

it goes onfunctioning, even though man is not con

scious of it. The attitudes of men towards each other
depend much more on unconscious knowledge of an
other's motives than one would care to assume.
It is for this reason that the behavior of others, as
dictated by their more or less unconscious opinion, be
comes interesting in regard to the approach to self
knowledge; this is true especially of those who are
friendly-minded towards us, and those who belong to
the inner circle of our acquaintances. Whenever the
behavior of a friend, of one who likes us and whom we
like, denotes something like resentment or that he is
about to withdraw, we ought to take account of this
as a danger signal. But even the behavior of our friends
—and in a way of our enemies too; they can be sharp
sighted enough—affords not more than just a platform
from which to start. The real work has still to be done.
Toget a trustworthy idea of ourselves we have to try
for an objective and dispassionate image, free as far as
all

possible from prejudices, from overrating vanity

so
underrating too which re
all

easily leads to, and from

sults very often from unsatisfied ambition. We have
to discard what we used think of ourselves and to
to

of

look our personality with the cool eye

at

the scientist
studying strange animal. We have try form
to

to
a

opinion more impersonal, more objective even than

an

the one others may have formed. We have

of to

make
a

physi
of

diagnosis our own self after the manner

a

very difficult task, and un

an

cian. This indeed

is

all

pleasant one too. We have the things we used

up to

face
look away from, dig
all

of
to

kinds
to

memories we
were but too happy forget,
to
to

to

confess ourselves
we had carefully hidden
all

of

the depths our minds.

in

As the famous German philosopher Immanuel Kant

remarks, the Divine leads
to

somewhere the ascent

through the hell
of

self-knowledge.
 HO W T O KNO W O N ESE L F 43

There is but one way for attaining a reliable idea of

self. If we want to know what another man is really
like, we study his actions and his whole behavior. We
have to do the same thing with our own life. In doing

all

of
this we have to discard knowledge our motives,
our ends, our thoughts and our feelings. Not they

as
if
be
were without importance; far

us
from that we

it
of
fall into the error those so-called psychologists, the

no
behaviorists, who believe that psychology has other
psy

no
task than describing behavior. This fact

in
is
introductory chap

an
chology all, just is,
or
at

if
it

it
is
ter. There will be deal with the conscious
to
time
a

an
of of

our mind too; but we have begin with

to
contents
analysis And know exactly what our
to
behavior.
like we have turn our attention
to

to
behavior the
is

effects produced by reality.

in
it

Many will probably find fault with the statement

of

that our actions reveal more our true personality than

do

thoughts and feelings and intentions and what not

besides. Our best intentions, they say, are often frus
trated by factors altogether independent our will;
of

circumstances,
things we were unable
unfavorable to
foresee, mistakes we unwillingly make have very great
a
by
on

of

our actions.
If

influence the effects chance

I

hurt someone while throwing pebbles into river, this

a
an

my action; but this effect can

of

doubtless effect
is

to be

my doing, since
be

to

to

not attributed am not

I

held responsible. Maybe; but maybe also ought

I

have considered this possibility hurting someone and

of

hav
do

on

that neglected
so

so, because intent

to

was
I

ing my pleasure. Whether the factors influencing the

our per
of

our actions really are quite strange

to

effect
found out first; there
be

sonality, has always the

to

is

party
is be

presumption that we may them. Our not

to

having foreseen the results

of

often out the question;

might still we ought not
be

but
to

asked whether
it
44 S E LF IMPRO W, EM EN T

have foreseen. Many people indeed do not see what

they do not want to see. Whether the effects of a man's
behavior are due exclusively or partly to factors inde
pendent of his personality can be found out only by a
careful analysis; it is impossible to give an offhand an
swer to this question.
The notion of the effects or results of our actions
needs some When speaking of the
further discussion.
effects of some action a man generally has in view only
to realize the goal which he had planned for his action;
by a bad result he means that things did not come out
as he thought they would, and by a good result that
they came out according to his plans. A good result is
more or less identified with success, a bad one with fail
ure. This way of judging actions may be right

all

in
many respects; self

of
insufficient for the purpose
it
is

analysis.
The common idea of result indeed too narrow. An
is

action has more effects than the one planned for.

it
is

To explain this, will

of be

borrow term from

to

useful
it

the technical language chemistry; the chemist calls

certain substances which are formed besides the one he
intent upon “by-products.” about the same with
It
is

is

actions; they bring about cer

to

human are intended

a

tain result, but they have “by-effects” too. This fact

theory; practice
so

well-known man's mind

in

in
is

is

much enthralled by the goal “by

he

after that the

is

effects” are neglected altogether. man speculating

A

the op
on

intent only his gain; the loss

of
in

stocks
is

of
he

posite side does not matter him. thinks

to

If

it
an

specula
of
he

all,
as
at

at

looks inevitable feature

it

proof that others have been clumsy, while

or

tion
as
a
all he

be

proved scientist will devote

to

the better man.

af
his

he

time and perhaps more money than can

ford, pursuit work;
of

he
to

the some research overlooks

neglecting his wife, be
he

completely the fact that

is
 HO W T O KNO W O N ES E LF 45

coming a stranger to his children, that he misses many

things and gives up many of his chances for happiness.
He need bad man, not even an egoist; his work
not be a
may be quite disinterested; but there are nevertheless
some rather undesirable “by-effects” of his behavior.
A person may be driven by what is indeed an unruly
and badly employed love of truth to tell the truth
everywhere and to everyone, whether asked to do so or
not; he is quite proud of his truthfulness, and he does
not notice that he offends many people, that he causes
unnecessary troubles, that he has neither tact nor true
love in his soul.

all

an
For the of analysis action,

of
sake effects
remote, whether essential only
be or

or
whether immediate
accidental, have
to

a in in it to
considered. Account has also
taken not only
of

of
is be

what done, but also how

is

done. One and the same action can be executed

various ways. One may, for instance, ask for favor

a
an

friendly unkind,
an

exacting,
or

or

bashful

in
a

polite rude manner. The same holds good grant of

or
a

ing favor. The French have saying: c’est ton qui

le
a

fait musique, the sound that makes music, which

la

it
is

of

man, but
or

means that not the words the actions

a

the way they are spoken done will reveal what really
or

his mind.
in
is

wrong idea
of

of

We would get the structure the

a

human mind, were we believe that the goal man con

to

sciously pursues needs must supply the real motive

of

man may persuade another follow

to
of A

his actions.
action, or, maybe, only
is to

certain line take another

a

way while walking, and believe that be

he

doing
so
he

way shorter,
or

or

cause the proposes surer better

is
be

which indeed may quite true; but his real motive

impose his will, that
be

he he

he

may
to

that wants wants

better, on. This becomes
to

so

show that knows and

on

visible, for instance, when such man insists taking

a
\
46 SEL. F IM PR O V EM EN T

a short cut, though there is no reason for hurrying. He

still will believe—really believe, not only pretend—that
to take the shortest way is the reasonable thing to do;
but his real motive is quite a different one. He will be
unable to discover his real motives unless he considers
not only the immediate effect of his action—needing
less time for the way—but the more remote too, namely,
that another man is forced to do his will.
By this he will become acquainted with the aim he is
in truth pursuing. It is the aims which determine the
quality of an action. An aim is pursued, because the
result of its realization is believed to be in some sense
“better” than another state of things. Man acts only
because he feels the actual state of things to be unsatis
factory and because he hopes that his action will bring
about a better state. A man about to deliver a speech
puts his watch on the pulpit, because it seems better
placed there before his eyes than to be placed in his
pocket and to have to be drawn out from time to time.
A man leaving his home for a walk gazes at the sky
and goes back to get his umbrella; it is better, he says,
to take the umbrella than to get wet. An author strikes
out a word in his manuscript and changes it for an
other, because this seems to express his mind better or
to sound better. A person deliberating on several lines
of action open to him, decides for one of them, saying:
This is the bestway, I guess. What one thinks the
“best” is revealed by one's actions, whether this choos
ing the best has been a conscious process or not.
is,

No word perhaps, “will.”

so

much misused
as

There long way from purpose action, but

to

often
is

the way from will very short or, rather,

to

execution
is

all, St. Augustine rightly points

as

does not exist

at
it

out. This statement seems incredible many people.

to

They remember many instances having been will

of
so
do

ing something and not having done

to

neverthe
it
 H O W TO KNO W O NESE LF 47

less. They have heard, moreover, plenty of talk on

strong and on weak will, they know that their own will
is sometimes stronger and sometimes weaker. They feel
very energetic when they are well, and deprived of
energy when their health is a little impaired. From this
they conclude that there must be differences in the
strength of will. But if they cared for a more close
analysis, they would find out that things stand in truth
differently. When they do not feel well, they want
definitely to have nothing to do, to keep quiet, to take
a rest, to do only what can help them to get well again.
These are the goals of the “other will” St. Augustine
speaks of, which goals enter into competition, as it were,
with those proposed, be it by duty or else by some ap
peal coming from without. It is not that the strength
of their will has suddenly become less; it is that their
unity, that
its

will has lost second will has entered

a

into play which often proves able prevail over the

to

first. Weak will will;

to
divided this fact one has
is

of

keep mind for understanding many

in

the otherwise
unintelligible features
to of

human behavior.
Some remarks have be added on habit. Man at
he

he

habit many actions which has not

to

tributes feels
or do

consciously decided on. We indeed many things

without previous deliberation even without think
ing
of

them, because doing

so

has become habit with

a

us. No need expressly

to

to

decide that we have dress

or comb our hair or fork But
at
to

to

use meals.
a
of

be

habit having come

to

the fact established does

a

not exclude decision and will altogether. Decision has

made, say, once and for all;
so
to

been we have learned

right and we were, and
or

that this that behavior

is
do

willing the right thing. The observation

of

are,
to

foregone de
or

to

habit the obedience results from

it

“I

cision; this becomes obvious phrase like this:

in
a

have made rule. Making rule means having

.”
it
a

a
.
.
48 S E LF IMPRO V E MENT

decided that one will, from now on, act in a definite

manner whenever a certain situation arises. It makes
no difference whether this rule has been consciously
stated or whether it has been adopted under the influ
ence of training or education or some other factor, for
example, adjustment to custom. Decisions a man made
can be unmade again. What has been acquired by train
ing can be given up again by a training opposed to the
first. No habit with an irresistible force;
is endowed
if a man, wanting to get rid of a habit, is unable to do
so, it is not because habit is irresistible, but because he
still clings to the aims this kind of action realizes. The
resistence habit opposes to the attempts of giving it up
does not depend on the length of time this habit existed
its

and not on peculiar nature—at least these factors are

not the really decisive ones—but on,

to
so
say, how
much the person loves and cherishes this habit.
finding out the truth about
of

We have, for the sake

all
ourselves, first all our actions and our
at
to

consider
on

behavior depended exclusively our choice

as
if
it

and our free will. Only after having pushed forward

this analysis far we can, are we allowed
to
as

as

assume
an

influence exercised by factors alien personality.

to

To repeat once more: this statement does not exclude

it

will;
all

of

of

influence factors independent declares

it

only that we can not discover their influence but by

a
of

process exclusion, determining first the rôle played

by will. We are sure discover that this rôle much
to

is

important think.
to

more than we used

of

not pleasant idea that many

It

the difficulties
is

of

wrestle with are our own doing. We may

to

we have
wholly responsible for them, since we are not
be

not
of

conscious what we were doing. The fact remains,

of

of

however, that the causes great many our troubles

a
lie

within our own self. Painful this may be,

as

it
all is

But man tries escape from

to

nevertheless true.
 O N PE R SO NA L I T Y. A ND CHA RAC TER 49

painful sensations as far as possible. Every explanation

which takes from him responsibility or even the faint
est trace of it are welcome. It is for this reason that the
idea of character being determined mainly by heredity
meets such applause. But this question deserves to be
discussed in a separate chapter.

6. On Personality and Character

Many people know that they have this or that un

desirable quality or habit, and they would be quite glad
it;

be
to get rid of but they believe this impossible,

to
is,

because this quality they say, part

of
their nature;
it, as

they were born with they cannot help being what

they are, any more than they can help having blue eyes
or brown.
These people appeal, for proving their point

of
view,
the fact that they have tried many times and very
to

give up the habit which worries them; they

to

hard
failed and therefore feel sure that can not be done.
it

But experience such does not prove anything long

so
as

having employed the best

of

not quite sure

as

one
is

no

method. Negative arguments have conclusive force;

only the positive argument that counts. One single
it
is

of

of

case thorough change character quite sufficient

is
all

disprove once and for

to

the idea that character

is
of

immutable; but one hundred thousand cases no

no

change having been attained proof for the con

is

trary statement.
of

Changes character doubtless occur. There are

well-known cases of conversion which
in

some man
a

not only turned from unbelief belief,

or

from one
to

another, thoroughly changed,

so

so

faith but became

to

absolutely another personality that those who had

known him before were hardly capable recognizing
of

him. Certain experiences may condition deep-seated

a
50 SELF I M P RO V EM EN T

change of
character; betrayal, disappointment, misfor
tune or a stroke of luck may work this way. A callous
miser may become a loving and charitable being, like
Mr. Scrooge in Dickens' Christmas Carol—and such
things do not occur in fiction only—and a trusting and
friendly character may change into a suspicious and mis
anthropic one. Psychopathology knows of certain
cases, commonly described as of “multiple personality,”
which prove that one human being can present succes
sively and alternately several very different types of
character.
Experience and environmental factors cannot condi
tion a change of innate faculties nor can they influence
the constitution of the organism. A person of a def
inite body-build and a definite hereditary constitution
may develop more than one character. These cases,
though abnormal, are not cases of brain trouble; the
bodily health is quite untroubled, the nervous system
is quite intact; the arising of a new character is the ef
fect of purely mental influences. Under normal condi
tions too, mental influence may give rise to a rather
surprising change of character; mental treatment re
sults sometimes in producing a character very different
from the one the patient showed before. In these cases
also there is no question of cerebral trouble; nor can
any alteration of the bodily structure, the constitution
or the hereditary endowment result from mere psychical
influence. This being the case, there is evidently a
chance that mental influence brought to bear on a nor
mal mind, may end in changing the character and in
helping a man to get rid of undesirable habits and
qualities.
It advisable to state first what the meaning of
seems
common lan
In

the terms we constantly use really

is.

guage, and even unluckily scientific psychology, the

in
of

terms person, personality and character are used

 ON P E R S ON A L I T Y. A ND C HA R A C TER 51

promiscuously; the effect is a great confusion and quite

a number of misunderstandings. It is not for these
pages to discuss the various meanings attributed to the
terms mentioned by the various psychologists; nor can
it be hoped that common language may be made to care
for a more precise use of them. But it will be well to
fix the meaning given to them in the course of the pres
ent discussions.
A

is,
new-born child, then, is a complete person; that
all
no he

he
the qualities ever will can show;

or
possesses

new quality this original endowment

of to

in
added
is

later years. The nature human individual fully

is
a
determined by the soul which, the principle physi

of
living as
cal and mental life, develops mere matter into

a
reasonable being. Many those quali

of
organism and
a
of

ties are, course, still undeveloped the new-born

in
infant and during childhood; they appear only later,
appear they must have been present somehow

in
but
to

Philosophy speaks of

as
latent state before. them
a

existing potentiality and becoming ac

of
in

the state
later time. Hu
is,

tualized, that real and efficient,

at
a

man nature, being absolutely determined by the in

dividual soul, remains unchanged
the whole life.
Nothing can add any quality away
or

take one from the

original endowment, though certain circumstances may
impossible for quality, existing still po
in

make
it

tentiality, become manifest, make disappear again

or
to

one already having become actual. The individual na

all

ture existing reality, including

in

the actual and

the potential features, called person.
It

the same
is

is

during the whole life; the same the child and

in

in

the
adult; the same disease. The person
in

in

health and
is

essentially immutable. Qualities appear disappear,

or

but the substratum which they exist remains the

in

striking illustration
of

this fact supplied

A

same.
of is
on

by observations the brain,

of

cases certain disease

a
52 SE LF IM PR O V EM EN T
called progressive paresis. This disease gives rise to what
appears to be a destruction of qualities; intelligence,
social behavior, shame, feelings, memory seem to have
disappeared altogether. But sometimes the destructive
process going on in the brain can be made to regress;
since the discovery of the fever-cure by Professor Wag
ner von Jauregg, of the university of Vienna, medicine
has learned how to deal with such cases. When this cure

all
has been efficient one sees the apparently destroyed
qualities and character-features reappear again. They

on
must, therefore, have gone existing, though they did
not become manifest, the brain trouble not allowing for
their manifestations.
The person, then, complete from the very moment
is

of
when the soul joins the body. (The exact nature this
of

be
union the soul and body cannot discussed here;
and the philosopher will have
to

condone the vagueness

of

the expressions used this respect.) The person does

in

not become richer qualities, nor poorer. The quali

in

on
has been given originally may stay

in
the
it

ties
potentiality,they may become actualized
of

or

state
of

and real. The actualization the potentialities depends

Some of these are inherent
in
on several factors. the
individual, part are extraneous To the first group
it.
to

evolution, according
of

belong the laws which cer

to

tain features appear certain age, for instance, sex

at
a

ual maturity. The second group

of

factors comprises
environmental influences actualizing the potentiali
all

the individual; environment cannot produce any

of

ties
thing new, can only develop into real existence what
it

already existed potentially. The faculty speech, for

of
an

of

instance, essential feature human nature, but

is

does not develop spontaneously;

to

become
it

of it

needs
actual, the environmental influence speaking people;
be

spoken
to

to

the child must hear speech and

in

order
speak himself. Deaf mutes and children who
to

learn
 ON PE RS O NA LIT Y. A N D C HA RA C T E R 53

by some misfortune have been shut off from human

society, do not speak, though the faculty of speech is
of course present and will be brought into action as
soon as the necessary stimulation comes from without.
Even in the adult there are still many features not
yet actualized. The common idea that after a certain
age has been reached no further development is possible,
is surely wrong. There are many instances of older
people developing hitherto unknown features of char
acter or of acquiring faculties they had not shown be

on
all

fore. Here again depends the method employed;

do
true that older people usually not change nor
it
is

develop new faculties; but the negative instances are

more than outbalanced by the positive ones. Many
older people would quite easily learn new thing, say
new language, they were not handicapped by the a
if
a

of
common conviction that they never will
of be
capable
such an achievement. The sum-total the actual
qualities probably never equal
or

to
faculties the
is

totality
of

which could become actual.

those
Man perceives only what
he

actual; can guess

or at
is

he

potentialities and does so; but can never touch

on
of

see them. The image we have man based what

is is
a

person. This what the term

in

has been actualized his

“personality” signify. Personality, accord
to

meant
is

ingly,
of

the name we give the sum-total

to

actual
is

many
it of

features person. Personality can undergo

a

changes; develops during childhood,

in

shrinks
it

old age. After maturity has been reached,

or

disease
personality does not change very much average cases;
in

but this does not amount saying that change im

to

is

possible.
always part
of

Man does not exist isolation. He

in

is

world which surrounds him, which acts on him and

a
on

he

which reacts. The world gives rise impressions,

to

impressions lead thoughts, thoughts engender action,

to
54 S ELF IMPRO V EMENT

and action causes some, however slight and passing,

change in the perceptible world, and thus causes new
impressions. There is an everlasting flux and reflux,

it,
starting from the world and returning to after hav
ing passed through the human mind. The way men act

on

of
and react depends largely the idea they have the
world. Every action aims, has been explained before,

as
of
some value; something which

of
at

the realization

is
“better.” The way

is,
of
be

there
to

believed action

by
fore, determined

of
first line
in
the ideas better and
worse man has developed. These ideas become the
a

he

principle by which everyone were

It

as
if
acts.

is

be
obeying some rule stating what has preferred and

to
is be

what has rejected.

to

revealed by actions. When trying

on to
Character

do
of

find out the character person we not rely

a

his words alone; we try get complete knowledge

to

of his behavior various situations. Thus we obtain

in

an idea of his character. The actions of man are of

a

many different kinds; but we trust that they will, what

ever aim they are directed to, reveal the character.
accordingly, nothing else but this general
is,

Character
on
of

of of

rule principle behavior; this principle based

is

may
of

the idea one has the order values. We define

character the common principle underlying man's
as

actions, which principle refers

to

values.
be

distinguished from personality.

to

Character has
be

To the latter belong also features which are not

to

character, for instance, all that

to

subsumed called
as

is

temperament. The relation person and

of

to

character
person acts by
be

personality may follows:

A
as

stated
of

his personality according

to

the means his character.

is on

latter, depending value, es

of

The
as

does ideas
is
it

no

sentially mutable. Since character rigid, unchange

be

able structure cannot considered the necessary

as
it

hereditary factors.
of

and inevitable result

 ON PE RSONA LIT Y. AND C HA RA CTER 55

This is not tantamount to stating that heredity plays

no rôle at all in the formation of character or the de
velopment of personality. There is indeed a definite im
portance of hereditary factors too; but this influence
has to be properly evaluated. This is the more neces
sary as today there is a controversy raging between
two extreme parties, the one attributing character ex
clusively to heredity, the other claiming environment
to be the only determining influence. Extreme ideas are
bound to be wrong. Neither the advocates of heredity
nor those of environment take a sufficient account of
facts. Inherited features exist at first merely as poten
tialities; some actualizing factor is needed to transform
them into actualities. These actualizing factors are not
always inherent in human nature, as has been shown
in the case of the faculty of speech. Environmental
influences have to be added to hereditary endowment
for personality to develop. Environmental factors, on
the other hand, can gain influence only if there is al
ready a certain faculty for reacting on them; they can
bring forth only what exists already as a potentiality
within the person. The truth about environment and
heredity as determining personality and character has
to be sought for in a middle line.
The extreme theories, moreover, forget a very im
portant fact. They both consider human nature as if
it were subjected to the laws of heredity or environ
ment in a merely mechanical fashion; they neglect al
together the fact that man is free and capable of deter
mining himself. Personality and character are not
things simply “given” to man, things he has to reckon
with, but on which all influence is denied to him. Per
sonalityand character are, to an unsuspected extent,
man's own work, and to build them up is a task devolv
ing on man. This capability of moulding itself, of gain
ing influence on what it is and what it becomes, of con
56 S ELF IMPRO VE MENT

forming to ideals and being what it ought to be is an

essential feature of human nature.
The theories of heredity and environment have been
worked out by biologists, physicians, psychologists,
sociologists, in short by men of science. Science, how
ever, is subjected to the influence of the general men
tality of its

of
time. The theories spoken here arose
during the nineteenth century and they bear the stamp
way thought characteristic
of

of

of
the materialistic
course untouched by the

of
this age. Mere facts remain
general mentality; the interpretation they
of

changes
are given, however, very much influenced by this
is

mentality. difficult for the layman and sometimes

It
is

even for the specialist, find out what given state

to

in
a
of
ment mere description fact and what belongs
is
a

interpretation, since the facts are usually stated

to

in
of

the language definite theory. Human nature longs

a

much more for explanation than for facts; we want

to
know why things are and why they are thus. The
by

theories and interpretations given the scientists be

come, therefore, much more influential than the naked
fit

of
facts. Theories which with the general trend
in

mentality are more easily believed by the public than

are those contrary the generally accepted ideas.
A
to

mostly materialistic era like the nineteenth century, ac

cepted gladly theories materialistic coinage. An
of
a

idea, however, which has once become rooted

in

the
public
of

be

mind apt rather persistent. Even

to

the
of is

though the ideas the scholars may change—and

in
do

truth they change oftener than generally believed

is
go
on

—the public will believing what has been told.

it
is,

way, quite happy

of

This inertia general belief

in

a
a

fact. Life would become quite difficult and uneasy

if

everyone did change his mind

to

often
as

as

science has
its

on

change views. But this inertia becomes, the

other hand, nuisance, because general mentality will
a
 ON PERSONA L IT Y. AND C HA RA C TER 57

hold on, with a noticeable pertinacity, to ideas science

has had to reject.
special reason why the theory

is,
There however,

a
that character due exclusively heredity has met

to
is
approval and why not discarded, though
an
such

it
is
evidently disproved by facts. The idea that char
it
is

determined by the inexorable laws

of
acter heredity
is

an at
all
supplies fact too welcome pretext for not
in

tempting any change. Laziness and unwillingness for

an
apparently valid excuse

in
strenuous action finds this
theory. pleasant imagine

to
indeed more character
It
is

of
and personality beyond the reach human will and
as
to of

of
exertion, think
to

as
human than them entrusted
us,
something we have build up and for which
as

to

we are responsible. surely easier think that one

to to
It
is

is,

can not help being what one than know that one
only one would endeavor earnestly
be

could different
if

enough.
This probably the strongest reason for the approval
is

of

the theory heredity has met. This success rather

is

amazing. One would prefer think that man would

to
of

of
be

glad being given get rid

to

chance his bad

a

qualities, many people

so

habits and undesirable since

are profoundly dissatisfied with themselves and
so

little
satisfactory others. But no; people look askance
at
to

him who tells them that they may

if

become different
they would only really try
do

Striving for this

so.
to

goal, however, does not imply only exertion, long-last

ing work, patience and courage; implies also acknowl
it

of

edging really and wholeheartedly that one

in

need
is

improvement. the innate lazi

The one contrary
to
is

vanity.
of

nature,
to

ness human the other offensive

to is

Both tend make man inclined accept every theory

to

affording good excuse for not attempting any change

a

is on

and for just staying To see this attitude

is.

one
as
by

justified “science” surely great consolation.

a
 PART II

ON TROUBLES, DIFFICULTIES AND

FAULTS

1. Introductory Remarks

The more or less abstract discussions of the foregoing

chapters would be almost useless if they could not be
made to serve practical purposes. Practice without
theoretical foundation is not worth much; it may be
quite efficient for a time and within certain limits, but
it is sure to come to a deadlock as soon as some new and
unwonted problem arises. Chesterton was quite right
in saying that in such a fix one does not need a prac
tical, but an unpractical man, one who knows of the
theoretical side of things; the practical man knowing
only what used to be done, but not what can be done.
On the other hand, theory which not develop into
does
practical application may be very interesting, but it is
nothing to profit by in every-day life. Real help can
be obtained only by a happy combination of both. To
day there is a tendency to overemphasize the practical
side and to speak in a rather disparaging way of theory.
This sort of mentality is a real nuisance; it proves to be
all

a serious obstacle to progress. Theory may be, and

is,

be

may appear
to

often bloodless and lifeless

is it

a
no

thing; but mere practice better; alive and near

it
is

things, but also narrow-minded and incapable

of to

it
is

of

discovering new sides reality.

This part the book will deal with many
of

of

the
besetting our life. will try
It

troubles and difficulties

prepare for dis
to

unveil their true nature and thus

a

59
60 SE LF IM PR O V EMENT

is,
cussion of the ways and means to tackle them. It

all
of

of
course, not possible give full catalogue

to
the

a
life,

of
not even

in
various difficulties man encounters
which have their origin mistakes and faults

in
those

by
man himself. The only thing

be
to
committed done
here pick out some characteristic and frequent
to
is
of

of
types analyze

to
misbehavior and difficulties and
far that the method becomes clear and ap
so

them
plicable also instances not mentioned these pages.
to

in
prac

of
There are two ways open for this discussion
tical problems and difficulties. One can try classify

to
some general principle

of
them according psychology.
to
do

on
very well psychology

or
This would treatise in
a
to on

character; but would become tedious and give rise

it

go
unnecessary repetitions.

to
It
seems better the
is,

way,

of
start from practical
to

other that division

a

describe the difficulties handicapping the

to

aims and
realization of these aims.

be
The aims, then, every man pursues may grouped
do

under four heads. They have either with social

to

life, including the relations

of
to

the members the

family; with work, which means not only the job
or

activity;
all

of

with perfection,
or

one has, but kinds

which term signifies here moral perfection
of as

as
well
every other kind, for example, general
in

the line
intellectuality;
of

lastly with religious

or
or

culture
progress.
This division not what one would call scientific
is

one, since does not draw sharp lines between the

it

on

single groups. They indeed overlap many points.

of

Troubles social behavior endanger oftener than not

work, since work nearly always implies co-operation.
Religious progress and moral perfection are evidently
up

closely linked with each other. Moral imperfection

may become serious handicap social life. One and
in
a

behavior may influence achievement

of

the same feature

 D I FF I C U L TI E S I N S O C I A L L I FE 61

and progress in more than one of these four fields. Un

punctuality is as great a nuisance in regard to social re
lations as it is in connection with work. Lack of sin
cerity imperils religious progress very much; but it is
also a grave moral imperfection and conditions quite
often rather unpleasant social situations.
The division proposed here is nevertheless not an ar
bitrary one. It corresponds to well-defined classes of
values or goals. But human personality is a whole and
acts as such. No side of it can be isolated from the
rest. The classification used here does, accordingly, not
imply that there are sides of human personality inde
pendent of each other. But, on the other hand, there
are faults or habits which become particularly manifest
and troublesome in one of the four fields, even though
they are not without influence for behavior in other re
spects. It seems a good way to describe the single fea
tures under the heading of the type of behavior where
they are apt to become more troublesome and where
they, accordingly, are most easily discovered.

2. Difficulties in Social Life

all

the same kind, though

of

Social relations are not

on
all

they are based the fact that man social animal

is
a

and that the development

of

his moral and intellectual

liv
on

faculties depends his getting touch with and

in

is,

ing with his own kind. The structure

of

society
however, very complicated one, today even more than
a

no

primitive society there

In

ever has been before.

it

is
of

great differentiation the relations established between

its

members. But notwithstanding the complexity

of

so
of

modern life the relations between the members

ciety have remained essentially the same. There per
is
of

haps but one type relationship which missing

of in
is

primitive society and which very characteristic

is
62 SELF I M P R O V EMEN T

modern times—the one between the employer and the

employee. But even this is foreshadowed, as it were, in
primitive society which in a relatively early state al
ready knew the difference between master and servant.
The complication of modern society is due not so much
to the arising of new kinds of social relations as to the
greater number of persons every individual is in touch
with, directly or indirectly. There are, therefore, much
more shades of the typical social relations. To become
aware of this, one needs but look at the social structure
characterized by “authority.” In primitive society
there are but the head of the tribe, eventually the priest,
and the father to exercise authority. Nowadays we have
civil and political administra
all

of

the different forms

tion, the authority
of

is of
the “boss” and his underlings,
the teacher, and on. The attitude against authority
to so

therefore liable show great many varieties.

a

the de
no

There perhaps factor more important

in
is
of

velopment modern life than what one may call the

disappearance by
of

this that modern

It

distance.
is

many
of
so

man gets touch with his fellows with the

in

influenced by
be

result that his individual life comes

to

The im
do

facts which not touch him immediately.

of

of

provement the means communication has nearly

abolished the feeling for distance. Today the idea
of

getting the moon does not sound preposterous any

to

more. Traveling round the world eighty days was,

in

Jules Verne,
of

utopian being shot out

to

the mind
as

as
on

into the universe for landing the moon. Today men

make this trip around the world eight
or

in
in

even
six days. Our grandfathers could easily ignore what
on

was going China; trade suffered little, true,

in

it
is
or a

but the political situation Europe America was

It in

in

hardly influenced all. different with us; wars

at

is

far-off Asia have become exceedingly im

in

and treaties
portant, not only for governments, but for each
of

us.
 D I FF I C U L TI E S IN SOC IA L L I FE 63

Former generations could, if they were so minded, leave

foreign politics and even domestic administration to the
men in charge of them; today politics of every kind
have a direct influence on the life of the average citizen.
The factors determining individual life have become
much more numerous and interwoven than they had
been less than a century ago; they are very difficult to
unravel; their manifoldness makes modern life appear
so much more complicated and gives the impression that
the social relations of today are different from those of
earlier periods. But human nature remains, in truth,
all

all
places. has not

in

It
the same at times and
its

changed; just they

as
essential features are the same
of

were thousands years ago.

thorough
of

The complication modern life makes

a
of

knowledge human nature more necessary than

it
of

of
ever was. Because the great number relationships
social be
of

of
everyone
in

and because the nuances

is

havior which follow from this fact, we need better

a
of

of

control our behavior. The chances getting into

trouble are many times greater today.
The fact, however, that the essential features hu
of

man nature have remained quite unchanged throughout

the ages explains why the reasons
of

our difficulties and

troubles are but few and rather simple. The basic ten
only the way express
do of

dencies are still the same;

it
is

ing them which has become different. We not,

as
a

rule, kill any more the person we dislike; but the feel
so of

of

ings hate are exactly what they were,

or

dislike
with love and all kinds of sentiment.
If

and human
all individuals and all
at
in

nature were not the same

times, we never could understand and appreciate the art
foreign countries
of

of

bygone ages.
or

The basic attitudes of an individual become visible

is,

mostly social behavior, because society say,

so
to
in

is,

the natural atmosphere wherein man breathes.

It
64 SELF I M P R O V E MEN T

however, an exaggeration to consider social life as the

only important side of human activity. Man is more

is,
than a social being; he is a person, that being abso

a
lutely peculiar and unique, and

he
has duties towards
towards his neighbors.
as
himself well true that

It
as

is
re
all

man's nature, that moral perfection

of

or
sides
ligious faith
or
his attitude towards work influence his

all
social behavior. But this does not prove that these

In
of

of
sides human nature exist for the sake society.
certain modern psychologies and philosophies there

is
a
definite tendency overrate the place social life holds
to

general. But society being the milieu

in in

human life
in

which man mostly moves, the social behavior reveals

very often moti
of

great deal the basic attitudes and

a

vations.
of the manifold and mutual encroachments

it
Because
not possible
to

order the various mistakes and faults

is

occurring regard social behavior according

to

to
in

some
general principle. Just for the sake
of

of
disposing the
whole matter, the following analyses start with certain
play many the social re
of

features which enter into

in

lations and turn afterwards more special instances.

to

by by

Though there are many ways which individuals

get touch with each other andwhich social rela
in

tions are established, there important

as

none
as
is

speech. Greek wisdom, accordingly, defined man not

only social animal, but also the animal gifted with
as

as
a

express the thoughts one has

to

speech. Speech meant

is

reveal the feelings moving one and the wishes

to

and
prompting one's actions. There indeed the possibility
is

lying.
of

has been said that man was given speech

It
he

that may hide his thoughts. But there also the

is

rather mysterious fact that we are able

to to

“see” whether
person speaks the truth not,
or

or

“see” whether
a

playing showing himself

he

he

really
or

is.

rôle
as
is

This fact proves that there faculty

in

human nature
is

a
 D1 FF 1 c U L T 1 Es 1N so c 1 A L LIFE 65

of directly glancing at personality, unaided by words.

A man must be very clever indeed to play a rôle with
out being ever found out. But of these things some
thing more will be remarked later.
Speech may be considered from two points of view.
We can turn to the meaning conveyed by words—for
instance when asking whether they are true or not—
and we may pay attention to the merely formal side of
them. Regarding the latter there are three phenomena
which deserve to be mentioned: talking too much, ex
aggerated taciturnity, and indistinctness of enunciation.
All three are often a great nuisance in social life, and
all

three are apt bad impression.

to

make
a

of
be
Chinese adage says: “Great will
A

the reward the

the talkative hereafter” (though
of

husbands not

it
is
always the wife who does the talking; there are plenty
of

male chatterboxes too).

According general opinion garrulity just
to

bad is

a
springing
of

habit from certain kind temperament,

a
of

of
or

lack self-control inhibition. This

to

due

is
a

evidently quite true; but not sufficient analysis

is
it

this habit. Many people know perfectly well that

of

they are talking habitually too much and that they

make, therefore, bad impression even get into
or
a

They know that refrain from this habit

to

trouble.
the right thing they might,
be

would do; but strive

to

as

they relapse again and again. To refrain from doing

something seems not difficult; one imagines that not
so

talking could easily achieved. But the garrulous per

be
go

go
on

on

son will talking too much, will knowing

ought silent more often, knowing also that
he

rid be

that
to

this habit, and nevertheless giv

he

ought
of

get
to
up

ing person has many

of

not the least bit

it.

Such
a

reasons for not talking and few, any, for talking;

if

has for refraining from talking are

he

but the reasons

hid
be

apparently not strong enough; there must some

66 SELF I M P R O V EM EN T

den force driving him onwards and keeping up this

habit of garrulity. There must be some very strong,
though unknown, desire which is gratified by the
empty and useless flow of words.
Since the mere function of speech cannot give any
pleasure—it does so only during a short period in early
childhood—the motives for garrulity must be sought
its

of
for in effects. what such person says
The tenor

is a
has no noticeable effect, since all this talk almost ex
on

clusively garrulous person has but sel

A
trivialities.
of

he
dom something say; even

to

in
interest store

if
has
—as many them indeed have—quite
of

of
number

a
very soon be

to he
less good jokes anecdotes,
or
or

more
bore because nobody likes listen only

to
comes
a

such things, only one talker, and because even

or

to

a
large store becomes sooner
or

later exhausted and then

begin repeat
to

the stories themselves.

An overwhelming majority, however, these untir of
no

ing talkers know

of

other subject but their own

personality, their own experiences, their own ideas. But
their personality generally uninteresting, their experi
is

all

ences are shallow, their ideas lack importance and

originality. This talking about oneself surely one of
is

garrulity.
of

the motives
By applying the rules explained the previous chap
in

quick
be

ters one will

to

in

discover another element

no

garrulity. long other can put

So

person talks,
as

one
word. An uninterrupted flow very
of
in

words
is
a

efficient means for staying the foreground and for

in

others. Garrulity springs indeed

on

imposing one's will

many instances from conceit and from the will
to
in

play prominent rôle.

to
so

due not much lack

It
is
a

inhibitory power
of

too vivacious temperament

or
to
a

longing for superiority.

to
as

special variety garrulity the habit some people

of
A

is

interrupting others and con

of

into
to

in

have break
a
 D IF F I C U L TI E S I N SO C IA L L I FE 67

versation just going on; their remarks are generally not

to the point. They are made either because the topic
of discussion is not to the liking of such an individual,
or because he cannot bear to be silent for a longer time.
As a mere listener he is not noticed; and not to be on the
stage even for a short time is insupportable to him.
Sometimes people will break in into a conversation

it;

do
simply because they feel bored by they not care
not. They act

or
whether others are interested

as
if
be
they were entitled

or
interested. Whether
to
amused
their interests are shared by the rest

of
the company

or
no

not, them. They forget that the

of of

importance
to
is

rights good as
their own. But
at

another are

as
least
they forget also-and they are not the only ones for

to
get this—that subjective interest and personal liking are
of

no criterion objective value.

The longing for prominence and superiority work

at
of

the mind the garrulous But

in

rather obvious.

it
is

may seem paradoxical state that the opposite behavior

to

taciturnity
of

the effect, least may be,

or

of
at

the
is

of

very same factors. The arising apparently contra

dictory features
It of

behavior from the same reason is

quite frequent. will be, therefore, useful demon
to

strate this once and for all.

Taciturnity,
of

of

keeping silent,
or

the habit answer

ing questions but briefly never volun
of

all,
or

not
at

teering information, garrulity.

so

not common
as
is is

is

due simply
training;
In

of
to

some rare cases lack

it

man living apart from his fellows, being very much

a

of

alone, may lose more

or

less the habit speech.

It
is

different with people who are daily touch with others.

in

of

The taciturn person others who

in

silent the midst

is

Taciturnity great
so

not
in

are not. nuisance social

is

garrulity;
he

life
as

who does not utter word risks

is

a
of

less becoming bore than does one who talks too

a

by

might become
he

much. But noticeable his silence

as
68 SEL. F I M P R O V EM EN T

as does the other by his chattering; such a silent person

gives the impression of aloofness, of thinking himself
superior to his surroundings and becomes by this, so to
say, a strange body in the organism of society and acts
therefore as an irritant.
Taciturnity must not confused with modesty
be
keeping silent in presence of one's betters. A student
following silently, without thinking of putting even a
word in, a discussion among known scholars is mod
est, but he is not taciturn. Taciturnity shows in a
reticence to speak on occasions when an average man
would not hesitate to do so and when tact and duty
ought to compel everyone to speak.
There is an absolute and a relative taciturnity. The
first acts, as it were, on the principle of avoiding utter
ances as far as possible. The second becomes manifest
only under certain circumstances; some people know
but one subject to talk upon, for instance, their own job
or hobby, and they become taciturn whenever they feel
is,
the audience not to be sympathetic. There further
more, the taciturnity
of

the man who despises small

talk and opens his mouth only proffer solemn and
to

all
of
serious statements. man usually devoid
Such
is
a

humor, quality much more lovable and even

of

sense
a

generally considered Hu
to

more moral than

it

be.
is

mor indeed based on sense of detachment from one's

is

petty
its

own personality, knowledge that the ego and

a

important after all.

is so

affairs are not

Taciturnity due not
of

physiological inhibition
is to
a

the language-function;
of

the effect definite inner

it

taciturn person may learn

to

in
A

attitude. behave
a

He generally
so

more normal manner. does easier than

the garrulous learns refrain from chattering.
to

Taciturnity
is of

sign
as

often taken deep

mind
is

and coupled with seriousness. But rather often

as

nothing but con

all

but veil which fact conceals

at
in
a
 D IF F I C U L TI E S IN S O C IA L L I FE 69

ceit and shallowness. It may be the behavior due to a

generally depressed mind which has lost the faculty of
appreciating things; cheerful people are usually not
given to taciturnity. It may be the effect of bashful
ness and embarrassment.
In some cases it is quite natural to feel embarrassed;
either one finds oneself in a really “embarrassing” situa
tion, or one has to face a man commanding respect. But
even then, embarrassment is not as inevitable as people
will have it to be; one may be very modest and very
conscious of another's superiority without resorting to
the typical behavior of embarrassment. Mostly, how
ever, embarrassment arises in situations which do not
warrant such a reaction; the really embarrassed man
finds himself in this mood always, even though he
knows quite well that there is no reason for feeling this
way.
Some time ago a young girl was supposed to be bash
ful and demure; today this kind of behavior is no
longer appreciated. Neither girl nor boy wants to be
bashful. The habit is nevertheless still quit frequent,
and it is considered a definite nuisance. People affected
this way would gladly get rid of this habit; but they
believe this to be impossible, bashfulness being, as they
think, none of their doing. They accuse their lack of
social training, mistakes made in education, an unhappy
temperament; they do not doubt that their bashfulness
is quite independent of their will and their personality.
Bashfulness usually disappears after the person has
become accustomed to the situation provoking this re
action; a bashful person has to feel “at home” in order
to behave in a normal way, or to know that he is wel
come to the other members of a set. The fear of not
being welcome is indeed at the bottom of bashfulness
and embarrassment. Were a bashful individual sure of
making a good impression and of being received, as it
70 S E LF IMPRO V EM ENT

were, with open arms, he would not behave as he does.

fact, greedy for social success and not sure

is,

of
He

in
attaining Sometimes this becomes very apparent

it.

on
from the comments such person makes his behavior

a
on con

an he

he
and the awkward impression creates;

is
he

be
vinced that would make quite impression and
by
all
liked people, were not for his bashfulness. This

it

by
quality indeed accepted good excuse not only

as
is

by
the bashful person himself, but also others; clumsy
behavior, mistakes, even some impudence are overlooked
because they are attributed

to
bashfulness. Bashfulness

his
its

having valuation;

he
owner taken

at
to in

succeeds

he
manages persuade others that really quite nice

is
and that this niceness only dimmed by his unlucky
is

habit.
This habit has but little, anything, common with

in
if

it,
true modesty. aping modesty, even overdoing
It
is

does not spring from True modesty avoids

it.

but
it

doing whatever may cause conspicuousness; but embar

rassment and bashfulness make man unduly con
a
do

spicuous. They still more; they represent definite

is a
of

appeal other people.

to

It

the benevolence the

so as
if
bashful person said: bashful, poor, help
“I

so

so

am
less, that you really have very nice
be

True
to

to

me.”
modesty natural and unsophisticated; bashfulness
is

an is

not. modest man will stay the background

in

in
A

he

unobtrusive way, and will come forward neces

if

sary; the embarrassed and bashful person contrives

to

stay the background that everyone becomes aware

so
in

will, when asked

it,

step forward, protest

of

he

to

so

and
much that he becomes still more noticeable. There are
be

many people who want whatever price;

at
to

noticed
be

they are ready considered foolish and clumsy and

to

do

what not, only they not pass unnoticed. The close

if

relation between bashfulness and taciturnity easily dis

is
 D IF F I C U L T I ES IN SO C IA L L I FE 71

covered by taking account of the remarks made just

before.
Bashful peopleoften speak very indistinctly; the
emotional state they are in gives rise to some trouble
` w

of articulation. This habit is quite helpful, in a way;

the bashful or embarrassed person fears he could say
something wrong and create a bad impression; if he is
difficult to understand he may still give another mean
ing to his words. But there is another kind of indistinct
speech too, which occurs independently of embarrass
ment. It generally denotes a lack of consideration; the
listener has to strain his attention for finding out what
his interlocutor says; the latter not taking the trouble
of expressing himself clearly. A certain habit of mut
tering and blurred speech springs from the same reasons.
Indistinctness of articulation is often a kind of com
promise between taciturnity and the necessity of social
COntaCt.
It is known that embarrassment may condition quite
a flow of words; there is a stammering and a chattering /
variety. The embarrassed is however handicapped by |
his consciousness of himself and by his wish to make an
is,

of
impression; he accordingly, not able think
to

somehow interesting topic. But one topic exists which

on

always hand: discussing one's neighbor. This

is

of

kind empty prattle called gossip.

is

Gossips are great nuisance,

in

more than one sense.

to a

By listening them one gets the impression that there

nothing
of
be

the whole world but what

to

talked
in
is

Mrs. Smith did, and how Mrs. Jones behaved, and that
of

Jack was seen with Jane. Another type gossip

he is

dig out political trash;

all

very eager
of

kinds
to

knows for sure that Senator did this and that Mayor
X
do

be

Gossip may harmless, but

to

intends that.
it
Z

on

verges quite often calumny and causes serious dam

generally known, even
of

This
to

age. some those

is
72 S E LF IMPRO VE MEN T

who indulge in this pleasant habit. Though they are

aware of this danger, and though they got perhaps al

it,
ready in trouble through they seem quite unable

to
it;
lovely pastime and exercises great

so

so
leave

is
it

a
a

do
that they will
over and over again.

A It
fascination

it

all
of
cease gossiping

to
indeed not easy sudden.
is

to a
he
gossip seldom alone; usually belongs whole set
is

a
cultivating this amusing game.

he
The gossip feels
would be out of tune he would not do the others

go is as
if
not take part any more,
he

he

be
to
If

do. does sure

to he
So
dropped
or

on. And

to
sooner later. has

he
what else can one talk about these people, asks;

do
they are not interested anything, they

to
not want
in

hear anything but gossip; were inconsiderate and

it
introduce another topic.
to

fruitless
All less well-made excuse for
or

this but more

is

a
a

wrong. And
be
habit the gossip often feels himself
to

he
does not explain the peculiar pleasure gets from his
it

conduct.
The characteristic words by which the gossip begins
his tale are: Have you heard? Do you know? These
people have always “tremendous and very interesting
tell; and always “deep secret” they are
to

news”
is
it

no

imparting each other, though there

to

doubt that
is

kept and that the “strict con

be

this secret will not

betrayed, and that the person enjoin
be

fidence” will
ing knows this beforehand. This enjoining
of

secrecy
it

mere formula; observed by

be
to

the sacred rite

it
is

is
a

the “Most Loyal Order

of

of

the members the Gossips.”

an

Everybody knows this “in strict confidence”

be
to

empty, though time-honored phrase; has conscien

it

tiously
of
be

preserved, because the pretence secrecy

of to

part the fun.

is

do

Some people keep

to

know indeed how secret.

a

But many have still

it.

not habit natural

to

learn
It
in is

having
he

man;
to

to

does not feel well conceal

 D I FF I C U L T I E S IN SO C IA L L I FE 73

something. Children knowing a secret will look mys

terious and behave in a manner revealing clearer than

it;
words that they know they will gambol around,
shouting: know something, know something.”

“I

I
They manifestly enjoy this knowledge; but only

it
is
the already more less sophisticated who are content

or
with knowing; generally they find satisfaction only

in
it,
telling the secret. They indeed want but they

to
tell
do

not like being found out. child will love your

A
making guesses long
at

as

as
his secret these guesses are
wrong; but by chance
he

be
will very disappointed

if
you guess right.

it,
Knowing secret and divulging because the other
a

it,
or

children the adults can not guess gives the child

of

very definite sense superiority. With adults

it
is
a

quite the same thing. History tells

of

an
many instance
equivalent

to
of

where the possession some secret was

on

power; blackmail based the same fact. The phrase

is
of

“in possession secret” reveals this circumstance

as
a

representing definite value. Possessing value in

a
a

got of
of

creases the value the one who has hold the

thing. knowledge;
or

or
so

with wealth station

It

it
is
so

with secrets too.

is

This feeling value, caused by the pos

of

increased
of

of

gossiping,
of

session secret, one the motives

is
a

but not the only one. but

to

truism
It
it

state
is

is

dis
of

that the “news” gossip deals mostly with things

a

advantageous Gossips but seldom discuss

to

someone.
of

of

kindness, nor are they generally

or

deeds valor
another man's good sides. such things
in

If

interested
by

are mentioned chance, the gossip will immediately

be

suspect that there must “something behind it.”

Human nature derives very marked satisfaction
a

on

from pointing out deficiencies from remarking

or

character and on moral faults,

of

or

bad features from

of

discussing failures and even misfortunes. This kind

74 SE LF IMP R O V EM EN T

conversation evidently supplies pleasant feelings of a

is,
on
quite peculiar quality. Man the average, quicker
in discovering his neighbor's deficiencies than ack

in
nowledging his assets; quicker things

he
seeing

in
can

of he
of

of
disapprove becoming aware

in
than those
ought admire. Objectively taken, this discovery
to

of
the unpleasant side human nature rather discon

is
certing. Defects such are never pleasant look at;

to
as
healthy person definitely more pleasant than
is sick

a
a

one, sane man much more pleasant than one affected

is
a

by mental disease. Looking

be
healthy person,

at

it
a
of

of

of
the body or
morals,

or
the health the mind
ought therefore much more pleasant impres
to

make
a

is,
sion than considering the opposite types. But there
many minds, strange inclination towards the un
in

of

healthy and the dark side not

It
human nature.

is
inquire into the reasons
of
possible here
to

this interest.
evident that by making sure
of
But one's neighbor's
it
is

bad qualities one feels definitely superior oneself.

of

Gossip closely related the habit criticism. The

to
is

profit gained by criticizing one's neighbors was once

very aptly described by
of

boy some fifteen years.

a

“That’s quite simple,” said he; “by criticizing others I

raise my own standard.”
all
all of

of

us, something
or

We are, even much

a

pharisee. We like think that we are better than

to

the rest, that we lack this bad quality we observe

in

Mr. and that other we notice Mrs.

B.

If
in
A

this idea
right enjoying our being bet
be

were true, we would

in

of

ter, we did attribute this the grace God and

to
if

if

we did thank Him for being preserved from this one

Provi
do

fault. But we generally feel less grateful

to

than proud
of

our righteousness, this were

as
if

dence
exclusively our own goodness. were well
to

if
It

due
all

thought things we would

to

we devoted some the bad

doing, only that cir
of

have done and are still capable

 D I FF I C U L T I E S IN S O C IA L L I FE 75

cumstances and Providence kept us from perpetrating

them.
Even a man who is thoroughly contented with him
self and proud of his high moral standard, does not
ignore altogether that he in truth is as capable of doing
wrong as the very people he despises because of their

is,

of
depravation. There the depths the ego,

in

a
its
of
knowledge essential imperfections. But pride and
be do

vanity not allow this knowledge develop.

to

It
would too disturbing we became fully conscious

if
of

our imperfections; look away

to
much better it
to is
others. By this we

of
from them and turn
to

those
get the consolation that they are not better than we
are, that they are even worse, and that, therefore, we
need not reproach ourselves for not having reached

a
morality. This
of

higher level the strongest reason

is

for the pleasure man derives from detraction and gossip.

peculiar variety
of

of
this habit consists kind
A

in
a
strict moral criticism care for the moral
in

masked
a
of

of

society. Certain people feel

or

welfare others
public
of
be

guardians
to

themselves morals and believe

all

their duty immorality.

be

expose told
to

to

It
it

is
on

that certain lady complimented Doctor Johnson his

a

famous dictionary, remarking: glad, Doctor,

“I

so

am
impure words.” The doctor re
all

that you left out

having
of

plied: “Did you look for them?” The idea

defend public morality affords quite good pretext
to to

certain gossips.
Others know still other reasons for indulging
in

the
on

They have
of

be

habit the lookout for

to

criticism.
qualities their fellows because they needs
in

the bad
of

must know them for the sake business,

or

because
an

only
of

they want
to

have intercourse with people

unimpeachable morality. They are sure that
all

men
are egoists, thinking but their own advantages, try
of

ing embezzle everyone who stupid

to

to

cheat and
is
76 SELF I M P R O V E M ENT

enough to believe in good intentions, in love of truth,

in kindness or in reliability. Caution and distrust are,
however, not identical. Making use of a legitimate cau
tion does not mean developing an attitude of general
distrust. These critics spoken of here do not, as a rule,
limit their criticism to those cases where to be cautious
all

is right; becomes with them

it general habit, and

a
that the point where becomes utterly wrong. There

it
is
is,

the world, definitely more

of

of
criticism than
in

of

of
praise, more detraction than appreciation. Man
finds greater pleasure tearing in
down his neighbor and
look
on

looking down him than admiring him and

in
ing up him.
to

of

sign
It

were foolishness should one advocate

a
a

used, espe

be
blind trust everyone;

to
in

caution has
cially when there are some greater interests con

be
to
But wrong rule for our
to

make this
it

sidered.
is

behavior against your neighbors. a

be
people are not loved; they may
Critical quite
amusing their remarks show some spirit, but they are
if

not loved. Nobody feels sure that

he

be
may not the
next target. These critical people sometimes wonder
their not being favorites with their fellows. There is at
deeper psycho
no

Even without
to

reason wonder.
a

of

logical analysis their neighbors feel that the habit

an

criticism springs from engrained egoism. The critic

no
he

does not love his neighbor, and

in
so

gets love
return.
uttering criticisms.
of

There are several ways The

of

critic may assume the attitude the objective observer,

naturalist describing the animals inhabiting some
of
a

foreign country. He may behave the expert

in
as

ironical;
he

be

he

human weakness; may may

or

bitter
An dif
of

play the good-humored sceptic. analysis the

ferent moods conditioning the single attitudes would
Only one
of

be

lead too far.

to

them has mentioned

 D I FF I C U L T I E S IN S O C IA L L I FE 77

at some length, because it gives rise to serious difficul

ties, notwithstanding

its
appearing rather harmless.
-
This irony.
is
Ironical people generally disliked.
are They are

do
that, because they not see anything wrong
at
amazed
dealing with their fellows. Irony, how

of
their way
in

ever, universally resented. sometimes, indeed, has

it It
is
its

demonstrate the non

or of
place; we may make use

to
an

an
opinion, refuting
of

sensicality for adversary

But behavior which quite right under
in

debate.

is
a

certain conditions may become wrong when generalized.

Only the absolute moral attitudes, like love, are right
always and everywhere. What not absolutely right

is

of
good has but very restricted field appliance, and
or

what definitely bad has none

at
all.
is

Irony, like criticism, which shows kinship,

to

it
springs from conviction of, striving for superi
of or
a
a

ority. uses the sharpness wit and often con

It

a
light
of

of
intelligence things
to

siderable amount make

which others take seriously which they admire
to or

or
which they love; irony seems point out
to

others that
is, on

they are wasting their feelings things not worth

taken seriously
of

while. What the eyes

in

the
is

ironical, mere foolishness; what admired mere

is

is

triviality; what seems great petty; enthusiasm

is

is
on

based illusions; love but happy mistake. People

is

a
all
do do

their ideals. They

of

not like
at

this destruction
absolutely pure mo
of

perhaps resent not because

it

remonstrating against sceptical irony, they de

In

tives.
an

such, but because

so

fend not much ideal because

it
is

their ideal; that irony because

say, they resent
to
it it
is

is

of

doubts their capacity discerning what great and

is

Irony indeed directs attacks only

its

true and good.

apparently against the ideals; truth
in

attacks the
it
of

but another method enabling

to
It

idealist. man
is
78 SE LF IMPR O VE MENT

look down on his fellows. Of behaviors, irony has

all
to be used with discretion.
Irony but one way among many others express

to
is
that one “knows better.” The ironic and sceptic people
“know better” only negative way; they know,

or
in
a
rather believe they know, that things are not valu

as
able, not tragic, not great, not

as
as
true the

as

as
average man will have them. Irony and scepticism,

do
though they very often become real nuisance and

a
anything but help their sup

all
owner along, are after

of
portable when they are associated with good deal

a
humor. But the man who “knows better,” who al

is
ways right, who believes himself entitled

to
bestow his
on

on
advice and his wisdom everyone and every occa
utterly

of
sion, deadly humor.
in

earnest and devoid

is

of

He one the most unpleasant social phenomena.

is

Nobody can right always; nobody can “know bet

be

much al
all
on
all

ter” things and

in

situations. It
ready when man knows thoroughly one thing; the is
a

more he knows the more he will become convinced of

not knowing all. The specialization

of
of

every kind
being split off numerous small chap
its

knowledge,
in

them long enough fill man's life, this

of

ters, each
to

impos
of

whole development newer times has made

it
an
he

be

exceptional genius
to

sible one man—unless

on

—to accumulate real and thorough knowledge more

than one or, the best, some few restricted topics.
at

It

generally the man who knows nothing thoroughly

is

on

who pretends “know better” any matter. He

to

an
on

some topic and

be

may have specialized really

au
an

authority there; but this does not make him

on

thority other things well. The “know-betters”

to as
do

not, rule, belong

of

the class the specialists.

as
a

There are some jobs which, unluckily, tend

to

make
do

knowing better habit. They need not so, but they

a
do

very often. man has officially, say,

to
If

so
to
a
 DI FFIC U L T I E'S IN SOC I A L L I FE 79

know better for some hours every day, he will easily

assume this attitude Some specialists develop
for ever.
this unpleasant habit because they have to be an au
thority so often and to so many people that they retain
this attitude also outside the shop. The specialization
of modern working life, however, makes it more urgent
than it ever has been that a man leave his “shop-habits”
behind when he turns his back on the shop. He ought
to do so for two reasons. First, his forgetting about
these things contributes very definitely to relaxation and
therefore makes him fitter for his work when he resumes
it the next day.Second, a mind which is revolving al
ways around the same kind of problems is bound to be
come monotonous, a bore for others, and in danger of
withering gradually or of drying up. The problems of
the shop ought to be left behind; much more, of course,
the habits.
The development of a habit is not a mere mechanical
process; even for a habit to become established some
kind of consent of the person is necessary. This con
sent may simply consist in a non-resistance; but whether
taking the form of an actual assent, or a mere letting
things go, it is always an act of will. A habit already
all

developed is not at beyond the control

of

will.
It

not necessary transplant, were, habits from

to

as
is

it

less right and

be

place they may

or

the where more

useful, other places where they are not desirable.
to

striking instance ob
of

the “know-better” type

A

is

frequently
of

quite type
A
in

served teachers. certain

on

them goes teaching also outside the classroom. People

this kind are incredibly boring, presumptuous, con
of

ceited and disagreeable.

by

peculiar type represented the man who gathers

A

is

demi-knowledge from newspapers, encyclo

all

of

kinds
pedias and “popular” literature. The latter indeed
is
It

an inevitable nuisance. inevitable because man

is
80 SE LF IMPRO VE M EN T

can not be denied the right to know and because things

have to be presented to those not acquainted with the
matter and lacking the necessary previous instruction,
in a fashion that they may understand. It is a nuisance
because this kind of knowledge cannot be but superficial
and even partly wrong. One sometimes doubts whether
ignorance, pure and simple, is not to be preferred to this
half-knowledge imparted by “popular” literature. At
least one would wish that the average man became aware
of the incompleteness of knowledge gathered from these
sources. Many indeed are aware of this fact and will
gladly turn to one who really knows for further infor
mation. But there is one type, already mentioned, who
relies absolutely on the knowledge he owes to this kind
of literature. There are moreover certain fields of
knowledge of which everyone believes he knows some
thing. It seems as if people had the idea that they are
gifted with an innate knowledge on certain things and
need not trouble to learn something about them. Medi
cine is one of these fields; education is another.
The “know-better” habit is due to an exaggerated
sense of one's own importance. By assuming the be
havior of one who really knows better, a man expresses
his feeling of superiority, though he may not be quite
conscious of this.
Conceit and egoism and the desire of staying in the
foreground are also at the bottom of another behavior
which is very much resented by other people and makes
them avoid the person addicted to this habit. There
are persons who become quite intolerable by always
harking back to one favorite topic regardless of the
question, whether the rest of the company is interested
therein or not. Very often the talk of such a man is
about himself, about his achievements, his successes in
business or with the rod or in golf. If he is more pes
simistic-minded, it will be on his misfortunes, on the
 DI FF I C U L TI ES IN SOC I A L L I FE 81

way other people treat him, on the petty troubles he

has to wrestle with, on the unpunctuality of his wife or
the unreliability of his secretary. When lacking in
discretion and when meeting an audience willing to lis
ten to such talk, he will boast of his “success” with
Women.
Avariety of this type is what one may call the
“special reporter of catastrophes.” The very moment
such a man has got hold of some painful or troubling
news, he will rush to the telephone and call up the per
son who probably will be most shocked by this news.
This type is not necessarily of a pessimistic mood; he
may be quite a cheerful kind of person. He enjoys very
much this spreading of bad news. He revels so much
in spreading the news that he does not care whom he
tells it to. The young wife of his neighbor dies; he has
seen her but once or twice; he hardly knows the
widower; but he will go and tell whomever he meets:
“A terrible disaster....”
The “reporter of catastrophes” is often not content
on
he all

he

with repeating tales misfortunes can get hold

of; sometimes invent some or,
to
so

goes far at
as

least, predict them.

to

in be

The motive for this behavior must sought for

of in

playing
of

of

the wish rôle, staying the middle

a

the stage; another important factor that such man

is

a
of

makes use, for his own ends, the aforementioned

strange passion for the uncanny, the cruel, the horrible,
the ghastly, lurid, terrifying things. The crowds which
of
in

the times old pressed around the scaffolds did not

see justice done and the criminal punished;
to

assemble
though this idea may have been faintly alive
of
in

some
them; they thronged there because they foresaw the
peculiar pleasure this spectacle was give them.
to

It
an

uncanny curiosity which today

of

the same feeling

is

many people try get glimpse

so

at
to

to

causes man
a

a
82 S E LF IMPR O V EM EN T

run down by an automobile or to go out of their way

when they hear of some disaster a few blocks farther on.
The feelings which prompted and still prompt man
on these occasions have nothing in common with the
lofty sentiments of “fear and pity” which according to
Aristotle are the effect of witnessing a tragedy played
on the stage. Nor are these catastrophes necessarily
pure tragedies, though they are usually called by this
name. There may be a tragic element in certain dis
asters; but generally it is a misuse of this name to call
tragic railway crash or an inundation destroying a
a
village. These facts are horrible, very sad, but they
lack the essential characteristics of tragedy. Tragedy,
whether conceived by the mind of a playwright or oc
curring in reality, implies guilt. The tragic hero is a
man who involuntarily and unavoidably becomes
guilty and who, by his tragic end, pays the penalty for
his guilt. It were better to discard the term of tragedy
and to reserve it for the few cases to which it really
applies; the wrecking of the Titanic, for instance, was
a terrible catastrophe, but no tragedy in the true sense
of the word.
Such a restriction of the attribute of tragedy is de
sirable not only because one ought to make a correct use
of words, but also because thus the pleasure derived
from witnessing and discussing catastrophes would be
put where it belongs. By calling
all

disasters tragedies
this pleasure becomes invested with which
to

loftiness
a

The “reporter
of

catastrophes”
at

not entitled all.

it
is

of

seeks not for the exalted sentiments tragedy; his

is

quite another mentality. Nor pointing the in

he

at
is

it,
on

stability moralizing
of

things terrestrial
or

unless
be

quite incidental and superficial manner. He

in
it

of is
a

not even satisfied with the pleasure the spectators

he

catastrophes feel. What really wants

to

make
is
 D I FF I C U L T I E S IN SO C IA L L I FE 83

others feel either this pleasure or, preferably, make them

shudder and recoil.
One reason for this behavior is the fact that by im
parting such news he is sure to command the attention
of his audience; another that he thus moves their minds
according to his will; he

on
say, playing

is,
so
to
them
on

instrument. Both results are gratifying

an

to
his
as

will for power. third reason which work him

at

in
A

is
his audience, the longing for sensational ex
in

and
periences. is
Exceptional and moving facts are more
easily found the horrible, the sad
of

or
in

the field the

disastrous than anywhere else.
Average life poor The longing for
in

sensations.
is

of
excitement, however, common feature human
is
a

justified up
to

nature. certain degree, since

It
is

monotony indeed depressing and apt paralyze vital

to
is

energy. But the greed for sensation and excitement

danger. More people than
or

often becomes more less

a

one would imagine get into trouble only because

of
their
desire for excitement. The prying into another's pri
vate life, the curiosity wanting
of
get hold every
to

secret, the tendency offend are partly

or
to

to

tease even
this inclination. Indiscreet behavior of all kinds
to

due
may spring from the same root.
Discretion and tact are two qualities indispensable
in
do

on

social life. They not depend

or

culture intellect
present very
be

ual development; both are found

to

be

often simple and uninstructed people and miss

to
in

ing having careful education. These

in

others had
a

qualities are partly due innate disposition; they are,

to

in
on

however, much more dependent environmental

all
of

of

fluences, and most on the inner attitudes the

person. Both arise from the will
to

consider another
man's feelings, rights and personal peculiarities. The
an its

discretion—taking this word

of

of

lack
in

tact and
original sense
of

of

power discerning—results from

84 S E LF IMPRO V EMEN T

undue concentration on the ego which bars the outlook

on the personality of our fellows.
Mention has been made incidentally of the somewhat
mysterious faculty with which man is endowed, of
“seeing” another's personality even though he may try
to hide This faculty
it. well-developed children;

in
is

of
becomes less sharp One

it in
adults. the reasons
it

taking the edge from the growing concentration

is
on

the ego. true that certain egoism may give

It
is

a
of
clearer sight certain human qualities; but
to

it
rise
a

discovers only such features are immediately related

at as

of
egoistic ends. The egoist, certain type,
is to

least

a
often rather sharp-sighted for the bad qualities

in
his
fellows, especially for those possibly endangering his
their good qualities, un
he

to

own ends, but blind

is
be

less they may used for these same ends.

There well-meaning tactlessness too. Many people
is
a

become definitely unpleasant because the interest of

they take even though
of

their neighbors,
to do in

the affairs
of

they may help. But not everyone

to
be so

out wish
a
of

be
we believe helped.
to
in

need assistance wants

regu
on

of

be
Our actions our neighbors have
to

behalf
on
on

the first place not the ideas we form, but

in

lated
the wants they feel.
very common error believe that discretion
to
It
is
a

and tact and consideration are qualities which enter into

play only when we have deal with strangers or,
of at
to

least, with people not belonging

to

the intimate circle

our lives. One observes very often that person using
a
of
an

quite amount tact his relations with strangers

in

this quality when

of

he

absolutely devoid deals with

is

family.
of

the members his own The nearer, however,

con
he

stays us, the more

to

to

someone entitled
is

sideration and to discretion.

social adjustment become particularly
of

The troubles
on

grave within the family. Many people get quite

 -

D I FF I C U L TI E S I N SO C IA L L I FE 85

all
smoothly with strangers and not at with their own
family. harmonious family life

It
obvious that

is

is
a
of
one the most basic necessities, and that great deal

a
all
of

the unhappiness existing this world comes from

in
family

of
disturbances life. The strained relations one
often between husband and wife, between
so
observes
parents and children, between brothers and sisters—not
the “clan”—result,

of
to

of in
mention other members
large part, from the lack

of
mutual understanding,
of
consideration, and tact.
altogether excluded. No

be
Misunderstandings cannot
of

man capable seeing quite precisely the personality

is
of

to be
But misunderstandings would not

be so
another.
fateful, there were not the idea that one has
if

understood. No real harm done by misunderstand

is

ing, long a
the party misunderstood does not take
so

as

of
personal offence being bereft
or

this fact what

as

as
a

Many misunderstandings could

be
him.
due made
is

harmless by simply explaining what the matter In

is.
grad
of

stead this, people will take offence and become

ually estranged from each other.
Many misunderstandings are due ignorance. This
to
of

especially true the relations between husband and

is

wife. Men and women generally neglect the fact that

the mentality
of
in

definite differences the sexes exist.

Theoretically,
of

course, everyone concedes the existence

these differences. Practically, however, most people
of

of

they expected person

to

act the other sex feel

as
if

a
do

exactly they
as

themselves.
on

Much has been written the “differential psychology

of

the sexes.” There are extensive studies, based on

questionnaires and on experimental research work. The
of

results science have, however, but little influence on

actual life. The problems the average man has
to

wrestle with are, perhaps, not the same those psychol

as

ogy generally investigates. Common sense and unpre

86 S E LF IMPR O V EM E N T

judiced observation probably tell us more about these

problems than the largest treatises on psychology.
It is not for these pages to describe exhaustively the
characteristics of male and female mentality. Only
some few points can be touched upon.
Many troubles in married life start with the reproach,
outspoken or only felt, of: You do not love me any
more, you do not love me enough. This reproach makes
much of certain observations. The husband and the
wife observe that their mate does not behave as they
want him or her to do. This they take to be a sure sign of
missing or declining love. Both forget, or rather never
knew, that the behavior and the expression of love is
not the same in the two sexes. Each of them, further
more, forgets that his mate expects him, or her, to be
have in a definite manner, and that love has first of all
to consider the wishes of the beloved. These wishes may
seem foolish to a person of the other sex; but love seek
ing not what is own, ought put up even with fool
its

to
of

ish wishes. One the greatest mistakes people make

regard their overlooking the import
to
in

married life
is

fact im
of

small things. The small things are

in

ance
portant not only here; great things man very often
in

needs not decide all, forced on him. But

at

decision
is

the small and apparently insignificant events

of

every
in

Life, after all, consists just

he

day
in

needs character.
a

series of small events.

of do

Men very often not understand women; women

are often incapable understanding men. truth the
In

latter are still more gifted way than are the first.
in

this
But women rather often do not care make use of this
to

faculty, because they feel their right un

be

be
to

to
of it

The idea having

get first some
to

derstood first.
thing before one will give,
of

one the most disastrous

is

But things may seem small

to

mistakes man makes.

one and important witty Frenchman
to

another.
 D IF F I C U L T I E S I N SO CIA L L I FE 87

once remarked: “You may lay the whole world at the

it,
feet of a woman, and she is capable of refusing be
cause the wrapping her taste.” The average

to
not

is
all; what

of
man thinks wrappings no importance

at

is
within alone matters. But woman may feel that the

a
wrapping very important indeed; and she

of so
is not

is
wrong either. gift precious not only because
of A

is
the thing given, but because

of
the real value the
loving care devoted

it.
choosing and presenting
to

to
he
The salesman knows this, and has, therefore, special
“gift wrappings”
on

hand.

on
The stress laid by the female mind certain details
may appear very foolish average man; but
to
the

it
is
part take ac
of
an

nature,

to
essential her and one has
of

hand,
it.

count There are, on the other some

con
of

be
peculiarities the male mind which have

to
sidered, even though they may seem queer

or
foolish
the female point
of

according
to

view.
as an

Much trouble arises from overexacting attitude

by both the husband the wife. This well
as

assumed
attitude becomes troublesome not only marital life,
in

family relations.
all

of

but kinds develops very

in

It

persons who have, outside their home,

to
in

often do
of

many people; they have, course,

to

with consider the

with, in
of

of

peculiarities those they deal because the

of

they work with

to

business,
so or

terests because have

these people, and on. They come home tired by
having consider others and by discovering over and
to

all

over again that these people are not what one

at

be. The people home,

at

would want them least,

at
to

be

ought
be

what one expects; they least ought

to

at

to

of kind make consideration and self-control un

to
a

necessary. But human personalities will have their

peculiarities, even wife and one's children. No
in

one's
ex
fit

body expect other personalities

to

to

entitled
is

actly his wishes. newly married couple each part

In
a
 88 SE LF IMPR O V EM EN T

ner expects the other to conform to his own wishes and

ideals. Each hopes that the other will change, neither is
ready—at least in a great majority of marriages—to ad
just himself. But if each persists in making demands
and is unwilling to make concessions, the result is bound
to be rather dreadful.
A
very bad habit, which produces the worst conse

all
quences, is the one which spares good manners for
strangers and forgets them husband who

at

A
home.

he
forgets his manners home can not

at
as

as
soon

is
tidy
be

he
expect his wife be;
to

as

to
wants her

as

a
woman who sits down unkempt and negligently dressed
the table, can not expect her husband
at

to
take care
of the furniture. This looseness of manners becomes

a
great handicap education too, since the children
in

learn by this disregard rules.

to

on
The husband lying down with his shoes the bed
bybe

aggressive; but his behavior

to

cover does not mean

his wife, and
an

aggression

to
felt expresses
as

it
is

he

he
her that does not value her work and that neglects
her wishes. Men very often are not sufficiently aware
A of

the peculiar relation woman may have things.

to
a

he

man careless about things, especially can

if
is

easily afford get new ones. women, like chil

to

But
an

dren, have quite the things they

to

attachment
in
is,

handle. The female attitude for that matter,

deed quite right; things are gifts, entrusted our care,
of to
by

and mistreating them we show lack reverence

a

for God’s creation.

The “know-better” attitude, sketched out above, be
special nuisance family life.
in

It

comes assumes there

a

infallibility. This dan

of

often the form becomes very

gerous between parents and children.
in

the relation
Children cannot but discover that the parents are not
always right and that they too make mistakes. By
 D I FF I C U L TI E S W ITH WO R. K. 89

keeping up the pretence of infallibility, the parents run

the risk of undermining their authority.
All these mistakes causing so much trouble in the
life of a family spring lastly from egoism, from an
exaggeration of individual importance, from an undue
longing for superiority and, consequently, from a lack
of true love.

3. Difficulties with Work

The analysis of the faults or habits handicapping

work will again start best with a discussion of the for
mal side of work and from this proceed to the material
aspects.
Nearly were, into social or
all

woven,
work
as
it
is

ganization; means mostly working for and with

it

to
others or under them. Human behavior
as
related
work has, accordingly, obey the very same general
to

of
rules which regulate social life. The necessity the
why
of

close co-operation many individuals the reason

all is

of of
plays work.
in

the time-schedule such rôle kinds

a

Conforming punc
to

this schedule makes the essence

tuality. Not conforming the un
of
to

the habit
it
is

punctual.
Punctuality not only, the saying goes, the polite
as
is

kings, and not only

of

ness necessity resulting from

a

work and not only something

of

the organization
on

whereby the “boss” may bring pressure

it to

bear his
on

his pupils;
or

employees fact
in

the teacher
an is

moral quality. Unpunctuality not just unpleas

is

ant habit endangering work and eventually putting

a

job; moral per

of

of

man out rather serious lack

it
is
a

This quality could, therefore,

be

fection. mentioned
moral imperfection; but
of

also under the head best

is

discussed here, because becomes most apparent re

in
it

gard work.
to
90 SE L F I MP R O W EM EN T

The primary importance of punctuality is generally

acknowledged. There is nonetheless quite a number of
persons who go on being exceedingly unpunctual,
though they risk losing their job, or of having a very
disagreeable interview with the “boss,” or being punished
in some way, or being at least overwhelmed by re
proaches and unfriendly comments from those they
have kept waiting. These are not at pleasant ex

all
be
periences; but they somehow seem not impressive

to
an
enough unpunctual person give up his habit.
to

make
pretty collection
of

of
He has, course, a
excuses on
unexpectedly

or
hand. The watch has been slow

he
stopped for some unaccountable reason; overslept,
having come home very late last night; the traffic was
blocked;
be
an

unexpected call had answered; paper to

a
he

he
take with him had been mislaid; did not
to

had
feel well, etc.
be
some cases there may
In

indeed truth
all

these statements, but generally there none. And

in

is
true that this man, for instance, did have

to
if
it

even
is

search for letter, after all his fault that was not it
it
is
a

it.

ready for him

to

take
unpunctuality only then when
of

We speak man
be is
a

habitually late. Once while everybody may

in
a

late, though there are quite few who manage never

a

late even during many, many years. The habit

be
of to

unpunctuality gives rise many unpleasant experi

to

ences; there are not only those mentioned already, but

the haste the unpunctual necessarily has
be

itself
to

in
up is

quite disagreeable. The reasons for keeping this

very strong indeed, since this unpleas
all
be

habit must
not weighty enough
it.
to

antness counterbalance
is

unpunctuality has,
of

The apparently invincible habit

seems, two main roots. The one the reluctance
as
it

is is

against submitting be
of

rules, the other

to

the idea
ing able
of

things relatively
to

cram lot into short

a
a
of

span time.
 D IF FIC U L TIES W IT H WO R. K. 91

Man is very definitely inclined to be disobedient. He

does not, when left to the original impulses of his na
ture, feel like bowing to laws; he rather resents having
to acknowledge them, and he will try to ignore or to
break them whenever he can do so without incurring
too great a risk. But his conscience tells him, notwith
standing this innate tendency for breaking the law, that
there must be laws and that they have to be obeyed.
Man may, in some exceptional cases, deny the existence
its

of a law and of obligatory power. Generally, how

of
ever, the existence and compulsory nature the law
gainsaid. Nor
be

can not there always possibility

is

a
simply ignoring the law; circumstances will force
of

recognize its existence.

to

man
The fact that laws exist and that human conscience
of

this, absolute contradiction

to
in

aware man's
is

is

wish for independence and the impulses driving him

to

into revolt and disobedience. He can not openly, not

even before his own conscience, indulge these in
in

do
gratify them
he

he

so
to
If

clinations. wants can

by

only compromise, enough be

to
some clever clever
unintelligible
of to

himself. He has find out

to

come even
some compromise between the inexorability the law
and his own longings. Such compromise found
if
is
a
be

alleged for not obeying

or
be at

some reason can least

not obeying completely, and this reason can made
if

of of

were independent conscious will.

to

appear
as
if
it

This exactly the case with the habit unpunctuality;

is

nobody willingly unpunctual; even the most unpunc

is

tual individual has-or believes he has—the intention

himself, not his con
of

he

being punctual. not

It
is

scious personality which makes him late; “his

it
is
an

habit;
he

nature,” something can not help, irresistible

of

the strength Whichever rea

or

circumstances.
it
is

long the unpunctual

so

alleged does not matter

as

son
is
92 S ELF IMP ROVEMEN T

individual believes in the compulsory power of the factor

he makes responsible.
Unpunctuality considered from this point view,

is,

of
quite clever compromise; disobey

to
enables man

it
a

a
reality without feeling fully responsible for
of
the laws
this truly nonsensical attitude. But there still an

is
other side this habit.
to
Sometimes one gets the impression that being late

or
unpunctual not always

as
easy one would think.

as
is

be
There the person who has some place

at

at
to
is

a
knows very well that will take him,
he

definite time;

it
he
say, half-an-hour get there;
byto

knows too—or rather

to he

ought experience—how long

to

know takes him

it
get ready. To
be

he
the appointed place
at

in
time
ought begin getting ready fifty-five
to

minutes before
plenty time; suddenly
of
the time. He even begins
in

he it he
he

has the idea that something has be

to
done before
This thing very often not urgent all;

at
leaves.
is
be

the day
or

could tomorrow. But

in

done later
doing very ought
he

dress. He
he to

starts the moment

it

feels that there time enough, though indeed can

is

not overlook the fact that there not. Or he wants

is
is,

course, some unpleas

of

finish the paper.

to

There
having anything unfinished; but
to to
in

antness leave
leave one thing for the sake
of

sometimes we have
another, more important than the first. Or the man
all

he
of

who has get ready sudden discovers that

to

a
up

Shakespeare for
to

look certain passage

to in

wanted
a

it,
of
he

he

the past several days; now comes think

go

just must through some volumes, lest forget again

he

in do

ascertain the right quotation. Or will simply

he
to

in he

nothing, feeling sure that going

be

ready
to
is
he

five minutes; but fact least fifteen—and

at

needs
he

interpolating
of
he

knows that does. This habit

be
of

something, creating quite unnecessary delay

a

particularily manifest per

in

comes cases when such

a
 D IF FIC UL TIES W IT H WO R K 93

son is reminded by another that he has to get ready. A

husband is told by his wife that he ought to shave and
dress; he answers, maybe with some impatience, “I
wife will,

let
know; just me finish my cigar.” Or

a
the same manner, reply: “Dear me, for
in
reminded

I
the plumber she rec

of
got Jane for the address
to

ask
ommended me the day before yesterday;” and she
to

an
proceeds ring up Jane and becomes engaged
to

in
endless conversation, perhaps not mentioning the
plumber all. They manage

of
lose quite lot
at

in to
time

a
by such tricks; then they feel hurry, they try

to
a
do
rush things, but things not like being rushed, and

by
they take, were, their revenge being obstinate
as
it

of
and malicious. Buttons have knack becoming
a
of of

of
loose, keys being undiscoverable, bootlaces being
rotten, cars being unwilling start, and on, just

so
to

go
all

when one most intensely desires these things

to
smoothly.
This behavior—which quite common, though the
be is

picture drawn here may

of

something caricature—
a

ex an
no

probably has meaning prepare

to

other than
cuse for being possible just being
to

late and make this

late. But why, everyone will ask, why should person
a

late? Well, there are many reasons for want

be be
to to

wish
ing late. Losing time and being unpunctual
is
an

quite efficient method for making another angry who

go
on
be

is be

time, one who has with

to

to

wants one
it

meet. Unpunc
be

one, the person one going

to
it

tuality may serve for expressing certain disregard for

a

another or, least, that one does not feel obliged

to
at

regard him too much.

In

former times was custom

it

a
of

be

“society” late for concerts

to

with the members

theater; still earlier times the play could not
or

for
in

of

begin before Lord this that had deigned

or

the Duke
arrive. Even today there are quite
to

few occasions
a

be
of

great personality
to

where the entrance some has

94 S E LF IMPRO V EMEN T

awaited before the thing can be started. But the duke

or the prince or the potentate used to be punctual, be
cause they knew that the rest of the people would have
to wait; they were punctual not so much because they
did not want to keep others waiting, but because they
knew for sure that nothing would begin before they
appeared. They tried to be on time, for that made them
conscious of their dominant rôle.
But there is still another factor, the one mentioned
before—the tendency of cramming. The man acting
in the way described above knows of course that there
is a limit to speed and a limit to the number of things
which can be done within a given number of minutes.
But he acts as if he were capable of making time flow
slower and of pressing things together. He acts as if
the laws of time did not exist for him, rather as if it
were he whom time had to obey.
Such an idea can not be conceived clearly and con
sciously; it is much too preposterous It would
for that.
be wrong if one were to impute to the unpunctual that
they are thinking of ruling over time. But they act
as if this were indeed what they think. There is an
other feature, coupled quite often to unpunctuality, the
analysis of which brings out the very same idea. Many
unpunctual people are exceedingly impatient. Impa
tience, of course, exists also independently of unpunc
tuality; but it is often the latter's companion. This is
rather strange, because one would expect the unpunctual
to show some indulgence for others having the same
quality; but one will as a rule find them rather in
tolerant. In this they make indeed no exception; many
people are quite severe on those who have the same
faults as they themselves. Either they do not know
their own faults at all, or they believe they have good
excuseswhich are missing in the case of another, or they
condemn others for not becoming aware of their being
 DI FFIC U L TI E S W IT H WO R K 95

afflicted in the same way. Unpunctuality may, for that

matter, foster the habit of impatience, because of the
many situations necessitating haste and therefore creat
ing impatience.
There are two kinds of impatience, one in doing
things and one in letting them develop; they may be
called also active and passive impatience. Some en
lightenment on the nature of this quality may be gained
by going back to the original meaning of the word.
Patience is derived from the Latin verb pati, which
signifies to suffer. The impatient person is one who
finds it unsufferable that things do not behave as he
to,

especially time. The

to
in
wants them reference

he
passively impatient person feels torture that has
it
wait”; a

he
simply will rather risk
to

wait. He “can not

an

missing interview than wait for someone

to

to
have
finding that
to

him. He
in
see shocked and offended
is is

he
another patient staying with the physician when
person—comes consult him. He suffers severe
to

—he
in

pains because the train twenty minutes late, though

is

-
no

hurry
he

at
in

all.
is

One can easily understand impatience man wait

in
a

on

ing for important decision, for some news

an

which
much depends, for call from the hospital telling him
a

an

right after
all

operation, and on,

so

that his wife

is
of

though course his being impatient does not make

go

faster. “Even the watched pot boils

in

the world
of

time.” One understands also the impatience the

child longing for his birthday-present,
of

the lover
awaiting his beloved, the author wanting
of

to

see his
first book printed. We may understand, because we
see the reasons for this behavior. But visible reasons are
fact,
is,

not necessarily good reasons. Impatience

in

never reasonable. Active impatience particularly not

is

an
to

in

reasonable, tends become obstacle

it

because
96 SELF I M P R O V EMEN T

realizing what the impatient person wants to see realized

immediately.
In

all

of
the various shades impatience there one

is

to he
constant feature. The impatient person feels that
right

he
does not get his due. He believes that has

to a
on
be

be
expect the train time, the physician ready

to
see him, things wants them to. King

he
to

to
behave

as
Louis XIV
of
France, the same who coined the saying
that punctuality

of
the politeness the kings, once
wanted one of his ministers is
see him three o'clock.

at
to
The clock was still striking three when the minister ad
vanced towards the king, who received him rather
sternly, remarking: “My Lord, narrowly missed hav

goI
ing had wait.” When you king, you have
to

to
see

a
good while before the ap
be
to

in

his ante-chamber
a

pointed time. The king has not wait. Who chafes, to

wait, evidently believes himself en
he

to

because has
titled kingly rights.
to

Active impatience springs from the idea that things

of
obey. This becomes obvious
to

in

have the behavior

not be
do
children who want punish things which
to

king
of

have. There was Persia who had the sea

a

whipped because destroyed the bridges his soldiers had

it

thrown across. This man believed himself demi-god

a

least and felt outraged by the misdemeanor

of
at

the
elements. But there are many adults whose behavior
is

children, though they can

of

not bit better than that

a

not pretend
to

believe themselves God-sent rulers over

but seldom pun
do

the world and the elements. They

do

ish things; but they

at

sometimes swear them.

Impatience does not further our work, which usually
progresses the slower the more impatient we become.
long-lasting
A of

of

This true single actions well

as

as
is

of

enterprises. man impatient see the fruit

to

his
work destroy Children will sometimes,
it.
to

liable
is

having planted some seeds, dig them out every day

to
 D IF F I C U L TI E S W IT H WO R. K. 97

see how far they have progressed; there is but little

chance that they will live to see the flowers. Adults
often behave in the same manner. This kind of im
patience amounts to an intolerance for supporting and
watching any slow development, and it may be that it
is the effect of discouragement.
A person trying to learn something, to acquire a new
technique, to master certain difficulties, discovers that he
is not progressing at all. He therefore begins to doubt
whether he will be able to reach his goal; he is too am
bitious, he cannot content himself with an average or
medium success; he wants a great success and he wants
it quickly. But reality does not, as a rule, concede such
easy and quick victories. This man loses his patience;
he begins to be hasty, and by this creates new obstacles.
Finally he gives up; he will not say that he did not go
on because he lost faith in his capacity for achieving his
purpose; he will rather say that he is unluckily—by
nature, of course—too impatient for this kind of work.
Or he will complain that it makes him “nervous.” The
question of nervousness can not be discussed here; but
one will always do well to remember that there are no
sharp limits between nervousness and lack of self-con
trol.
Another feature, rather related to impatience, is un
tidiness. Lack of order is sure to handicap one’s work.
untidiness de
an
all

But not that impresses observer

as

called by this name. The arrange

be

serves really
to

on

writing-desk may appear

of

ment notes and books

a

on

utterly untidy; may the “disorder” reigning

so
as

workman. But this dis

of

of

chemist,
or

the table
a
a

be

order may have quite good reasons and quite trans

parent whom those things belong. Order
to

of to

the man
not category
in

aesthetics and does not consist

it
is

symmetry neat geometrical arrangement. Or

at or
in
a

der means, work, that the things

to
in

least reference
98 SEL. F IM PR O V EM EN T

needed handy, that they may be found at a mo

are
ment's notice, that they are arranged according to the
requirements of the work. Whether there is order or
not is not shown by the mere aspect of the things, but
by the way they help the work which they are destined
to further.
Untidiness begins the very moment work becomes
handicapped. The term “work” must be taken, how

or all
ever, in a very large sense; it comprises

of
kinds deal
ing with things, not only the office, the work

in

in
shop, the kitchen; the way per
or

to
in

refers also
it

a
arranges his daily life, his room, the
he

son dresses, how

way
he

answers his letters, and

so
forth. Whatever the
special field may be, wherein untidiness becomes mani
an

fest, always denotes unwillingness

to to
observe rules.
it

an

Order means arrangement according certain laws;

ignoring order amounts, therefore, ignoring these to
laws.
Order, the outward expres
of
or

which
the laws
it
is

apply only

in of
sion, does not work the strict sense
to

in

sufficiently orderly
be

man may even

A

the term.
his work and very untidy other fields. There may
in in
no
be

grave inconvenience being dressed disor

of in
a
no

derly way, long there violation decency.

as

as

is

But such habit denotes—besides being unpleasant

a

from the aesthetic point

of

to of

view—a definite disregard

rules recognized by other people; this tantamount
is

not exist for this one in

do

declaring that these rules

dividual or that he above the rules and above those
is

who observe them. The story

of

told Socrates who,

is

meeting very world-despising and very superior phil

a

osopher whose cloak showed many holes, remarked:

“My friend, out your cloak peers—
of

of

the holes
vanity.”
all

To each vice there corresponding virtue, since

is
a

the good. But among the vir

of

evil but the absence

is
 D IFFIC U L TI ES WITH W OR K 99

tues there are some which may be misunderstood and

misused and distorted in such a way as to become nearly
vices themselves. This is of course not a result of the
particular nature of these virtues but of a behavior
which—while keeping up the appearance of virtue—is
in fact based on an attitude very different from the one
demanded by virtue. The virtue corresponding to the
vice or the imperfection of untidiness is orderliness and
its

exaggeration called pedantry.

perversion
it. of or

is
The behavior the typical pedant well known; no

is

be
The pedant believes his habit
to

to
need describe

he
great help work and life general;
in

in

in
believes
a

very moral quality and that

he
also that alone
it
is
a

true orderliness, whereas every

of

the representative
is

body else deserves more called untidy.

be
or

to
less
Pedantry, however, very often causes

of
great loss
a
all
no

time and proves help work. The pedant,

at

in

furthermore, devotes often such an amount

of

to
time
the preparations for his work—he exceedingly con
so
is

never starts really working.

he

scientious—that He

its
putting everything
of

lot exactly
in

of in
loses time
a

he

place; but could make quite often better use this

a

time.
Pedantry complicates life, though
to

intended
it
is
is,

work the other way. Excessive pedantry however,

on

more than just with work;

an

getting
in

obstacle
to it
an

definitely immoral attitude. The pedant tries

is

create around him world arranged absolutely accord

a

ing his ideas and subjected

to

immutable laws laid

to

in
by

of

down himself. This fact petty manner

in
is

suring superiority over things and, for that matter, over

people too. Pedantry very often way showing
of
is
a

order and giving others

of

off one's own sense under

to

stand that they are inferior. Pedantry may become also

tyrannizing other people;
of

very efficient means

a
a

pedantic husband “boss” has many oppor

or

or

father
100 SE LF IMPR O V EM E N T

tunities for avenging crimes, since nobody really can ob

serve the laws of a pedant so exactly as to give him satis
faction. Even where he does not rule, the pedant finds a
way of conveying to other people the impression that he
alone knows what order means; he will come into a
room and the first thing he does is to straighten out
something or put a picture straight on the wall or shift
the objects on the chimney-piece into an absolutely
symmetric position.
Impatient and untidy people argue that their be
havior is due to their “nature,” that it is simply an
essential feature of their character and that they can
not, accordingly, help being what they are. The pedant
feels that he has achieved a high degree of moral per
fection, though he claims that he does but his duty and
that he has to do this the more, since everybody else
neglects it in such an awful manner. He alone knows
what order really means, and he alone is sufficiently
conscientious to act on this knowledge. An untidy
person may possess quite a lot of charm, though his
lack of order may be rather troublesome for many
people and for himself too; but a pedant is not charm
ing at all; he is simply a bore and a nuisance. He is
sheltering himself behind his pharisaical attitude; his
is in truth a peculiar type of hypocrisy.
Impatience, untidiness and pedantry are not restricted
to work. They influence other sides of behavior as
well. They could have been dealt with also under other
headings; but they seemed to be best placed here, be
cause they become most visible in connection with work.
The pedant is a person dreading new and unforeseen
situations. He tries to arrange beforehand for every
possible problem. By observing strictly the rule he
has laid down himself the pedant builds around himself
all

a wall which he hopes is going to exclude events not

accounted for. Pedantry tends towards far-reaching
a
 D1 FF 1 cu LT 1 Es W1 Ph wo n r 101

simplification of life, shutting out as far as possible alſº

sudden changes and replacing full-blooded reality by a
shadowy and artificial routine. Pedantry is meant to

of all
warn against situations such man eventually would

in is a
feel incapable handling; trick by which failure

it
a
be

truth cowards recoiling

to

avoided. Pedants are

is

from the adventure of life.

circumstantiality
of
The habit

to
somehow related

is
pedantry. The pedant
circumstantial, but circum

is
stantiality not necessarily coupled pedantry. Cir

to
is

cumstantiality too tends avoid action, by paying an

to
every smallest detail, by overrating
to

undue attention
merely accidental factors, by crediting
of

the influence
with the greatest importance each single action, by dis
the way, by

of
covering new difficulties every turn
at

making the most insignificant

of

tremendous affair out

a

their own ac
of

of
things. The overrating details and

of
tions the essential feature characteristic persons
is

cultivating this habit. Circumstantiality great

is
a
work, because
its

handicap progress; but

in

slackens
it

social life; few

of

the greatest nuisances

in
it

also one
is

people are boring and troublesome the circum

as

as

as

stantial.
The circumstantial person prides himself, like the
on

being particularly conscientious;

he

pedant, knows
an

that every detail, even apparently insignificant one,

may eventually become important; his conscience does
not allow him overlook the smallest thing. These
to

people are conscientious that they have

to

ascertain
so

whether some arrangement really suits everybody con

it;

go

cerned with they will therefore over each point

with minuteness which drives everyone else into
a

despair. the circumstantial person were really con

If

as
he

he

he so so

be, would not tax

to

believes himself
as

siderate
of

he

much the patience his neighbors; were really

if
of

the responsibility human action,

to

much alive
 ;
. •I M M

N
T
O
R
P

E
V
...
-- --

-
-
-
woulākñow that losing time often graver fault than

is

a
do
neglecting some detail. These people not know that

In all
importance exist; they treat

of
shades and varieties
equally important.

all
things alike, they were

as
if
do
that things are important;

all
truth they not feel

at
important

be
what they feel exclusively their own

to

is
doing. thing has,

of
the eyes the circumstantial

in
A
intrinsic im

an
no

no
type, intrinsic value; fact has
portance; things and facts become valuable and im
portant only because and insofar

as
this individual has
do

strong element

of
with them. There egoism
to

is
a
of
and subjectivism this kind
in

behavior.
Neither untidiness nor pedantry nor circumstantiality
“abnormal”; they are considered varia
be

are felt
to

as
im
of

tions normal character. There are other qualities

periling work which, according the sub

of
is to
the idea
de
on

jects, verge abnormality. very difficult

to
It

cide whether some character-trait belongs normality

to
is,

truth, not very

of
or

But this decision

in

not.

a
great importance, because there are fleeting transitions,
course from normality
of

not real mental disease, but

to

from certain undesirable character features

to
others
per
to of

which create the impression not belonging

to
it,
of

sonality but being added were, from the

as
it

outside. Many people will deplore their being impatient,

of

but they will—even though they may speak this

quality
of

sign
as

“nervousness”—not consider this

as
a

“symptom”; they will hardly seek the advice

of
a

impa
of

of

neurologist for the sake getting rid their

tience. But person who feels that his work suffers by
a

his “lack of concentration” rather inclined

to

believe
is

this quality the “symptom”

of
be

some serious trouble

to to

turn neurologist for help.

to

and the
worrying people
to

The fact these too well-known

is

need lengthy description. Some few examples will

a

recall what the matter with such person.

to

suffice
is

a
 D I FF I C U L T I E S W I T H WO R K 103

A woman wanting to do some needlework finds herself

suddenly awaking with a start, the work in her lap, her
hands idle and her mind coming back from she does
not know where. A boy, instead of doing his home
work, lets his thoughts wander away from his task and
turns, while still sitting at his desk and perhaps still
turning the pages of the book, to the last or maybe the
next baseball game. A clerk going over some ac
counts finds that he has no idea of the figures his eyes
are running over, because his mind is occupied with the
memory of the last date he had with his girl or with pic
turing the pleasures of their next meeting. Those people
are said to be “dreaming” instead of doing their work.
They often know what they are dreaming of, but very
often they have no idea whatever of the matter to which
their thoughts turn. It is especially the second form
of incapacity of concentration which is felt to be ab
normal. Sometimes one gets the impression that these
dreams are breaking into the stream of waking thoughts
and into actual occupations with an irresistible strength.
A child or an adult may find himself sitting on his bed,
his shirt in his hand; he seems to have forgotten alto
gether that he just was putting it on; something came
between, he does not know what it was, and he glided
off into some dream whose content he often can not
even recall. Whether the distracting thoughts or dreams
are known to the subject or not, the impression is regu
larly that this drifting away into the realm of dreams
cannot be helped; try as he might, the subject can not
get rid of this habit which he himself feels to be wrong
and a very serious obstacle to his work.
Most of these people describe their state as if they suf
fered from a general incapacity for concentration.
great majority evident exaggera
is,

an

This least,
at
in
a

on

tion. The boy who can not concentrate his mathe

on

very often quite able some

to

matics concentrate
is
104 SE LF IMPR O VEMEN T

thing else, for instance on building a canoe or on read

ing a thrilling story. The clerk whose thoughts wander
away from his correspondence to dwell on his girl may
forget her completely while following the races. The
woman who drifts off into the land of dreams instead
of mending her husband's shirts is able to concentrate
perfectly when playing bridge.
It is indeed well known that concentration proves in
sufficient—unless it be an extreme case—only where
there is no interest for the thing demanding attention.
To concentrate on a matter which we feel to be boring
or, even worse, tedious and disgusting is rather difficult,
though it may be done and surely can be learned; but
it is much easier to attend to things one is interested in.
Another fact, belonging absolutely to normal mental
life, which may serve to clarify the phenomenon of lack
of concentration is likewise quite well known. If we
have in mind some idea which worries us, some trouble
or sorrow or a problem exercising a strong fascination,
this thing will turn up again and again, without our
wanting it to do so, even while we most earnestly try to
give our whole attention to another matter. Attention
is never of the same intensity during a long time; there
are what is called by psychology fluctuations of atten
tion. This phenomenon can be ascertained best by lis
tening to the ticking of a watch; we get the impression
that the noise becomes sometimes louder and sometimes
quite low; the noise does not change in fact, but the in
tensity of our listening to it varies. These fluctuations
of attention become intensified whenever there is some
thing on our mind attracting attention.
The incapacity of concentration depends not so much
on a deficiency of this particular faculty as on the pres
ence of other things which attract our attention more
than the thing we ought to concentrate on. This is a
very typical instance of what is commonly called “weak
 D I FF I C U L T I E S W I T H WO R. K. 105

ness of will”; there is in truth no real weakness, but a

partition of will or of interest, attention being dis
tracted by some other topic, the term “distraction” hav
ing to be taken in

its
most literal sense.
The question whither attention turns, rather than

is
pointed out

to
from what drawn off.

If
this
it
is

is
people complaining

of

of
incapacity concentration, they
very readily accept this statement; but they add imme
diately that they cannot help being interested

in
other
things more than their respective tasks. Whether
in

it,
they can can not help another question. The
is or

is
first thing find out what the thing which cap
to

is
tivates their attention.
Sometimes indeed useful to become distracted.
it
is

Says mother: “Dad, Bob needs new suit. But you

a

.
.

“I .
don’t listen what say!” Says father: just re
to

membered that contact Brown and Jones to

to

have
I

morrow about their last order.” Why did this thought

father just now? This very trivial fact shows
to

come
that thinking things which are not actual this mo
an of

efficient way
of
be

an

ment may escaping unpleasant

do

reality. Some people not even want escape totally;

to

they only dislike obey the summons imme

to

to

have
diately, they prefer
to

choose their own time.

The same tendency underlies the very common habit
of

be

postponing things. This habit may strong that

so

person addicted will risk even serious damage

of to
it
a

do

only for the sake not having things immedi

to

re
of

ately. peculiar variety this habit consists

in
A

do

senting very much being told

In
or
to

this that.
not doing what
to of

some persons becomes quite habit

it

they are asked do, simply

or

save their idea

to

told
of

independence.
The lack of concentration will be understood better
by

with an
its

psychological conditions comparing

in

it

other habit which has indeed much common with the

in

2.
106 S E LF IMPR O VE MEN T

first: day-dreaming. The state of mind, indeed, which

intervenes in work and causes the mind to wander is
merely a more or less abortive day-dreaming. The day
dreamer may be a person who deliberately takes abode
in a world of dreams and of unreality, not caring for
real things and real tasks, or he may be one whose mind
drifts away into this land unwillingly and without

do
noticing not know after

of
it.
Some these dreamers
wards, where they have been; they only become aware
time having elapsed
of

of

of
lacuna, quite which
a

a
they are unable give account. Day-dreams are, some
to

times, easily forgotten are those appearing during

as

as

by
of
sleep. But one can get
glimpse the latter awak
a

ening the dreamer suddenly;

in
the same manner one

on
of
an

sometimes gets what going the mind

in
idea is
of

the day-dreamer.
Day-dreams with things which are particularly
deal
the dreamer's mind, things which attract him
to

dear
the dream re
of
more than does reality. The world
all

reality by features fash

of

places unpleasant sides

ioned according
to

the dreamer's wishes. These wishes

are fulfilled by the dream, either quite openly on or
in
a
more veiled manner. Day-dreams the are always
dreamer's own fate and personality; no day-dream pic
things;
all

tures objective they are about the dreamer's

person and his doings. this feature which dis
It
is

tinguishes day-dreaming from planning. He who has

of

of

figure out
to

on to

line action has make use his

a

on

imagination; but his thoughts turn reality, what

be

be

done, and he starts therefore

in or
to

has done can

from the reality hand. The dreamer discards reality
from some situation which inter
or

more less; he starts

all

pleases him, and

he
or

does not care

at

ests whether
his dreams can become true or not.
dreams has another quality too, besides
of

The world
reality and picturing
of

correcting the unpleasantnesses

 D IFFI C U L TI E S W IT H WO R K 107

a “better world.” The dreamer creates this whole world

fact, the al

is,
and it exists only by his will. He

in
mighty creator and ruler

of
this world. The dream
supplies gratification ambition;

to
therefore definite

a
satisfies the hidden but never-dying wish “to

be
like
it

gods.”
Day-dreaming dangerous, not only because re

it
is
moves the individual from reality and places him

in
a
region where activity quite impossible and where his
is
no
ideas and decisions have practical consequences, but
furthers the wrong and unruly ambition
it

also because
of

many troubles.
so

which the root

at
is

Now, after having become acquainted with the true

of

nature the things which distract the human mind

from reality and, accordingly from work, and which
of
become the reason for the incapacity concentration,
one can try answer the question, whether this habit
to

really, the people addicted pretend, utterly

to

so
as

on it
is

immutable. The considerations this point apply,

however, some other habits too; therefore pref
to

of it
is

postpone the discussion this point until

to

erable
later.
One may perhaps wonder finding mentioned here,
at

among the troubles regarding work, the fact

of

fatigue.
Fatigue apparently nothing the psychologist entitled
is

is

discuss; belongs physiology or, eventually,

to

on to

to
it it

pathology; depends physical factors and has noth

how
do

ing with mental qualities. This opinion

is,
to

ever, not quite correct.

There are people who get tired very quickly,
so

that
on

they have great efforts for going

to

make with their

of

work. Others are capable much greater exertions

of

and longer work without feeling tired. These differ

ences are generally attributed factors belonging
to

to

bodily health, strength, constitution. Fatigability

or
is or

on

may depend, quite true, such factors; everybody

it
108 SELF I M P R O V EMEN T

knows that a man in a bad state of health gets tired

more quickly than he does in his normal state. There
are, however, facts which point to a definite influence
of the mind too.
It is noteworthy that we use the term of “tiresome”
nearly exclusively as a synonym for “boring.” Being
bored is no effort; it does not consume energy; none of
the forces of our body is overtaxed by listening to a dull
person, by reading an uninteresting book, by attending
a tiresome meeting. Nevertheless we feel tired and
sleepy. This proves that there is a feeling of being
tired which is not conditioned by physical—or, for that
matter, by mental—effort. The state of fatigue, result
ing from an expense of energy has to be distinguished
from the feeling of being tired. The latter may be
caused by objective fatigue, but it may arise also inde
pendently. Fatigue may, on the other hand, exist with

it;
out the feeling of being tired accompanying this

is
the case whenever emotional strain or the action of
some drug—for instance, caffeine—overbalances the ef
on
of

fect exertion. The sportsman intent securing

a
interesting phenome
an

record, the scientist observing

non, the mother watching her sick child,
of
at

the bed
of by

the reader enthralled “mystery-story,” the player

a

sitting the better part the night the card-table—

at
all
is do

they not notice that they are really tired; their

fatigue, but the correspond
of

organism
in

the state
ing feeling does not arise.
no

convincing proof
of

Feeling tired therefore

is

energy, and getting easily tired does not

of

real expense
necessarily show that there
or

real weakness ineffi

is
a

many cases
of

of

ciency the body. Physicians know

in

which the “patient” complains

of

his becoming tired

very quickly and which the most conscientious ex
in

amination does not reveal any sign

of

physical weakness.
furthermore, the fact
is,

of

of

There certain types

 D IF F I C U L TI E S W IT H WO R. K. 109

people feeling exceedingly tired by one kind of work

and quite capable of great physical exertions immedi
ately afterwards. A boy may feel “too tired” to do his
Latin, but not at for playing tennis; girl may

all

be
a
by
“exhausted” her office work, but have strength
enough left for dancing. Which again shows that the

on
feeling tired depends

of
subjective state still other
factors besides the amount of work done.

by
Objective fatigue too not conditioned the

is
of

work alone; depends, great extent;

to
amount

it

a
of on

also the way this work done. There are many

is
ways doing the same thing; training consists largely
avoiding superfluous movements and limiting
all
in

the absolutely necessary minimum.

to

muscular exertion
of

it of
Lack adaptation plays great rôle
in
the causation
a
of

fatigue. We may speak mental adaptation too;

a

comprises emotional and volitional factors besides one

willing cer
do
of

mere technique. The more one

to
is

it.
he

tain work the better mentally adapted

to
is

Really willing means

be

wholeheartedly with one's

to

it)

work (even one does not like work,

if

byit

because
is

the part allotted one, because doing

to

it
it

because
is

one joins the great army working humanity. “There

of

fore saw, that there nothing better this world,

in
is
I

his work, for this

be

than that man joyous

in

his
is

part.”
People who get easily tired by doing work which does
not really unduly tax their forces are mostly badly
adapted—in their work, gen
the sense alluded to-to
erally even work. They think that they
all

of
to

kinds
be

like another work better and that they would more

efficient had they this given them. Experience shows,
to

however, that this often not true all. These

at
is

people, when given other work, feel better first; they

at
do

of

tired any more; but this state things

so

not feel
110 S E LF IMPRO VE M ENT

lasts but a short while; very soon they are as tired as

they were before.
There are no doubt many unpleasant sides in many
kinds of work. Pay may be—and very often is—in
sufficient; comrades may be rude and inconsiderate; the
“boss” may be unjust and exacting; the work itself may
be unsatisfactory for many reasons, and so on. One
thing becomes a particular nuisance: work well done
often meets no acknowledgment. A certain amount of
recognition is due to man; to ask for it or to expect it
is not vanity; the efforts of a man are not fully paid
by the salary he receives, since there is more in work
its

than mere mechanical outside aspect. or

The will
work, the readiness filling one's place,

all
of

the men
to

tal factors coming in, demand moral com

or
mental
a

pensation. Especially unpaid work, like that done by

the housewife and mother, ought
be
acknowledged;
to
an

truly injustice, this frequent habit hus

of
so
it
is

all

bands who take the work done by their wives

as
a
matter of course.
Notreceiving one's due, not seeing one's work rec
is,

it. on

no

ognized the other hand, sufficient reason for

abandoning Man would indeed not feel this way,
were not for the hidden but incessantly smouldering
it

fire of revolt.
Even when we are best adapted our work, quite
to
it,

willing
do

do

this rebellion against having

to

to

it

strange facts;
of

may break out. One hears sometimes

man, successful his work, honored for his achieve
in
a

ments, who apparently has nothing complain

all
at

to

of, suddenly deserts his work, throws away fame and

either retires, unaccountably, into
he

honor and success;

solitude or, some cases, disappears totally, nobody
in

very
of

knows where. Such line open but

to

action
is
a

few; most people can not and dare not give vent
to

their longing for desertion. But they can find some

 D IF F I C U L TI E S W IT H W. O. R. K. 111

by
outlet for They can manage degrade work

to
it.
hating feed their hate by feeling work too

to
and

it
much for them, that by getting tired.

is

by
Few people are ever really absorbed
by their work
any other occupation.
or

The beautiful enthral

ment children show while playing later years.

on in
lost

is
oc

of
something left

or
There revived certain

it
is

casions which—rather noticeably—are

all

or
more less
called “play.” The term “playing” used for sportive

is
of
plays

or
well for the screen the stage; we
at as

as

those
play roulette; gambler player; and
or

cards

is
a

a
do
stories are, though we not call them plays,

at
least
“fiction”—make-believes—as every true play child

in
no

play. perhaps not

is.

But work

so
hood bad
It
is

is
an

work were some play;

as
attitude which looks
at

if
children are indeed their plays it
at

in
as

as
least earnest
of

adults are, even the most solemn them, their work.

enjoy one's work were play very rare is in
to

But
as
if
it

gift. And dangerous one, because but too easily a

it
a

degenerates into mere toying with work, which quite

is
another thing.
This may be, however; surely true that few
it
is

do
people are really absorbed deeply whatever they
so

to in
is,

that their whole personality say, lost

so

their
in
all
of

work. We are, us, mostly divided between our

is,

work and something else. This being divided even

an

when remains unnoticed, unpleasant situation.

it

The human mind has evidently strong craving for

a

unity and dislikes being torn asunder. But man

it

is

never, nearly never, enthusiastic about anything

or

so

can forget himself and his egoistic longings

he

that
altogether. He always divided between the objective
is

reality and his own subjective world. Reality gets hold

it,

him,
of

he

he

cannot escape must give

attention.
it

feels drawn towards his own sub

he

But the stronger

jective world, the more painful becomes this state
of
112 SE LF IMPRO V EMEN T

being divided. Man cannot put an end to it by throw

ing himself totally into reality and work, because the
attraction the ego exercises is too strong. He can, there
fore, end this situation of being divided only by return
ing into the egoistic world. But conscience forbids
this; he cannot do it openly, he must find a way for do
ing it which will allow him to keep up appearances or,

is,
he
as the Chinese say, to save his face. That must
he

feel that has very good reason for deserting work

a
and reality; this reason supplied by his getting tired.

is

its
This somehow paradoxical view has

in
confirmation
the fact that people whose life the subjective world,
in
of

the world dreams and

of desires, plays greater rôle,

a
particularly liable getting tired very easily: the
to

are
neurotics.
be

pointed out, however, that the diagnosis,

It

must
made only

be
not for the layman;
so

say,
to

can
it
is
all

after possible reasons—and among them somatic fac

tors—have been excluded. Sometimes man accuses
a

being lazy and easily tired, while

of

he

in
himself

is
truth suffering from some bodily ailment. Or school
children are reproved and punished for being inatten
tive and distracted, while truth their behavior con
in

is

ditioned by some physical trouble, perhaps tuberculosis

or some endocrinal disturbance.
is,

This however, not the rule; generally people are

quite healthy enough for the work they ought
to

do.
to it,
of

they feel not capable doing they refuse

or
If

if
it,
do

probably not
be
to

found
in

the reason their

is

them are simply lazy. Laziness

of

physical state; most

everyone. Though
its

not always the same mani

in
is

festations may be, are, very much the same, the

or

psychological background may differ considerably. The

all

of

common idea that laziness piece and that

is

is

quite unnecessary.
to

to

trace back other reasons

it

is

There are, however, several reasons for being lazy. And

 D IF FIC U L TI E S W IT H W O RK 113

itis accordingly wrong to suppose that laziness can be

dealt with always in the same fashion. The idea that a
lazy man has to do nothing but just to be not lazy, is
wrong; one has to find out what the particular reasons
for his laziness are.
Agood many people are simply and always lazy;
there is nothing to induce them to become industrious
or even ordinarily active. They are as unwilling to un
dergo exertion in sports as they are disinclined to in
tellectual efforts. But there are others whose laziness
is,

say, more specialized. boy may neglect his

so
to

A
quite willing de
of

be

to
schoolwork out laziness and
the play

on
vote much effort and time training to
ground. But
he

be

may also rather industrious

in
school
too lazy for training. Thus far laziness very
be

and

is
much like fatigability; lazy people indeed very often
un
of

an
complain being tired. Laziness may cause
willingness work, but the relation may also take the
to

opposite turn.
Human nature comprises many apparently contra
dictory tendencies, which fact the bottom
at

indeed
is

idle
of

of

quite number conflicts. We feel drawn

to
a

and, time,
at

ness the same dissatisfied when there

is

nothing old adage calls idleness the begin

An
all to

do.
by

ning reality
of

vices. When man not occupied

is
its

and not forced by

he

obey laws, begins,

to

as
it

it
of

invent occupations
to

seems, his own which indeed

in of

easily miss the road righteousness. There definite

is
a

longing for activity every normal mind; the aim

of

this longing however, not mere activity, but one

at is,

on

which makes least some fugitive impression reality.

is he

Man wants his will creating things, and since

to

see
do
no

true creative power, the next best thing

to

has
impart some change reality already existing. On
to

to

the other hand there marked repugnance against

is
a

violent effort. What man really desires

to

attain
is

a
114 SELF I M P R O V E M E N T

great result by a small effort. This compromise is not

feasible. A certain correspondence between effort and
result seems to be one of the laws of reality. The solu
tion of dividing the day into periods of work and of
leisure is not altogether satisfactory, because the con
tradictory tendencies co-exist; while work gratifies the
longing for activity, the tendency towards idleness is
dissatisfied, and being idle leaves unfulfilled the wish
for activity while gratifying the longing for idleness.
The opposite tendency may be silenced for a while, but
it does not cease to exist and it is quite capable of giv
ing rise to some unpleasant sensations. The more a man
is wrapped up in his work, the more the tendency of
idleness is silenced; but it is never really destroyed.
Ignoring it altogether may become even dangerous.
This is observed in people who have developed an exag
gerated habit of activity and suddenly suffer a break
down; from overwork, it is said, but the true reason is
often not the amount of work done but the disharmony
created by the neglect of an essential feature of human
nature.
The modern way does not allow for real idleness.
People of today feel—at least in the towns and in places
where city-civilization has become dominant—that they
ought “to do” something even during their leisure hours.
The capacity for being idle has been more or less lost;
there is no place left any more for real relaxation, for
allowing to vanish the unhealthy tension we have to
live in the greater part of the day; modern mankind has
therefore lost the capacity and the understanding of
contemplation. Activity is all. Enjoying leisure, the
dolce far niente, is unknown today. People ask each
other, immediately after having left the office, the work
shop, the classroom: “What are you going to do now?”
This idea of doing has destroyed the faculty of conver
sation; a salon like those the eighteenth century, and
 DI FFIC U L TIES W IT H WO R K 115

even the nineteenth knew, is quite impossible today; no

body has the inner leisure to indulge in conversation for
conversation's sake. Modern humanity is poisoned by
restlessness. The dim feeling that something is wrong
is one of the reasons why certain oriental philosophies
find admirers, though the philosophy, as such, usually
does not deserve this admiration. An equilibrium of
activity and leisure is necessary; otherwise there is no
chance of a man becoming aware of some fundamental
truths about himself and the world. It is as wrong to
lose oneself totally in the world of activity as it is to
lose contact with it.
These remarks are not meant, of course, as a defence
of laziness. Love and understanding of true leisure is

is,
not at all to be confused with laziness. True leisure
fact, possible only and,
to
in

so
say, on

to
in

contrast
the background activity.
of

Laziness may spring from hidden rebellion against

to a

an
the law which compels man work. Laziness effi is
cient, though not moral method for not obeying the
a

lazy
of

he

reality. man believes that cannot

A

rules
help being lazy, that this quality belongs original
to

the
therefore, im
in is,

make-up
of

his personality, and that

it

mutable. This conviction helps him ignoring the

true reasons for his behavior. In truth he not shun
is

ning work such, but rather the obligation implies.

as

it
do

do

Lazy people things, when they all,

at

them
often only half-way. They leave part them un
of
a

up

done, they even take cheating and keeping only

to

to

the appearances. Such people often show quite re

a

ingenuity
of

of

spectable amount discovering ways

in

diminishing the burden Mankind owes per

of

work.
haps laziness even some valuable discoveries; but this
to

not reason for cultivating this quality.

is

of
be

an

Laziness may the result overstrung and

deeply buried ambition. man who would feel satis
A
116 SELF I M P R O V EM ENT

fied only by very great achievements, but who doubts

whether he ever could attain this goal, can not in fact
do better than be exceedingly lazy. His laziness is the
effect of a compromise between his fear of failure and
his ambition. An allegory will make this point clearer:
A man is possessed by the ambition to climb the highest
peaks; but he does not feel equal to such feats. He is
quite capable of scaling a mountain of moderate height;
his mind, the same failure, since
is,

as
but this
to

it
a
he
means resignation. Therefore goes and settles

in
the
plain. my
of

he
midst wide open And says: “Would
a

up North; surely would

in

home were the mountains

I
McKinley

of
climb Mount one those giants;
or but
here, the plains, there are mountains, and no
in

have

I
neither the money nor the time for traveling far.”

so
All this quite reasonable; this man forgets but one
is

was by his own free will that

he
detail: that settled
it

the plain.
The lazy man's talk runs the same line:
in

in
“What would not do, lazy.”
so

were not
if
I

Distrust one's capacity, together with the wish for

in

of
great success very often
at

the bottom laziness.

is

Not quality disappears encourage

so

seldom this when

ment has set and ambition has become less highstrung.
in

on
Laziness achieves but little. has many reasons
It

al
its

of

hand for excusing ways. One these reasons

of

certain type
overactive and overenergetic
to

ludes
a

people. The lazy man reproaches these people for over

rating unduly the importance activity.
of

of

work and
course quite wrong, and
of

he

he

He knows that
is.
is

But there certain type whose behavior apparently

is
a

justifies the criticism the lazy makes

so

much of. There

without doing something,
be

are people who can not

do

but they too things but half-way. They begin one

on

thing and pass another, without finishing the first.

to
up

They take whatever crosses their way; today they are

organizing something; tomorrow their whole mind
is
 D IFFI C UL TI E S W IT H WO R K 117

wrapped up with rearranging their collection of stamps;

before having gone through the first third of it they
turn to a new topic. They achieve not more, sometimes
even less than does a lazy person. This is but another

its
way of escaping from reality and laws.
Overactivity strongly de

is,
rule, not due

to
as
a

be a
of

of

of
veloped sense work

it to
the amount done and
things;

of
the objective importance rather springs
an

of
from overemphasizing the importance doing.

be
done,

to
The accent not on the work but on the
is

doing the work. To these people primary

of

of
not

it
is
be
importance that this achieved, but that they
or

that
are occupied and feel that they are important and use
ful; truth they are generally rather useless and but
in
an

those who really want see things

to

to
encumbrance
done.
on

activity

of
The emphasis laid the subjective side
diminish efficiency. The attention we pay

to
to

tends
do

deteriorate the quality

of
how we things apt our
to
is
of

work. The story the centipede who was unable

to
move his legs since the malicious tortoise had asked him
of
to he

managed he
to

how know which his hundred legs

re
be

move every time, too well-known

to

had
is

peated here. illustrates perfectly, however, the fact

It

that our work does not profit all, that rather suf
to at

it
by

pay
of

fers, the attention we the subjective side

our doings. This undue attention makes
us

slower than
we need be. There are indeed differences of what
is

con
on

called individual rate. These differences depend

stitution and temperament. But often there are other
paying too much
of

reasons, among which the factor

turning
of

attention our doing, instead what has

to

to

quite prominent. evidently

be

done,
to

There
is

is

as a

close relation between slowness and circumstantiality

influenced by
to be

mentioned above. Personal rate can

training. hasty person may learn slow down his
A
118 S E LF IMPR O VE MENT

actions. Acquiring a greater speed of action seems to

be more difficult. An abnormally slow rate is sometimes
due to special training and to education. There are
parents who discourage fast action in their children,
partly because the children have to be accustomed to
attention and conscientiousness, or to caution for the
sake of avoiding rash action, partly because the parents
are over-anxious and fear that the child may hurt him
self by running or by some other quick action. The
same attitude may result from the idea of avoiding every
mistake—which in fact is impossible—and of choosing
the surest way. Pessimism and a distrust in one's own
abilities as well as in reality in general are often asso
ciated with slowness.
Slowness may assume various forms. One person is
slow during the whole series of single acts constituting
some action. Another is slow to begin, though he may
go on at a quite reasonable rate once he has started. A
third will start at a more or less normal rate, but his
actions will become gradually slower when nearing the
end of his work. A boy may leave his home and move
quite fast; the nearer he comes to the school—it is ex
amination day—the slower he walks. He mounts the
stairs haltingly. At the door of the classroom he comes
to a standstill; it lasts quite a while until he turns the
door-knob to enter. This dilatory policy is easy to un
derstand. The behavior of this boy has many analogies
in the life of adults. One has but to open one’s eyes to
discover them, in the behavior of others and of our
selves.
Slowness and hesitation mean loss of time—or a gain,
if one looks at it from another point of view—and he
who is but little minded to do a certain thing may profit
by this attitude. He may linger until something comes
between; he may tarry so long that the moment of ac
tion has passed. By these tricks he may escape doing
 D I FF I C U L TI E S W IT H W O RK 119

what he does not like. Here again overstrung ambition

may be of a decisive influence; by being slow one may
well avoid failure, because slowness amounts to avoid
ing achievement. This is the price to be paid. He who
risk,

all

of
wants to avoid all kinds of mistake, kinds
every failure, needs must end by doing nothing by

or
doing things inway that truth nothing

in
such

is
a
done.
All the character-features described here are often
not the result of definite constitution or certain
a

a
by
temperament. They may very
of

be
type explained
rational factors; they may understood the expres
be

as
of

sion definite attitudes, and they may become changed

by changing these basic attitudes.

all
Different though these undesirable habits are, they
go

They are

all
back
to

to
one and the same root. due

a
the true equilibrium between reality and
of

disturbance
the ego, objectivity and subjectivity. This also fin
is
ally the answer question what causes the
to

to

the
as

up

of
of

lack concentration, what makes the content

day-dreams, and what beneath such habits impa
as
is

pedantry circumstantiality. always

or

or

It

tience
is

the ego which pushes, were, into the foreground,

as
it

which attempts occupy place not entitled to;

to

it
is
to a

subjectivity trying get the upper hand over

it
is

reality. These attempts are bound fail. Reality

to

is

stronger than the ego ever can hope be. These at

to

tempts turn, moreover, against the ego itself; disregard

ing reality amounts imperiling the ego too.
a to

But this
be

will later chapter.

in

considered
The discussion on the difficulties related work can
to

on

not, however, abandoned without just touching

be

one important question. Many people feel that they

or by

have been compelled—by fate, circumstances, by

their parents, by chance by their own once
of

the will
cherished but nevertheless mistaken ideas—to choose
a
120 SE LF IMPRO V EM EN T

job they do not like or one for which they do not have
the necessary qualifications and abilities. They are
thoroughly dissatisfied with their work; they dream of
having other things to do, and they imagine that they
would be much more efficient if they had a job accord
ing to their inclinations.
This question is very serious; it has, however, more
than one side. It
not sure, in the first place, that
is
inclination and ability are so strictly correlated that the
presence of the first may be considered as a reliable sign
of the second. One has but to think of the many people
who believe in their being gifted for some kind of art
—usually it is the theater or the screen, but it may be
painting or poetry too—and who are in truth but mod
erately talented, if at all. There furthermore, the
fact that certain careers appeal peculiar manner is,

a to
in
a

life; children and adolescents have

of

certain periods
work, which pref
of

definite preference for some kinds

erence very often gives way later quite other inclina
to

having of
he

man ought, before complains

A

tions.
missed his true calling, make sure that
he

could have
he

his present place.

in

achieved more there than does

is,

second question whether the general belief

A

is
true that having work one likes insures greater effi
a

ciency. always the case.

so

not sure that this

It
is

is

of

There have been quite few instances men being

a

love with their job and being not

all

really good
at
in

thing
or of

hobbies; many
it.

well known
at

Such
is

a
a
an

impassioned fisherman
or

man sailor chess

is

of

player without being the least champion. This

a

less frequent serious work,

be

situation may regard

to
in

but occurs there too.

it

in
on

long list
of

There the other hand quite

is

proving very
A be

that man may

in

stances efficient some

a

work he does not like strict correlation be

at

all.
tween liking job and being efficient does evidently
in
it
a
 D I FF I C U L T I E S W ITH WO R. K. 121

not exist. By this one is led to suspect that efficiency

depends—given the necessary ability—on other factors
than, or at least, besides inclination or disgust.
It is true, of course, that a man disgusted with his
work will usually do it badly; but it is not equally sure
that a man in love with his work will do it particularly
well. It is indeed not enough to love one's work, one
must love working too; and that is quite another thing.
There are many people who love their work, who are
it,

even proud of but who nevertheless are not

in
love
with working.
men loved working—and there are quite num
If

a
of

of
ber who do—the problem what kind work they
do

importance; many its

of
loses something
to

have

a
be found who more or less indifferent to the
to

man
is

is

long work, useful

of

he

do,
to

kind work
he as

as
has it
is

do
long equipped

it.
as

and sensible, and

to
as

is

One understands easily why man dissatisfied with

is
a

his work when he feels that not what he was

it
is

trained for; but even this case there are many who
in

prefer any kind

of

work But difficult

of to

it

idleness.
is

man who has been very

to

understand the mind

a

successful, who has work which evidently suited

to
is

does very well, but which

he

he

him and which does not

like. Such cases exist. One may meet, for instance,
a

man who has gained worldwide fame by his research

a

work science and who feels that he has missed his real
in

job; ought in
he

He
to

have become musician.

is
a

deed quite gifted for music, though not very much

probably would never have met
he

above the average;

he

composer
as

with much success

as

as

has been
a

awarded with for his researches Everyone

in

science.
this fact, and
of

he

be

who knows him aware cannot

is

quite ignorant Why, then,

of

he
it.

dissatisfied?
is

only one explanation. This man

so

There exceed
is

is

ingly ambitious that even his having won the fame

of
122 S ELF IMPR O V E MEN T

being the greatest authority in his field can not quench

his ambition. He finds a definite consolation in the idea
that he would have still greater success had he been
allowed to be a composer. Cases of this kind are not
rare, though they may not be always as striking. But
this fact supplies some subject for reflection. Could it
not be that in many cases the dissatisfaction, arising
from the idea of not having the right work to do, is in
fact the effect more of the subjective state of thwarted
ambition than of the objective fact of a disharmony of
talent and work? A closer analysis of many cases of
this kind shows indeed that ambition plays a very great
rôle in the genesis of dissatisfaction caused by the kind
of work.
There are many forms of work which in fact demand
no special gift or talent. An average job can be done
by a man with average talent, with average success.
is,
of

of

There course, the exception genius; some people

are gifted quite special manner. Genius—or,

in or at
in
a

least, extraordinary talent—is not limited art to

of

statesmanship; there genius also

or

science kind
is
a

less lofty levels activity. Some people are,

of

seems,
it

born with quite peculiar gift for understanding me

a

chanics, and there are others who understand, appar

ently without being instruction, farming.
of
in

need
They will achieve results very much above the average.
But not for the majority expect uncommon and
to
it
is

he

exceptional achievements. Man has know that

to

is

having found the right

of

limited being. The idea not

a

job and being better gifted for another one

of

indeed
is

very often,
of

scientist,
in

was the case the famous

as
it

an

getting some compensation for unruly

of

but way
a

ambition.
We ought not for our
be

conscious that work

to

is

selves, the first instance, but that means essentially

in

it

work for others. Every kind work therefore hon

of

is
 D I FF I C U L T I E S W IT H W O R. K. 123

orable and useful. And we ought to devote some

thought to another fact too. The payment workman
a
receives depends largely on the amount and the quality
of work he does. But his earnings are not the right
standard by which to measure his work according to the
principles of morals. There is the well-known parable
in the Gospel, telling of three men who had been given
each a certain sum of money; the first had received five,
the second two talents, and the third but one. When
their master came back, the first had gained five talents
and thus delivered ten; the second, having gained two,
delivered four. Both were praised by their lord and
awarded in the very same manner and with the very
same words. Which amounts to saying that not the
absolute quantity of money earned was decisive, but
the fact that both of them had doubled what they had
been given. The third however had done nothing at
all; he had hidden the money and gave it back, un
touched. He was punished with extreme severity. Had
he used the sum entrusted to him, he might have gained
one talent and would have been rewarded as the other
two were. He did not do so, because he felt that it was
not worth while; he felt offended at not being given
more, and therefore did nothing and met punishment
instead of promotion.
Considered from the point of view of morals the im
portant thing is not to do as much as another does,
but to do as much as oneself is capable of doing. Or
to express it in the language of the parable just quoted:
it is important to earn the double, however large or
small the original amount may be. It is wrong to intro
duce the standard of economics into things belonging
to morals. The question of work is not merely one of
economics; it has a definitely moral side too. There is
no reason for being dissatisfied so long as one is sure of
all

having done
of

one capable doing.

is
124 SEL. F IM P R O V EM EN T

The enormous influence economics have gained over

modern life, inevitable though it

is,
works towards

of of
abolishing our sense moral standards. We become

of
judge many things, especially work

to
accustomed
its only equiva

its
success, according monetary

to
and
lents. There definite danger this, and we ought

in
is
a
try
to

free ourselves from this one-sided view.

to

It
is
probably impossible uproot this wrong and disastrous

to
way thought the great public; but every single
of

in
the utter falsity

of
man, having once become conscious
this idea, ought
of

to
oppose least within his own

at
it
mind.

Perfection
to
4.

Obstacles

Many
of

of
the difficulties, perhaps most them, which
cause intense suffering and much trouble, arise,

as
has
shown, social life and work. The
to
in

in

been relation

do
causing those difficulties have but little

or to
attitudes
of

with the immediate aspect social connections the

spring
of

conditions work. Their sources from the

unit;
of

depths personality. Human personality

is
a
no no

“parts” existing, even relatively,

in

there are in
it
in of

isolation; side personality really detached from

is

the rest; nothing

be

human personality can influenced

changed some way, without total personality be
or

in

coming influenced and changed too, though this change

sometimes may escape observations and revealed only
is

by very close examination.

a

it,
of

personality
or

which are
in

There are sides levels

notwithstanding the unity
of

more basic than others,

personality. Work and social life, important though
do

of

they are, not constitute the most essential sides

personality. They are often the regions,
so

say, where
to

certain difficulties become most visible, but they are not

the real essence of human life.
 OB S TA C L E S TO PER FEC TIO N 125

Tomake this point clear one must remember an old

and fundamental statement of philosophy. Every being
strives for the good. This striving for the good or the
love of it is the great motive force driving the world
along its path. true whether applied
This statement

is

on
the processes going

or
to

within

to
human actions
of
inanimate things living beings de

or
the world

to
void of reason and free will. This idea has been handed

of
old pagan Greece, and
us

down from the wisdom

to

by
has been given new and deeper meaning the
it

Christian Fathers and the Schoolmen of the Middle

be

Ages. can not discussed here nor can the reasons

It

holding

is,
be

for this view made clear. There however,

this very large and complicated problem
of

one side
the topic this book on
an

which has immediate bearing

trying explain. On this question which, though
to
is

forming but part ex

of

of
an
the general problem,

is
a

ceedingly great importance for human life, some words

un
be

be
said, because the practical side would
to

have
intelligible without some previous explanation.
beings strive for, their own per
all

Among the goods

fection holds prominent place. Perfection means the
a

all
of

the becoming really existent

or

actualization the
qualities originally existing only potentially within the
individual. The more perfect thing becomes, the
a

very nature becomes.

of its

more visible
striving has
be

The term merely

to

in

taken
a

beings which are not really

it of

analogical sense
in

the case
striving. But apply
of

capable quite sensible

to
is

inanimate things, insofar

to

this term even there

as

is
a

definite tendency bring forth perfect

to
in

nature
by

things; this tendency indeed often thwarted cir

is

cumstances; but whenever these are favorable we see

this tendency work. temperature, concentration,

at

If

purity and other factors are favorable, chemical sub

a

beautiful crystal
of

stance will appear the shape

in

a
126 S ELF IMPRO VEM E NT

which indeed shows the nature of this particular chem

ical compound in a more perfect manner than does the
amorphic state. The crystal is more perfect not only
because it pleases the human eye by

its
symmetry and
regular shape; perfection itself, because

in
it

it
is
a
property

its
of
realizes a
the chemical body, namely,
just such shape, which re
capacity of
appearing

in

a
long the body stays

its
amorphic
as

in
mains hidden

as
state. The striving for perfection becomes more mani

or by
living organisms; not hampered
in

fest

byif
tree

is
a

it,
storms raging around
or

other trees, deformed

by the inclemency will grow up
of

soil and climate,

it
very straight and develop symmetrically every direc

in
tion. beautiful and well-developed tree perfect

in
A

at is
it;
itself and not only because we love look rather,

to
pleasesour eye, because perfect.
it

it
is

living organisms some phenomena are observed

In

which offer rather striking similarity with striving

as
a

by

personal experience. Plants and

us

known
to
it
is

certain lower animals are subjected what biology de

to

tropisms; this term signifies certain reactions

as

scribes
conditioned by physical factors, witness the turning
as

plants towards the light; the reaction mentioned

of

is
called, for instance, heliotropism. higher animals
In
of

there are complicated sets reactions which tend

towards the realization of certain aims and which are
called instinctive reactions. Some of them serve the
the individual; many
of

of

preservation them, however,

pursue aims far beyond individual existence and have
of

care for the preservation

to

the race. These reactions

course, willed by the animal; the wasp de
its of

are not,
positing eggs into the body
of

caterpillar does not

a

off-spring will find there.

its
of

think the food

We may consider the tropisms and the instincts
as
a
do

rudimentary striving, long

of

not fall
so

kind we
as

biology guilty during the nine

of

into the error became

 O BS TA C L E S T O P E R FEC TIO N 127

teenth century, and do not believe striving and will and

decision to be but transformed instincts. We do, in
truth, not understand will and striving any better by
calling them higher developed instincts; but we under
stand the nature of instinct by comparing it with our
own conscious striving and considering the first as a
rudimentary form—characteristic of the lower levels of
life—of the latter. It is not easy to see how biology,
and following it a certain kind of pseudo-philosophy,
ever could overlook the fact that the lower and rudi
mentary forms of striving do not contain a single ele
ment which possibly would explain the development of
the higher forms. The higher forms are richer in quali
ties than the lower; and enrichment necessarily implies
some additional factors coming in, which can not be
either explained by or derived from the lower and
poorer forms.
It is
well worth while to ponder just a little longer on
this point. There is no more erroneous idea than that
which may be aptly called the “view from below.” Ac
cording to this idea we have to “explain,” for instance,
mental life and moral demands by some mysterious de
velopment and complexity of biological phenomena. It
is,

however, easier understand biological processes

as
to
of

some analogy mental phenomena than “explain.”

to
by

appealing the former. All attempts

to

to

the latter
of

make psychology chapter physiology

or
to

reduce
a

life brain functions have failed altogether.

to

mental
The brain indeed the necessary instrument mind needs
is

manifest itself, but brain-cells and nerve-fibres are

to

not the mind. All the boastful promises

of

which scien
tific and popular literature were full the last cen
in

tury, are truth empty phrases which one

in

amazed
is

hear repeated even today by men incapable

of
to

seeing
by

no

of

reality and believed others who have power

judgment and not enough knowledge see the truth.
to
128 S E LF IMPR O V E MENT

All these grandiloquent

words about the secrets of life
being solved or going to be solved, have proved to be
meaningless. We are today, after nearly a century of
biological research,
not one step nearer to the solution
of the riddle of life, not to mention the secret of the
mind.
The idea that the problems of humanity can be solved
“from below” is as wrong as it is dangerous. The an
alyzing of the complex phenomena, finding out the
“elements” building them up, and reconstructing the
first after having thoroughly studied the second is pos
sible only so long as we remain on the same level of
reality; this is the procedure which is adequate in
physics and in chemistry. But it does not apply the
moment we step from one level to another, higher one.
We can not “explain” life by means of chemistry or
physics, nor can we reach an understanding of mental
processes by means of biology.
The undue generalization of the methods of science
has proved a disastrous mistake indeed. It has lead into
the quite erroneous idea of reform—individual or social
—having to start from below. Important though bodily
health is for mental life, it is not sufficient to ensure
moral health. Very strong, very healthy individuals,
magnificent examples of the animal man, may be very
imperfect beings from the point of view of morality;
they may be even very immoral and become a much
greater danger to society and humanity in general than
weak and unhealthy individuals ever could be. It is the
same with economics. Nobody will nor can deny that
an improvement of the economic condition such a large
part of humanity is laboring under is exceedingly neces
sary and indeed a moral demand; but it is wrong to
believe that economic reform alone will prove efficient
in creating a higher moral standard. We can not ex
pect humanity to become morally better unless we
 O BS TA C L E S TO PER FECT I O N 129

realize the primary importance of moral reform. It is

a mistake to believe that moral reform can wait until
economic reform is completed. Humanity can not ex
pect to make any efficient steps towards a better eco
nomic condition, unless moral improvement is consid
ered at least as equally important.
Ensuring health and welfare to as great a number of
individuals as possible is doubtless an aim worthy of the
greatest endeavors. But neither individual nor social
duties are limited just to the pursuit of welfare and
health. The life of the single individual and the life of
the community will improve only when the importance
of moral progress is fully realized. Man is a unit of
body and soul; it is not the sign of a scientific mind to
deny this fact, but rather the effect of stubborn super
stition and narrow-mindedness and blindness to the
most obvious facts of reality.
There is a lot of talk today about physical education
and quite enough discussion on mental hygiene. One
is amazed at noticing the little interest paid to the prob
lems of moral improvement.
Many people believe that morals as taught by the
philosophy and the religions of old have become obso
lete and useless. A new world, they say, needs new
morals. Even a superficial examination of the new
all

morals shows that they are not at new; they are but
the old, leaving out some
of

It of

parts the duties enjoined

for nearly two thousand years. had been said unto
no

man: “Thou shalt love thy neighbor”; and there

is

human being we are ever allowed exclude, for there

to
no

of

one who neighbor.

to

not entitled the name

is

is

Modern morals say: “Thou shalt love thy comrades be

longing the people belonging
or

the same social class,

to
to

the same race.” These “new” commandments are,

everyone ought
of

see, but restrictions the old

to
as

ones; there nothing really new

in

them.
is
130 S ELF IMPR O VE MEN T

Moral imperfections, as measured according to the old

standard of morality, are in fact very often at the bot
tom of many troubles. Though these troubles may be
come manifest in the first place within social life or in
relation to work, their very origin often, indeed in the
majority of these cases, has to be sought for in moral
imperfections.
There can be no question of giving a complete list

all
and an exhaustive description of the various kinds

on
of

moral imperfections and their effect individual

happiness. The instances noted below will, however,

be
sufficient for supplying

of
general idea a the essential
factors involved.
Striving must first
all
of

know the goal going

to
it
is
pursue. Knowledge such does not start action; this
as

done by will. But will has, before can become

it
is

is he

active, rather man, before can begin act, has

or

to

to
going
he

decide whether and how act. Even to

a
quite insignificant action presupposes decision.
Difficulties arriving decision are very frequent.
at
in

They rank from tendency post

or
of to

evade decision to
a

pone total incapacity deciding all. Indeci

at
to
it

closely related People who are unable

to

sion doubt.
is

up

do

their minds generally not feel that they

to

make
do

doing so; they feel rather that they

of

are incapable
not yet see their way; once they would know the
as

if

be

surest and the best way, they would quite ready

to

act; least they tell us. But the meantime, they

so
at

in
do

be

not see clearly what has done, and they do,

to

therefore, nothing all. They call themselves prudent

at

of

and despise other people because what they call their

imprudent haste. Haste course wrong too, though
of
is

there are certain situations calling for quick action.

True prudence and legitimate deliberation are, however,
very different from lack decision and unduly pro
of

longed doubt.
 O BS TA C L ES TO PER FE C TIO N 131

By observing the behavior of a person addicted to

long deliberation and protracted doubt a very curious
phenomenon may be detected. Long as the preparatory
period may be, no new thought turns up after the first
five or ten minutes of reflection. In some rather rare
cases indeed, an altogether new idea may suddenly turn
up which opens a really new outlook. Generally it is
the same sequence of thoughts which is run through
over and over again. Nor does a person who has be
come the prey of this habit really hope for a new light
which will help him make up his mind; he is quite aware
of having got
to all

he
the knowledge ever will have. His
having
find out about the best way usually
an of

idea

is
euphemistic description his not wanting, of

or
but
not wanting yet, decide anything

at
to

If
all. such
as

ac

of
person decide upon
to

forced definite line

is

a
a

tion, for instance, because can not wait any longer,

he
he

he
very often has confess—provided sufficiently
to

is

could have decided long ago.

he

sincere—that
evidently
of

The real meaning

or

indecision doubt
is

not the wish for greater clearness, but the one gain—
to

the point
of

lose, according
or
to

view one takes—

to

of

time. Doubt and the idea associated therewith, not

seeing clearly the rights and the wrongs
of

the case, are

very efficient means for postponing and, eventually,
let

avoiding action. These people will quite often pass

away the moment for decision, and they will feel def
by

initely alleviated having escaped decision, though

they may, the same time, regret not having taken
at

chance offered them. They were too conscientious, they

could not act rashly, they had consider every side—
to

and then had become too late.

it
of

There are, course, situations which demand careful

Very few people have this presence
of

examination.
mind and this faculty
of

grasping
at

moment's notice
a

the essential factors which are necessary for forming

a
132 S E L F I M P R O V EM E N T

quick decision on behalf of important problems; this

is a quality we admire in some famous characters of
history, great leaders of men who knew when and how
to take their chance. The average man, however, who
is not gifted in this way, has to figure out what is best
to be done. He has to do so because he is aware of the
consequences his actions will have. He knows that he
incurs responsibility; that by taking a wrong line of
action he may imperil himself and others; he knows that
great things are at stake, and that he has to act as best
he can. But he knows too that he has to act anyhow,
that he is not allowed to escape from action and that,
accordingly, he has to take his risk.
Lack of decision means ultimately shunning respon
sibility. This is very probable from the first, since the
result of the doubting attitude is evidently just this:
either there is no action at all, and therefore no respon
sibility, or there is a plausible excuse at hand, in case the
way chosen should prove to be wrong, because, says the
doer, had he been given more time for deliberation, he
would have found out what to do.
Man is very seldom allowed to abstain from action
altogether. Some people indeed manage to do so. A
minority—which
is,

however, quite large enough

to

cause serious apprehension—escapes action and respon

by

becoming ill, that

is,

sibility by developing neuro

a

of
sis

all

which incapacitates them for work and kinds

activity. The great majority can not avoid doing things
and, accordingly, taking risks and incurring responsi
bility. They feel this
be

very hard, and they find

to

be
do

some alleviation—though they not consider

to
it

one, rather the contrary—in their lack

of

It

decision.
helps them either postpone action until they simply
to
do

something, and then they get the impression

to

have
having not had enough leisure for letting their de
of

cision mature. Or they let the right moment pass away

 O B S TA C L ES TO P E R FECT IO N 133

and derive from this a consolation in case of failure.

They always feel pressed, hurried on by circumstances,
not allowed the necessary time, and thus have an excuse
at hand when fate decides against them.
This attitude is essentially egotistic. These cuncta
torian people do not fear, in truth, that something
wrong could be done; they are only afraid that they
could eventually have acted wrongly or have made a
mistake. They do not consider the objective side of an
action; they are interested in results only

its

so
far

as
their own person

A
concerned. student had once
is

forgotten,
he

had,
or

turn off the gas

to

in
believed the
laboratory where
he

he
worked. He was afraid that
might start fire. But did not mat
he

confessed that

it
to a
all

ter him whether the laboratory burned down

at
or

of
not, not even whether the inhabitants the house
danger; the only thing that mattered was
in

were
responsible. He was utterly in
to he

be

whether would
different the objective side; neither the damage nor
the danger interested him; long had not com
he
so

all as

do
mitted mistake, everything was right. People
a

not, generally, speak out manner; but quite

so
in

free
a

few feel the same way. They wish avoid any mis
to
a

take whatever; they want, fact,

be

found abso
to
in

lutely faultless. But this

be
an

to

aim not realized

is

this world; written that even the just man falls

in

it
is

seven times day.

a

on

This attitude great error. Things are,

based
is

a
by

truth, good their own nature and not only

or
of in in

bad
regard man and his judgment. The mistaken idea
to

on

goodness and truth depending opinion has wrought

the world than one would imagine. Good
in

more havoc
at,

value, the goal every striving aiming

or

ness
is

is
an

primarily objective quality To

of

things
or

events.
at
of

of

given the task not creating values

or

man
is

tributing them things originally indifferent

to

to
as
134 SE LF IMPRO VEM ENT

value, but the task of discovering values existing in the

world wherein he lives and of becoming aware of values
as yet not real which he has to bring into existence.
Acting in right way means nothing else but regu
a
lating one's actions according to the objective order of
values, attempting to realize the highest good among
those which can be realized in a given situation. By
acting in this fashion the doer’s personal value becomes
greater; this is indeed but an accessory fact; it is not,
nor ought it to be, the real motive of action. The value
of an action is determined in the first instance not by

it,
the subjective moods preceding and accompanying
by

but the objective values

to
meant realize.it
great mistake is
in to
It

believe that certain mental

is
a

of
moods are good themselves, independent
or

states
the objects which they correspond. This wrong idea
to

of
finds expression utterances like these: the ideas
in

course quite wrong and even dangerous;

of

Peter are

he
he

but really enthusiastic about them; or:

at

least
is

pursuit which
all

indeed quite
to

devotes his time

is
a

terribly earnest about

he

nonsensical; but
it.
so

These
is

imply earnestness are good

or

remarks that enthusiasm

en
be

themselves, whatever the things may

in

one
is

Nobody will deny that

or

thusiastic earnest about.

it

quite right
be

enthusiastic about things

or
to

earnest
is

which by their own nature command such reactions.

seriousness alone, however, without an
or

Enthusiasm
object worthy
of

be

not admired,
to

such sentiments
is

on

and person wasting these fine feelings unworthy

a

be

be

objects pitied than

to

praised
or
to

more even
is

only excused.
This ought very clear
be

everyone who devoted

to

to
so

little reflection this matter. But there seems

to

ever
rather curious glorification
of
to

exist these sentiments

a

of

independent the objects which they correspond.

to

With many people not the object which justifies

it
is
 OB S TA C LES TO PE R FEC T IO N 135

enthusiasm, but rather, on the contrary, it is the object

which becomes heightened by being capable of arous
ing these feelings. Common though this idea

is,

is
it
nevertheless utterly mistaken.
the pursuit

of
goal

or
in
Enthusiasm reaction

as
a

a
by
astonishingly

in
caused some fact has become rare
And
our days. one ever comes across such

if
these

a
usually linked things which objectively

to
sentiment
it
is

considered hardly deserve such response. The wrong

a
of

of
idea the relation existing between the value

a
thing and the subjective reaction fact very dan

in
is
on an
gerous; imperils, unsuspected degree, the sound
in
it

an
the judgment
of

true values; gives rise

to
of it
ness
reality;
of

utter falsification the idea man has leads

it
into error and trouble by overrating the importance
of

of

the subjective side human behavior.

is;
very easy demonstrate how wrong this idea
to
It
is

one has only

its

follow last consequences. What

to

to
it

about criminal who enthusiastic about his career

as
is

a
a

murderer, embezzler, thief, what not? Such things

or

exist. People will indeed generally recoil from praising

openly such man's enthusiasm; but the often-used ex
“a a

great criminal,” the glorification bestowed

of

pression
on

on
of

certain types fiction and

in

lawbreakers the
the same kind easily ob
of

screen, and other features

modern mentality denote
in

servable terrible decline

a

the true sense of moral values. This decline

in

not
is
of

limited moral values alone; the understanding true

to

definitely
of

value whatever kind has suffered today.

con
of

he

may think well himself because

A

man
is

pursuit
of

of

devoting energy some goal

is to

scious his the

up it, he

he

reach, because
to

wants indeed enthusiastic about

because his whole personality has become wrapped
with his purpose. But there are but few people who
find out whether these goals really deserve the
to

care
right
of

of

spending energy, and whether

so

much
it
is
 136 S ELF IMPR O VEM EN T

let
them occupy large place life,

or
so
to

in
whether

a
their objective importance justifies the mental reactions
associated with them. This question not asked be

is
believe that objective values exist

to
cause man loves
necessarily wherever his personal likings are engaged.
This primitive attitude has been strengthened very
much by the unlucky course philosophy has taken for
more than century. The philosophers have told man
a

no
kind too often that there are objective values, that
outside the human mind, that

all
values do not exist
at

of
they are but the result human predilection and the
projection,

of

of
were, into the world reality, the
as
it

subjective attitudes. This idea finally became gen

a
being accepted by
its

eral conviction. But great ma

a
jority—though one may notice today movement away

a
from this hopeless subjectivism—does not make this
statement any truer.
Every being strives for the good. This may

be
used
of

of

good value: good

or
kind definition what
is as is as

is
a

what every being wants. This quite true long

so
is

the right sense. Every striving indeed

of in

taken
it
is

significant some good having been sighted. The

study
of

of of

strivings human wants may, therefore,

or

an

well serve point departure for inquiry into

as
a

of

the nature and the order values. But absolutely

it
is

wrong conclude that striving creates,

or in to

so

say, the
to

value; the good existing

or

in

fact the value

it
is

reality
of

capable existing there which causes the

wishes, the wants, the cravings and strivings
of

to

man
arise. Modern mind has become thoroughly imbued
with the utterly mistaken idea the subjectivity
of

its of

values. This conviction has become general that

so

presence not even noticed any more. Quite few

is

people will profess openly their belief the objective

in

of
of

existence values, because they see the strength

let

the argument; but they nevertheless their behavior

 O BS TA C LES TO P E R FE C T I O N 137

and their general attitude against life be influenced by

the opposite idea.
Conscious or not, the attitude of subjectivism has got
hold of the modern mind; and it supplies the soil in
which grow many of the difficulties people experience.
The unconscious subjectivism often double-crosses the
purposes conscious reason forms and conscious will pur
sues. The result of this is a certain unsteadiness in the
pursuit of recognized aims. The description by St.
Augustine, quoted in a previous chapter, applies per
fectly to this case; one will wants to realize aims which
are recognized as objectively valid, while the second
will obeys the secret subjectivism poisoning modern
mentality.
The amount of egoistic ideas and feelings every man
clandestinely indulges in is much larger than we like to
acknowledge. The attainment of perfection, however,
makes it that these egoistic forces be over
necessary
come as far as possible. Discovering our hidden egoism
is the first condition, if we want to make some progress
on the road to perfection.
Many people claim that their making but little prog
ress isnot due to reasons within their own personality;
they rather accuse circumstances. They know, for in
stance, that they ought to get on better with other
people; but they find this to be impossible, because these
other people will not desist from wounding their feel
ings, from behaving rudely, from being offensive, and
so forth.
It believed that sensitivity—the disposi
is generally
tion of being easily offended, easily shocked and re
pulsed, of resenting intensely every slightest neglect or
lack of consideration—that this exaggerated way of re
acting on unpleasant experiences is a given and im
mutable feature of personality. The sensitive person
knows perfectly that his life would be much easier if
138 S ELF IMPRO V EMEN T

he would but get rid of this habit; but he is fully con

vinced of having been born with it and that he can not

is,
help being what he

is.
He some measure, even

it in

an
proud this quality; proof

of

of
he

of be
to
believes

a
unusually subtle and fine organization his soul. He
reacts more promptly and with greater intensity than

a
is he
other people do; offended where another not

is

is
he
even annoyed; deeply wounded where another

is
not even touched.
the subtlety

of
Persons indeed differ their souls.

in
very doubtful whether this kind

of
But behavior
it
is

in
of
denotes real refinement organization. The
of a

re

an
tensity emotional reaction not absolutely

is
of

of
liable sign such finer structure the soul. Nor

is
a

in
of

the strength the visible reaction, not even the

the emotions felt by the subject trustworthy
of

tensity

a
of

of

the real depth

in
measure the emotions. One has,
truth,
of

distinguish two kinds emotional set-up,

to

pro
of
which though similar some respects are
in

a
foundly different nature.
There are, English, two expressions, very much
in

alike, but connoting nevertheless different meaning;

a

sensitivity and sensibility. Both come from the same

etymological stock; they sound alike and are used pro
is,

miscuously. however, interesting notice that

to
It

the two adjectives related

to

these words have each

a

very definite meaning. Sensitive given quite another

is

of

signification than sensible; the connotation reason

ableness peculiar rather instructive. Sen
to

sensible
do is

sibility has something with reason or, least,

at
to

right ideas, while sensitivity merely

to

seems mean
a

emotional set-up.
Sensitivity the name which we ought reserve for
to
is

of

the peculiar kind behavior which has been sketched

just before. Sensibility ought signify exclusively
to

to a
of

of

real refinement perception the values attached

 OBSTA C LES TO P E R F E CT I O N 139

persons, things, or events, and a personality set-up con

ditioning appropriate emotional reactions.

all
The sensitive person feels very strongly about
things touching his own personality; unfriendliness
wounds him; lack

of
the consideration he feels entitled
offends him; being refused asks for de

he
to

favor

a
presses him; not being sufficiently regarded causes him
humanity.

of
intense suffering and makes him despair
But the very same individual may utterly indifferent

be
of

the suffering third person. He may remain quite

to

of

of
unmoved when hearing the distress others. The
recital of some heroic deed leaves him cold. Anxious
his own dignity acknowledged and his own de
to

see
wound an
he

be

mands granted, may quite ready

to
other's feelings and disregard another's dignity. The
to

intensity and subtlety feeling

of

of

he
which boasts and
by

suffers, enter into play only when his own

he

which
personality and his own affairs are involved.
Sensibility, on the other hand, reacts with equal
strength whether the individual’s own person involved
in is

gifted this way

or

whether another's. man

it
is

on

of

feels deeply moved hearing another's calamities;

by

every fact worthy

of

his feelings are aroused emo

tional response. He even more moved by things con
is

by

cerning other people than those regarding himself.

on

The sensitive person generally reacts intensely only

unpleasant impressions. Sensibility quality condi
is
a

tioning intense emotional response also pleasant ex

to

periences. feel very vividly the

of to
It

enables man
a
of

beauty things, the greatness human acts, the values

existing the world surrounding him.
in

Sensibility has the artistic tempera

to

close relation
a

ment. Sensitivity, though often found artists—be

in

their but too well developed vanity—has noth

of

cause
ing do, essentially, with this temperament. Sensi
to

bility rather rare; perhaps peculiar gift, though

it
is

is

a
140 SEL. F IMPR O VEM EN T

it can be developed up to
certain degree, by self-educa
a
tion. Sensitivity is a very common habit which, in
fact, is good for nothing and which is a symptom of an
exaggerated, if veiled, egoism.
A sensitive person wants others to behave according
to a definite code of etiquette which, however, is not
made public, but has to be guessed. Other people are
expected to know, by a kind of intuition, how to be
have; if they do not observe the rules laid down by the
sensitive person and shut up within his mind, they are,
so to say, deprived of his company and stricken from
the list of his friends. Such a person behaves, in fact,
like a reigning prince; whosoever becomes guilty of a
breach of etiquette can not hope any more to be in
vited to the court. An average person can not, of course,
eliminate people from his presence, like a prince is able
to do; he can not banish them from his presence; but
he can create a distance between himself and the of—
fender, and that is exactly what the sensitive person
does. He moves away from the offender, since he can
not make him disappear.
A sensitive person suffers very much; there are so
many opportunities to feel disregarded, offended, ne
glected. One should accordingly expect such a person
encounters which pos
all

to take great pains to avoid

sibly may cause suffering. By observing sensitive per
a

he

son one gets, however, rather the impression that

is

directly seeking for these painful experiences;

to to he

seems
on

trying
of
be

the lookout for them instead

to

escape
would try inter
he

them. He would fare better

if

pret the actions and the words

of

in

his fellows the

by

an no

friendliest possible way; convincing himself that

he

be

offence was meant, would indeed spared many

the contrary, simply
he

unpleasant moment. Quite

to

is

seeking for reasons which will justify his feeling of

turning harmless words
of
he

fended; has quite trick

a
 O BS TA C LES TO P E R FECTIO N 141

into an offence; he feels disregarded where no other

person would think of such a thing. It is as if a sensi
tive person had a definite need of feeling unpleasant
and of being wounded.
There are several reasons for this strange habit. In
feeling offended we become aware of some personal
rights having been violated. The sensitive person gets
from the many opportunities of being offended an ever
renewed certainty that he is entitled to a definite treat
ment, though his fellows deny it But he could
to him.
not feel wounded so deeply—this is more or less the way
his thoughts would run, were they altogether conscious
—if not entitled to a consideration greater than
he were
that which is granted to him. Though he complains of
being neglected, of being not considered at all, of re
ceiving a treatment as if he were just a mere nothing,
he nevertheless derives from these experiences a curious
kind of satisfaction.
Asecond reason for this oddity is that it gives still
another opportunity for feeling superior. The sensi
tive person judges the behavior of the offenders to be
utterly mean and improper; he himself would never be
have in such a manner; at least he believes he never
would, but he does oftener than not show an amazing
thoughtlessness for the feelings of other people. This
conviction, whether corresponding to reality or not,
makes him feel definitely superior.
A third reason which makes the sensitive person sus
pect an offence where none was meant and where no
body else would think of one, is the basically distrust
ing and pessimistic attitude characteristic of this type.
Pessimism is a very serious handicap to perfection.
It very common and it is generally misunderstood.
is
Pessimistic people believe that their way of looking at
the world is due either to an inborn quality of their
mind or to experience. Both ideas are wrong. Healthy
142 S E. L. F IMPR O V EM EN T

children are never pessimistic; it is therefore not very

probable that there is something like an inborn pessi
mism. This argument may not seem to carry much
weight, since in a child there are many inborn but as
yet undeveloped qualities which appear only later. Thus,
there might be a congenital pessimism which becomes
manifest only when the individual has grown up. Pes
simism is indeed frequently observed during adolesence,
where it results from the deep-seated changes personality
is subjected to in these years. Normally, however, this
pessimism is but a passing episode, brought about by the
feeling of uncertainty, the doubts about the future, the
insufficient knowledge of reality, the new experience of
sexual life, and the like. In the average, young people
will incline towards a more optimistic view. The pes
simistic attitude during adolescense is closely related to
definite experiences and states of development; pessi
mism in these cases can be easily understood as a reac
tion conditioned by these experiences. This fact makes
it probable that in other cases too there is an under
standable relation between experience and pessimism.
Pessimism is surely no primitive attitude. If it were,
no progress would ever have been realized. Man must
believe in the success of his endeavors to be successful;
who doubts from the very outset, whether he will be
able to achieve his purpose, is bound to fail. All the
great achievements history tells of have been the work
of optimistic people.
If we ask a pessimist why he holds so bleak a view,
he has several answers ready. that by his
He tells us
pessimism he is spared disappointment; he is not shocked
when things go wrong, since he never expected them to
go right. He indeed says, when meeting failure: “I
knew it beforehand,” but he is nevertheless disappointed.
Pessimism is in truth a merely superficial attitude; in the
depths of human nature there is always hope and this
 O B S TA C L ES TO P E R FE C T I O N 143

hope never really dies. Even the pessimist is “hoping

against hope.”
The pessimist feels sure that he understands the world
much better than does the optimist; he is disposed to
look down upon the latter as possessing a shallow mind,
a person ignorant of reality and incapable of seeing the
truth. Thus pessimism gratifies the desire for superi
ority. If something goes wrong, the pessimist will
triumphantly exclaim: “I told you so.”; but he will for
get to confess his mistake, if an enterprise has become
successful.
According to the pessimist's ideas, experience fully
justifies his point of view. He has been right so often;
he has seen so often things taking a wrong turn; he
found so many people who proved to be unreliable, did
not keep promises, were untruthful, and so on; so many
expectations were not realized, so many plans were
frustrated, there was rain whenever he planned an ex
cursion, the horse he bet on never won, places recom
mended to him were not pleasant, people he met were
not nice, plays were not amusing, though he had been
told they were and though he even had hope they would
prove to be. Thus, he made during his life so many
experiences which taught him not to expect anything
but unpleasantness. Experience, however, depends on
two factors; it is not merely the result of circumstances;
it is formed, and very much so, by the person making
it.
an

man may ride train which meets accident;

A

in
a

though
he

go he

hurt all,
at

was not becomes terrified and

by

the railway. An
he

swears that never again will

other man, having had the same experience, says him
to

self: “Well, that one and the same person becomes in

railway rather improbable;
in

volved twice accident

is
a

may travel like without having

to
as

now much
as
I

I
an

fear accident.” The same experience causes two

very different reactions because the two personalities
144 SE LF IM PR O VE M EN T

are different.There are, however, accidents which are

not independent of one's personality. A railway acci

is;
an
automobile accident may not be, because

in
dent
mind, attention, caution, and what

of
this case presence
luck”;

it no
not play decisive rôle. Some people “have

of be
be
this may peculiar circumstances; but may

to
due

of
—and often is—also the effect certain peculiarities
the person himself.
experience
of

so
The kinds man has depends

to
a
on
an

large extent his personality that does not prove

it
anything about reality unless the peculiarities person

of
ality have been taken into account. despondent and

A
or of
pessimistic mind incapable discovering the good
is

and pleasant sides things,

of

does,

if
becomes

it

it
of

many disadvantages
at

so
aware the same time that
the assets become definitely outweighed. Such per

a
of

son’s thoughts always are the “but” form: “This

is
quite nice, but....” pes
no
fact, there

of
In

chance
is

simism being ever really proved by experience. Nor

thoroughly pessimistic
so

as
are the pessimists truth
in

they believe themselves be. They are quite optimistic

to

of

what regards the truth

at

in

their ideas.
It
least

is
with them with the sceptics; the sceptic doubts
as
it
is

that man can discover truth, but

he

sure that this

is

statement made by him absolutely true. The pessimis

is

tic philosopher holds that there nothing really good

is

the whole world, except course his own philosophy.

of
in

no

Thus, the argument drawn from experience has real

weight.
All these reasons the pessimist alleges for justifying his
point conscious. By
of

of

he

view are but those which

is

be

observing his behavior another reason may detected,

all. The pessimist knows be
of

the strongest indeed

go

forehand that things are bound wrong. were,

to

all It

therefore, but logical for him refrain from

to

kinds
activity.
of

he

But persists attempting enterprises,

in
 OBS TA C L E S TO P E R F ECTION 145

notwithstanding his conviction that they are sure to

fail. He is forced into action partly by the necessities
of life; but he tries not infrequently things he needs
not do. He tries, though he is fully aware of his hav
ing no chances and of the odds being a thousand to one
against his being successful. The attitude of the pessi
mist can be best described by an allegory. Life appears
to him like a narrow path skirting a terrible abyss; a
bridge is in front of him, small and fragile, without a
rail, which crosses this abyss; beyond there is a dragon
hiding in a cave and
all

but too ready thrust forth his

to
horrid head. (This allegory taken, for that matter,
is
by

from picture the famous Swiss painter Arnold

a

Boecklin; the Devil's Bridge.) The optimist

its

name
is
go

the same way; but

of

he
blind
to

to
has course the

is
does not see the bridge; has not the slight
he

he

abyss,
of

the dragon. man now who goes this path

A

est idea
its

full
no of

knowledge horrors and dangers surely

in

is

a
hero; but there passing through world
in

heroism
is

a
long The pes
of

dangers they are not perceived.

so

as

simist hero; the optimist not—at least the pessi

is
is
a

mist feels this way.

an

man secretly craving for heroic life, for great

A

achievements, for adventures and victories, whom

to

however fate denied such rôle and whose courage

a

would not enable him prove himself

to

in

hero the
a
do
of

midst real dangers, such man can not better than

a

pessimist. Walking through

of
to

become world
a

a
by by

dangers—though they are mostly created his own

imagination, very enlarged
or

it—he
at

least much
is

having
of

hero, without
to

to

able feel take the risks

a
a

really heroic life and without having wait whether

to

fate will grant him opportunity for heroism.

an

The great heroes, however, history describes and pos

terity admires, seem have been, more
or

less, rather
to
146 SE L F IMPRO V EM EN T

cheerful personalities. One will hardly find a grum

bling, despondent, pessimistic personality among them.
Pessimism imperils perfection very much, because it
makes a man blind to the real values and also to the
real dangers. The attitude of: “Quite nice, but . . .”
is not the right one whereby to discover the good and
valuable sides of reality. The pessimist is aware, to an
in
all

he
undue extent, of the evils, but

or
more less

is
the good and the beautiful. He can not,
to

sensible
therefore, get any incitement for progressing towards
and aiming

of he
higher values, because either does not
at

he

he
see them, them,
or

somehow becomes aware

if

of
does not believe the possibility realizing them.
in

They are often him but pleasant dreams imagined by

to

an
humanity consolation and compensation for
as
a

utterly unpleasant reality. The mist which the pes

simistic mind moves veils him not only the far-off in
to
he

may admire without being able reach them,

to
peaks
he

but also the lower hills may climb.

person whom the world presents such dreary
to
A

a
and colorless aspect needs must feel depressed and be
all

real joy. The only instance

of

come incapable
which true pessimist feels really glad his having been in
is
in a

right told you so.”

“I
of

his forebodings evil. The

definite feeling
of

of

the pessimist denotes generally

a

triumph.
he

be

Whenever inclined glad because

to

feels
by
of

something else, his pleasure immediately spoiled

is

the afterthought that there must

be

some drawback.
thinks how badly
he he

he

He given present and will

is

he a

it,

he

lose it—and
to

feel should sure lose since

is
no

luck. He admires beautiful landscape vaca

in

has
a
he

be he

tion time, thinks that will have

to

in

and leave
a

fortnight; and that there will bad weather the greater

part
of

these two weeks.

The pessimist quite unable discover any good
to
is

qualities his neighbors. He does not see any reason

in
 O B S TA C L E S TO PE RFECT IO N 147

why he should love them. Pessimism is surely one of

the greatest obstacles in the development of love.
If pessimism is wrong, there is a kind of optimism
which is in no way better. True optimism is not blind
to the real dangers of life nor does it doubt that risks

is,

an
must be run. Life after all, adventure and has
such. We never know for sure what the
to

be lived
as

next day even the next hour may bring. Adventures

or

demand, however, not foolhardiness and haste;

to
meet
them man needs cool and clear head, good knowl
a

a
himself,
of

of
edge reality and courageous mind and

a
of

he
the power endurance. Possessing these, may trust
that, with the help God,
is of

he

he
will achieve what

is
do. This optimism,
to

asked true and indeed

is
it
very far from what people like by this name;
to
call
an

optimist they generally think

of

when speaking

of
a
person who thoughtless, rash, imprudent, rushing
is

blindfolded into dangers. True optimism isnot blind

all; sees the dangers quite well, but trusts that
at

it
it

of
be

they will overcome and knows the good chances

it

to O.
Optimism and pessimism are often believed
be
to

due
is,

temperament. One according this view, born

to

to

a
an

pessimist optimist. has been remarked already

or

It

that congenital pessimism probably does not exist. All

a

men are born optimists; the natural attitude we

it
is

so,

ought keep. And we are right doing

to

in

because
may trust Divine Providence and Mercy,
in

we even
no

though there absolute guarantee.

of is

congenital optimism
or

The idea pessimism goes

a

Antiquity. The Greek dis

of

back the teaching

to

tinguished four temperaments, and this theory became

of

current also with the philosophers and physicians the

Middle Ages. The four temperaments played great
a

physiology and psychology even later times;

in

in

rôle
but short time since this theory has become ques
it
is

a
148 S E LF IMPROVEMENT

tioned and that other divisions of temperament have

however, anything but unan

is,
been proposed. There

on
imity among the scholars how the temperaments
ought not even unanimity on

be
There

to
classified.

is
of

of
the question the definition temperament.
Temperament best defined, seems, factor

as

as
it
is

a
influencing the formal side behavior, but not the ma

of
terial side. Slowness and quickness, steadiness and un
action, irascibility and coolheadedness,
of
steadiness
energy and slackness, and many similar features depend
on

the reason why

be
temperament. Temperament may
one person prefers melancholy music and another has

a
liking for brisk and joyful pieces. But not, gen

it
is
of
an

erally speaking, effect temperament whether

a
man has well-developed sense duty, nor are his
of
in
a

on
tellectual achievements dependent temperament.
Temperament may, however, become indirectly in
of
regard personality.
to
of in

fluential also the material side

job, for instance, may influenced by
be
The choice
a

little activity, slow

of

temperament. action,
A

man
disposed rest and disliking exertion will feel repulsed
in
to

is an

by jobs which attract opposite tempera

of

man
a
is,
he

he

ment. That will do so, inclined humor

is to
if
he

his temperament; but may also, though this surely

ought
he

but rarely the case, feel that react against

to

his temperamental inclinations,

be

he

hopes
to

because
it
by

change his temperament forcing himself way

in
a
it,

on
be

he

opposed that ready

to

it to

take himself
it

is

to a

lifelong struggle, because his duty

he

to be
or to

believes
follow call, undertake some work, help others.
to
a

is,

This fact, rare though proves that temperament

it

not influence directly the material side

of
of

or

does life
behavior; only insofar will allows gain
so

to
as

does
it

it

The definition limiting the influ

of an

such influence.
of

temperament the formal side personality

to

ence
seems therefore sufficiently sure.
 OBS TA C L E S TO P E R F E C T I O N 149

Certain features of behavior which at first sight seem

to depend on temperament may be, in truth, the effects
of attitudes belonging to character. It has been ex
plained already that, under certain circumstances, slow
ness in performance or impatience may be conditioned
by the peculiar kind of pursuit of definite aims. In
these cases behavior will change when the aims have be
come different. One gets then the impression of a
change of temperament; but in truth there is no such
change, since what has become different is the peculiar
set of goals. Such observations do not prove that tem
perament in the true sense of the term may be sub
jected to change.
Accordingto common opinion a person’s tempera
ment is a constant factor of his personality and one
which remains unchanged whatever the outer condi
tions or the inner situation may be. But there is the
fact, already alluded to, of repeated and sudden changes
of temperament during adolescence. This seems at least
to indicate, if not to prove, that one person may have
during life more than one kind of temperament. We
know also of cases in which a thorough change of tem
perament occurred as a consequence of certain experi
ences. The loss of an exceedingly loved person may
change a cheerful temperament into a melancholy one;
a man given to despondency, distrust and pessimism can
occasionally become altogether different when love finds
no

the way into his heart. There truth, real proof

is,
in
of

temperament being essentially immutable. This idea

springs partly from undue generalizations, partly from
certain suppositions which are far from being evident.
of

of

The question temperament and the chances

it

some length
be

being changed have

to

at

discussed here
an

because temperament very often alleged

as

excuse
is

on

for not making progress the way

of

perfection.
temperament are ob
of

true that real changes

It
is
150 SE LF IMPRO V EM EN T

served but rarely. But the very moment even only one
case of change of temperament has been ascertained, the
theory of the essential immutability of temperament be
comes untenable. There is no saying more nonsensical
than the one that no rule is without exceptions. Ex
ceptions do not prove a rule, they disprove

it.
General

of

be
statements negative character are, let said

it
a
once more, disproved even by one single positive in

of

to of
stance. There are cases real change temperament;
immutability has therefore
of

be
the idea abandoned.
many
be

may that cases the conditions necessary

It

in

of

be
for thorough change temperament can not
a

be
found. But even temperament can not changed,
if

brought under control.

be
at

can
it

least

its
of

The influence temperament on behavior and

an

importance obstacle varies according the kind

as

to
of

be

temperament. would great help

It

indeed

if
tempera a

be of
we possessed reliable and complete division
a

ment. The old classic division seems still the best, to

the more modern psychology has not been able yet
as

as
replace by better one. The old classification dis
to

it

of

tinguishes four types temperament: the sanguine, the

choleric, the phlegmatic,and the melancholic tempera
of of
ment. The names come from the idea the physicians
old held, that temperament the composition
to

due
is
of

the fluids the body. Choleric means, for instance,

bile; melancholic, that the
of

that there an abundance

is

bile unusually dark.

is

of

The main feature the sanguine temperament

is
a
of

certain elasticity the mind. swings, were,

It

as
it
its

between elation and depression; but average color

is
of

one cheerfulness. Difficulties may cause momen

a

tary dejection, giving way however soon hopeful

to
a

The danger peculiar this temperament

to

attitude.
is
to a

certain superficiality and shallowness, giving birth

the wrong optimism mentioned above. The sanguine
 O B S TA C LES TO P E R F E CT I O N 151

person is apt to neglect the unpleasant, even the serious

sides of reality and, by this, to develop a mistaken idea
of life. These people are not easily discouraged; their
optimism and the tendency of making light of difficul
ties may lead them, on the other hand, into foolhardy
enterprises. They are genial companions, sociable, in
clined to see the humorous side of things, without being
malicious. Because they are easily contented they often
lack the will for strenuous exertion and are inclined to
give up, not because of discouragement, but because
they do not take things seriously enough or because
they so think them worth while.
The choleric temperament is characterized by fits of
energy and passion. Persons of this type are rather
emotional, quick to anger and enthusiasm, but quick too
in letting their energy abate. They are capable of great
exertions, provided that these do not last too long; the
quiet energy of endurance and persistence is but poorly
developed. These people are easily moved to rash ac
tion; they are apt to flare up in anger because the first
impression is so strong with them that they have not
the time to consider whether it is correct or not. They
are, accordingly, in danger of becoming unjust and of
fending; they are disposed to leave things unfinished
because their energy, great as it was when they started,
did not carry them over a longer period of exertion.
The phlegmatic temperament is just the opposite of
Its

undis
an

the choleric type. outstanding feature

is

turbed and undisturbable equanimity. The phlegmatic

not easily aroused action; many things which cause
to
is

the choleric and even the sanguine become active,

to

leave the phlegmatic cold; needs quite lot stir

to
it

By this emotional torpidity

he

him up. escapes good

a

misses many pleas

he

many unpleasant experiences, but

is,

of

ures too. He however, sometimes capable rather

a

pursuing goal
of

marked tenacity, quiet and stub

in
a

a
152 SE LF IMPRO V EM ENT

of
is,
born manner. The danger peculiar to this type

an
course, indifferentism, unwillingness acknowledge

to to
things,

of
the importance tendency level down

a
quite

be
person may ready recognize

to
values. Such

he
of
theoretically the existence higher values, though
does not feel like striving for them. He often gives the
in

he
not really lazy;
of
impression laziness, though

is
activity and laziness not being necessarily identical. His
values may
of

of
capacity perceiving the objective order
afford basis for overcoming his phlegma which indeed
a

gives way sometimes, when really great interests are

at
stake, not seldom astonishing activity.
to
a

is,
The melancholic temperament

at
least when

it
is
somewhat developed, doubtless the most serious handi
of

of

of
cap every kind progress, be work

in
the line
it
moral perfection. The
of

of
or

or

social achievements
very far
of of

melancholic habit the mind creates easily

a
going falsification reality, obliterating therein,

as
it
all

were, the positive values. The melancholic not,

is
patho
on
unless his temperament verging already
of is

logical states, incapable perceiving the higher values;

obsessed by
he

but deeply rooted doubt whether

is

they can become real all. There indeed goodness—

at

is

but mere idea; you may cross the whole world

it
is
a

the ideal of altruism and

it.

and never meet There

is

disinterestedness; but who ever saw really disinter

a

ested and altruistic person? The melancholic essen

is
on

tially pessimistic his outlook life; his temperament

in
on

of

indeed the soil which the seed pessimism grows

is

best. The melancholic's pessimism embraces the world

no

well his own personality; good can ever come

as

as

from either of them. The world bad and he has no

is

luck; ill-fated stars rule over his life. He not aware

is

that one-half of his ill-luck of his own mak

at

least
is

ing. He never finds fault with himself; other people

circumstances are the only reasons for his misfor
or
 OB S TA C L E S TO PER FEC TIO N 153

tunes. He is never guilty, though his “unhappy tem

perament” may have something to do with his not get
ting anywhere; but his temperament is beyond his
power; he can not help being what he

he
is.
but

If
would try

is,
is he

he
knew what really change. The

to
fact full-grown egoist. He, like

in
melancholic

a
happy and successful, but

be

to he
every one, wants

to

be is
not willing pay the price. He wants happiness
to

gift granted him, not the fruit and the premium

to

as
a
no of

exertion. The melancholic exceedingly exacting;

is
proof
of

of

of
love, regard, everence even great

is
No wonder
he

he
enough; insatiable. has lost his
is

he

courage, since what after truth beyond his

in
no is

pessimistic, be is

he
and every man's reach; wonder

is
disappointed, having asked for more
he

be
to

cause had
than man ever will receive; no wonder he has no initia
no

on in to he of
he

tive and persistence, since knows the depths

in
he

be

his personality that will never given what

wants, because his wishes transcend the limits set
human nature. The melancholic temperament
is
truth the greatest handicap and the greatest danger
perfection.
to

the road
the more dangerous because
so
It

often assumes
of it
is

of

of

the aspect prudence, wisdom, religiosity.

Is
it

not said that we are dwelling “valley

of
in

tears”?
a

That we are staying there “weeping and sighing”?

Who, then, will blame the melancholic for being what
truth but petty excuses. writ
is?
he

in

It

These are
is

ten also: “Rejoice, and again say, rejoice.” Nowhere

I

taught creep along

to

have we been with bent necks and

doing nearly nothing all. Not one passage
at

in

the
be

Gospels found where we are told

to

to

brood and
is

grumble and deplore our unhappy fate; but

to

to

it
all is
do

said that we ought something; “Go and teach

to

the people; whatever you have done unto the least;

take your cross and follow; great the harvest and
is
154 S E LF IMPRO V EMENT

small the number of workmen,” and so on. Melancholic

idlers are just a nuisance, a burden to their relations and
friends, good-for-nothings in society, inefficient at work,

all
egoistswho spend their whole time and their energy
on

staring their own picture, concerned exclusively

at
with their own personalities.
The differences between the temperaments become
clearly visible difficult
in
situations where decision

is
represen

of
and action unavoidable. The attitudes the
may
of

be
tatives the four temperaments described thus:
The sanguine says: “Sure, it's difficult, but will come

it
all

right”; the choleric: suc

be
“I
out must and will

it, all
cessful”; the phlegmatic: “There after chance,

is

no
let’s try”; the melancholic:

do
though
“I

to
have
good can come from it.”
of

“Pure” cases these four types of temperament are

very rare; there usually some element belonging

to
is

another type mixed with the prevalent temperament.

The descriptions given above are, accordingly, some
what overdone, though the picture drawn
of
the melan
nearly true life. The attitude against suc
to

cholic
is

cess and defeat reveals which temperament prevails

within personality.
a

he

The sanguine never pessimistic; may

or

seldom
is

just de
he

talk this vein for short time, because

in

is
a

pressed by some misfortune, but this mood will not last.

he
to be

He does not lose his courage, unless broken—as

everyone may be—by load too heavy carry. The
a

pes
an

optimist nor
he

phlegmatic neither really

is

is

simist; he rather indifferent. Success does not mean

is

him, nor failure either. He stick

of

capable
to

much
is

ing, while, stubbornly

he

his plans
to

thinks worth
if

it

his duty. this type are often very

of

People
to

and
do

courageous, though they not care, rule,

to

make
as
a

this quality.
of

use The choleric may lose courage

quickly; but the next fact appealing his impassioned
to
 OB S TA C L E S TO P E R F ECTION 155

soul will rouse him to action again. If the tempera

ment of the sanguine may be likened to a steel spring
shape the very

its
which may be curbed, but regains
lifted, the temperament

of
moment the pressure the

is
phlegmatic more like storage battery which after

is

a
having been discharged regains after

its
time former

a
be

no
voltage. The melancholic has courage lose,

to
he

What may impress

at
cause has none all. sometimes

of

of
an

an
courage

at
observer act the best one
as

is
despair. He croaking evil, prophesying misfortune
is

for himself and for others. He unwilling move,

to
in is
because he knows that all will be vain. Such man

a
ought very glad
be
to

little success comes his

if

some
way, since all. But no;
he

did not believe

at
in
success
not satisfied; the little success does not mean any
he
is

thing him; failure, because no average

he
to

deems
it
a

success good enough for him. Successes that would

is

do

content the melancholic not exist average life.

in
of

He wishes first-class, an unheard success, one the

a

like of which never has been before. The melancholic

is
cowardly. Both his quali
he

indeed ambitious
as

as

is

of

ties, his greediness for success and his lack initiative

very perfection.
to

become serious obstacles

Success not identical with achievement, nor fail
is

is

ure the same defeat. The confusion of these terms

as

is

very common and has rather evil consequences. Suc

of

cess and defeat are terms belonging the language

to

ambition. Achievement and failure are facts belonging

reality. There are successes which are
of
no to

the realm
examination by
an

achievements; student may pass

a

cheating; the success undoubtedly his, but not the

is

least not regard scholarship,

to
an in

achievement—at
though might
be

quite
in

achievement another
it

on

line. There are, the other hand, many achievements,

by

and there have always been such, not crowned suc

The history
of

of

cess. science and art knows quite

a
 156 SEL. F I M P R O V EMEN T

number of these instances. A

man may fail to achieve
his purpose because of circumstances independent of his
personality; this is failure, but it is not defeat of which
he had to be ashamed. Such a failure becomes a defeat
only in the eyes of one who is foolish enough to believe
that he ought to overcome any obstacle whatsoever and
neglects the fact that he is but a human being and not
an incarnation of omnipotence. One has to know that
reality will prove stronger than man over and over
again. Progress is achieved only by “trial and error,”
and error means failure. It is of an overstrung and ex
aggerated ambition to consider failure as an equivalent
of defeat.
Such an overstrung ambition needs must lead to dis
appointment. The habit of being easily disappointed is

its
another serious handicap to perfection, because of
on

of
detrimental influence courage and because the
conclusions the human mind usually draws from such
experiences. Everybody agrees that quite “natural”
it
is

feel disappointed whenever something goes wrong.

to

But man has not be “natural” this sense of the

to

in

word. Even abstraction made from what, theo

if

is

logically, called supernatural life, there are higher

is

forces and higher interests alive the mind which are,

in

certain degree, opposed

to
It in

the “natural” tendencies.

a
is,

for example, work or,

at
to

not “natural”
to

man
of

least, work more than mere maintenance life neces

to

sitates; but there some mysterious force which urges

is

re
he

man onwards, and has, obeying this urge,

to
in

sist his “natural” inclination towards laziness. Egotism

very “natural” too; but the necessities
of

social life
is

duty, whose presence can not

of

be

and sense denied,

a

make man act against his “natural” desires.

In

the same
way disappointed,
to

“natural” feel and there

it
is

is

something wrong this habit. To uproot

in

nevertheless
probably impossible; the important thing
to

know
it
is

is
 O BS TA C L ES T O P E R FEC TI O N 157

what is beneath it and to attempt to subdue this in

clination.
Why are men disappointed? The fact that things are
not developing as we expected them to do is not suffi
cient to explain the peculiar note of disappointment.
There is something more in our hope that things will
turn out according to our wishes; there is a dumb but
definite idea that they have to, that we are entitled to
see our expectations come true, that the world has
simply to follow our ideas as if they were the very laws
governing reality. Reason, of course, disapproves of
such ideas which therefore do not dare to come forth
into the light of clear consciousness; but they are never
theless very active and very influential.
Man may wish for everything which is reasonable and
for a good many things that are not. There is no great
danger in wishing. It becomes, however, dangerous the
very moment wishes become transformed into demands.
There is a great difference between wishing and demand
ing, though this difference is often not noticed at all.
Wishes may be granted or not; we are pleased by the
first and displeased by the second, but neither the one
nor the other has a great influence on our behavior.
But we make fulfillment of demands a condition of our
behaving as we ought. We act, though we do not al
ways speak, in a way as if we said: “First I have to get
this and then I will do that.” But we have no right to
bargain with fate; we have to do our duty regardless
of the fact whether our wishes are fulfilled or not. For
once Frederick Nietzsche was right when he wrote: “It
is for us to keep the promises life makes to us.”
Behavior is very much influenced by the voluntary
and the emotional sides of personality. Great as their
is,

importance still room for reason

to

there become
is

influential too. Reason does not exercise an absolute

dictatorship over will; man can always act opposition
in
 158 S E LF IMPRO V EM EN T

to what reason tells him. But he can never decide for

any line of action unless reasons presents to him the
aims to pursue. When reason fails, when judgment

its
go
becomes unreliable, action will necessarily wrong.
Ignorance and error are dangerous stumbling-blocks on
the way perfection.
to
accordingly, man's duty
is,

develop reason and

to
It

acquire knowledge. dangerous “feel

to

to

to
trust

It
is
ing” commonly said. Feelings,

or
rather intuitional
as
is

right, but

be
knowledge, are difficult test; they may

to
also quite wrong.
be

they may

of
Modern times have developed certain lack esteem

a
for reason and intellect. Many people believe, and quite
few so-called philosophers teach, that intellect destroys
a

of

the spontaneity human nature and gives the mind

at as a
quite wrong idea reality. Thought
of

considered

to is
be
something secondary; instinct has come looked
the true guiding light
of

human life. Intellectualism

is as

the greatest errors mankind ever

of
as

decried one
made; anti-intellectualism and what they call irrational
the panaceas which are going
to
ism are hailed
be to as

save
original contact with reality.
its

mankind and restore

something wrong with
an

There may exaggerated

rationalism and intellectualism, though they are prob
ably still less dangerous than indulging blind faith
in
a

in instincts. true reverence for reason and

A

correct
a

intellect are still more reliable guides through the

of

use
of

mysteries reality than their contraries. The condem

on

nation passed, not without reasons, intellectualism

and rationalism has been unduly generalized in
to
so
as
of

clude the legitimate and inevitable use the intellectual

faculties.
wholly unwarranted dis
of

This modern tendency

a

all
of

paraging intellect supplies good excuse for those

a

people who are recoiling from the task

of

intellectual
ought
be

perfection. clear, however, that man has

to
It
 O B S TA C L E S TO PERFEC TION 159

the duty to cultivate whatever faculty he is given.

There is no reason for remaining uncultured and unin
structed if the opportunity for enlarging one's mind is
at hand.
But here again ambition becomes an obstacle. Not
the only one, indeed, since quite a few feel a strong
reluctance against intellectual endeavor, though they
may be willing to undergo great physical exertions. One
really wonders why. One reason is surely that the re
sults of physical work and training are so much more
visible. The progress a man makes when going in for
some sport or learning how to handle a machine can be
controlled nearly every day. It is different with intel
lectual work. There is but little satisfaction to be gained
from taking account of the number of pages read or
written, because one is never quite sure whether one un
derstood the text or whether one's work is of some
worth. It is for this reason that people like to pass an
examination, even if they need not, nor ever will use
the certificate; but they value it as a tangible proof of
their having really acquired knowledge.
Many people behave, in face of intellectual endeavor,
very much like the man spoken of in an earlier chapter
who built his house in the midst of a great plain. Or
they behave—in this case as in many others too—like
the famous fox of the fable who found the grapes too
sour because he could not reach them.
This fox has, however, two cousins worse than he.
The one, finding himself in the same fix, says: “Funny,
how could I be so deceived? These are no grapes at
all.” For the sake of not having to recognize the limits
of his power he falsifies reality. So did, for that matter,
the first fox too, though in a lesser degree, since he
called the grapes by their name.
The third of this clan, faced by the impossibility of
getting at the grapes, said: “What an idea of mine to
160 SE LF IMPR O V EM EN T

try to reach these fruits; I

never really liked grapes.”

lie
This one goes so far as to

to
himself.
family-name

of

to be
these foxes may

or
The Smith
They

be
any
or
Jones other name. are indeed found
everywhere. The second and the third are worse than
the first, because they deviate even more from truth
merely save their pride and vanity.
to

an
of

of
The attitude upsetting

to
the foxes leads the
Things are either credited with
of

true order values.

do
some unpleasant quality they perhaps not possess;
denied; they become disquali
or

or
their true nature
is
of

fied and deprived their objective value.

transforming reality
of

This way will suit

so
that

it
individual’s personal likings and views becomes par
an

ticularly manifest regard intellectual and cultural

to
in
do

People who not feel equal getting hold

to
values.
whom the opportunity
of

these things
or
to

denied

to is
by circumstances, are very often inclined despise
what they cannot reach. Sometimes definite feeling
a
of

envy mingled with this attitude, especially when

is

people see that others become famous are earning

or
by
do

money great things what they know

or

to

are able
an

and can. But incredibly large majority, preferring

to

string quartette by Mozart the latest “hit” song,

to
a

the newest “thriller,” two hours

of

the poem Dante

to

just
of

quiet reading
or

baseball game
to

craze
is

a
a

a
of

sign song, detective story, game,

of A

snobbishness.
a

a
all

these things have

of

course definite value their

a

values. To
to is, of

own and occupy place

in

the order
be a

deny this would fact, not

It

in

indeed snobbish.
less wrong overlook values belonging lower level
to

Recognizing
of of

deny higher
to

than those the levels.

the objective order values means that every value
is

recognized and placed where belongs.

it

many people hold the

so

The disrespect which

in

higher values born, last but not least, from feeling

is

a
 O B S TA C LES TO PERFEC TIO N 161

of incapacity—just like what the foxes feel. Instead

of simply and honestly accepting the fact, man denies
the existence and the importance of values he believes
beyond his reach. By this he bars more than ever the
way leading to them. His idea of being incapable of
understanding and enjoying them is often a mere preju
dice. Many a man would derive quite a noticeable
amount of pleasure out of these things did he but dare
to approach them. The reluctance to do so as well as
the judgment passed on them is oftener than not the
result of training and education and not due to a real
deficiency of the individual’s personality.
The average man is probably gifted with a capacity
for enjoying intellectual, artistic and cultural values
greater than he believes. But he is kept back from find
ing out how far this gift will carry him by the fear of
not equalling the “high-browed” people; a second hin
drance is made up by certain current ideas and the slo
gans expressing them which indeed poison the intel
lectual atmosphere.
Believing in such slogans and accepting, uncritically,
ideas spread by propaganda, which is very often far
from being disinterested, is another serious obstacle. In
assenting to ideas and theories on politics or culture, on
religion and art, or on life in general we ought to be
very careful. Many ideas appeal to us not because of
their evident truth, but because they humor our preju
dices or suit our desires. A theory defending the idea
that prisons are immoral institutions and that punish
ment is detrimental to the nation's welfare would be
very much applauded by the inmates of prisons. Such
an applause would not be, however, the expression of a
rational conviction or the result of an ascertaining of
truth. Abolishment of private property sounds agree
able to the ears of the destitute classes, and disagreeable
to those of the capitalist. But neither pleasure nor dis
162 S E LF IMPRO V EM E NT

pleasure are reliable signs of truth or falsehood. Truth

is independent of assent and dissent. A statement is

its
true or false by

its
own nature, and being accepted
rejected does not add anything un

its
or

or
truth

to
an
truth. The approval idea meets with great ma

its a
jority may reason for inquiring into

be
merits, but

a
proof truth. Both history and obser

its
of
never
it
is

vation show that the greatest falsehoods have been oc

casionally and still are universally applauded.
sug
be

would mankind were less liable

to
It

better
gestion by slogans and by propaganda. if Individual life
and individual progress would profit indeed quite lot

a
by
of

of
greater use conscientious criticism ideas.
a

There peculiar danger so-called new and mod in

is
a

ern truths. Many people become enthusiastic about

ideas simply because they are new and because the actual
politics, economics,

to
situation—in science, etc.—is felt
Many people believe themselves
be

unsatisfactory.
obliged side with the latest “truths,” because they are
to

new and “modern.” There definite and dangerous

is
a

modernity. One wants up-to-date

be
to
in

allurement
its be

and does not like reactionary. But

in to

considered
a

reaction depends value upon the thing

it

reacts
re
be

against; and sometimes very necessary

to
it
is

a
on

actionary. Modern, the other hand, means modo

today;
of

hodierno, according
to

the fashion what has

be

been modern yesterday may obsolete tomorrow.

There are many striking examples every re
of

in

this
of

gion human life. scientist who refused,

in
A

the
the last century,
of

eighties Darwinism was

as to

in

believe
of

decried reactionary and incapable understand

as
a

ing the newest and most modern “truth.” Today

a

great majority
of

biologists have ceased

to

in

believe
of

theory
or

Darwinism evolution.
in

even the
Life becomes easier, true, by ready acceptance
is
it

taking over what just the belief

of

In

current ideas.
is
 O B S TA C LES TO PER FEC T IO N 163

of majority or a group, man is spared the task of

a
finding out by himself about truth and untruth. His
responsibility too becomes less; he relies on what his
neighbors believe or on what his paper tells him. Nor
does he thus run the risk of having to defend his own
ideas or to oppose those of his friends and comrades.
All this is not without

its
advantages. But not the

it
is
right thing
to

do.

is,
of
blind rejection course, not better

to of
A

new ideas
than blind acceptance. We ought consider earnestly
whatever new “truth” presented us. Clinging

to

is to
is
prejudices very bad thing. famous physicist

A
is
a

believe only
“I
what
to

in
said have remarked: see;

I
not be
do

do
not care look things which
at
to

and

I
I

lieve.” What this man stated rather bluntly expresses

on
of

of
indeed the attitude many people behalf new
ideas. No doubt that this attitude quite wrong.
is

very marked tendency

of

quite
us

There few
in
is

for opposition. We oppose not because we have made

the falsehood, but just because we feel like op
of

sure
posing. This habit springs, least partly, from ex is an
at

aggerated will for self-assertion. The opponent al

he

be

he

be
ways noticed; may unpleasant, but can not
overlooked. He often credited with originality,
is

deserves this qualification but seldom. Op

he

though
position gives rise discussions which,
to

to

debates and
especially when becoming rather fierce, interrupt the
monotony every-day life. Opposition
of

of

one the
is

by procure
or

which
to

means more less sensational

experiences.
by

There are many minds possessed craving for

a

unusual and sensational experiences. The pleasure found

witnessing boxing-match
or

or
in

“thrillers”
in

in

a
of

hearing some catastrophe

crime springs from this
or
a

an

source. These things have been discussed already

in

earlier chapter. The same desire for unusual emotions

 164 SE LF IMPR O V E M EN T

and a change of monotony is at the bottom of another

wide-spread habit which is apt to imperil progress; since
it gives rise to a thoroughly distorted idea of reality;
that is sentimentality.
Sentimentality is not easily defined. It can perhaps
be described as the habit of apparently strong emotional
reactions on occasions which objectively do not war
rant them. The emotional display is often very impres
sive. But it is not sure at all that the emotions are as
strong as they seem to be; they are, in fact, notwith
standing the impressiveness of the utterances, rather
shallow.
many

in is,
The behavior of a sentimental person

in
ways, rather like the one described before sensitive
people. There

to
one feature common both habits:
is

very
of

the range

in
emotional reactions restricted
is

a
curious manner. The sentimental person will shed tears
no

of
average man would think being moved

in
where
this way; but the same person may remain quite un
things which ought
of

appeal
to
in

moved and cold face

every normal person. Sentimentality does not care,
in to

fact, for the true values and the real importance

the things; interested not things, not objective
of
in

in
it
is

reality, but exclusively

of

subjective states mind.

in

Not the object which moves but the being moved the
is

one important thing such people. Therefore, they

to

are definitely greedy for emotions and try procure

to

them wherever they can.

Sentimentality ignores the existence dif
of

objective
an

events exercising
or

ferences between facts emotional

appeal. Every unpleasant fact becomes catastrophe,
a

every slight misfortune becomes tragedy, every little

a

an
on

rippling
of

the surface the emotional life becomes

impassioned reaction, tears flow the most insignificant
at

occasion, each nice thing marvel, hardly interesting

is
a

news becomes exciting, and

so

on.
 OBS TA C L E S TO PE R FEC TION 165

The habit of exaggerated emotional reactions blunts

the discernment for values. It creates a tendency
equally important;

all
towards considering events

as
ut

its
nearly always

at
since the emotional reaction

is
no
most height, there possible gradation. The death

is
of

of
pet, say goldfish, releases such
of
flood tears
a

a
of
that the death mother can not produce greater

a
a
wrong idea

of
one. Sentimentality tends

to
create

a
values. There are people who feel the greatest pity for
dogs and cats and horses and birds; the same people are
quite cold the fact that there are children starving,
to

sick persons not cared for, large masses without the

primitive benefits
of

culture. Sentimentality usually

is
its

quite content with emotional responses; does not

it
care for letting them become motives All
of
action. the
on

no

part
of
energy spent emotion, left for
is

is
it
action.
The uniformity
of

of
emotional reaction, regardless
reality, absolutely wrong.
it of

the objective differences

to is

real evil; ought extirpated

be

This habit

as
is
a

thoroughly possible. Reality not uniform; there

as

is

existence and, accordingly,

of

are different levels of

value. To confuse them, the sentimental person
as

is

apt
of

do, amounts distortion truth. Senti

to

to
of a

mentality truth. Progress and perfec

an

enemy
is

on

tion, however, are based

of

the acknowledgment
truth.
very unwilling accept
or
to

There one truth man

is

is

discover, the truth about himself. To see him

to

even
needs indeed some very strong in
is,
he

he

self really
as

is,

centives. This question however, closely linked

so

with the problem pertaining

of

the sphere religious

to

life that better discussed under this heading.

it
is
166 S E LF IMPRO VE MENT

5. Handicaps of Religious Life

Somefew introductory words seem necessary. It has

been explained already in the Preface that this book can
not be called a religious one in the strict sense of the
term. It is written from the point of view of the

all
psychologist and it avoids carefully strictly theo
logical arguments. But the psychologist not allowed

is
life, this side be

of
neglect the religious side
to

human
ing Some modern psycholo
of

enormous importance.
gies which believe that they may discard altogether the
spiritual soul are because
of

of
notion this prejudice
a

do
exceedingly unsatisfactory. They not afford real

a
do
help practical life, nor they
is of of
in

the difficulties
give any consistent idea human nature. That man

is
body
of

unit and soul not mere idea, not belief

a

by
dictated by faith, but fact which can

be
proven
a

a
mental life. The very moment, how
of

careful analysis
of

ever, the existence the soul has been ascertained,

it
spiritual nature,
of
be

becomes clear that this soul must

a

and by this we become sure, too, that the soul belongs,

another world besides this tangible one we
so

say,
to

to

living in.
Introducing the notions
its
of

are soul and

a
all

supernatural destination not “unscientific”—

at
is

though quite few psychologists and philosophers

be a

so—but simply the result unpreju

of

would have
it

of

diced observation and conscientious analysis facts.

the do
on

The psychologist forbidden

to

encroach
is

of
of

he

main theology; but cannot disregard the facts

religious life. He has, therefore, not only the right, but
even the duty say whatever his science may tell him
to
on

its
of

the psychology religious life and difficulties.

Notwithstanding, however, the importance
of

the
be

subject deals with this chapter will rather short.

it

Partly because many problems must

be

left theology
of to

discuss them, partly because great deal

to

what has
a
 H A N DI C A PS OF R E L IGIO U S L I FE 167

been said in the foregoing chapters applies equally to re

ligious life. There is probably no imperfection, no
fault, no undesirable habit which does not influence re
ligious life somehow. Though many of them become
visible mostly in other sides of personal life, they are not
without influence on religious life. This ought to be
clear, because human nature is essentially a unit, which

is,
knows not of real “parts.” It accordingly, mistake

a
believe that certain faults are without any importance
to

for religious progress. There are surely some whose in

on

fluence religious progress rather small; but hardly

at is
no

any which have influence all.

Nearly
all

or

the faults bad habits which have been

an go
ex

to an
chapters

to
back either
in

discussed the earlier

unwillingness ac
of

aggerated love
or
to

oneself
knowledge truth. But religious life based mainly— is
from the psychologist's point

of
when looked view—
at
on

on
screwing back self-love the right level and
to

recognizing truth. This being the case, evident

it
is
that the faults discussed until now can not be indifferent
religious progress. There are, however, some things
to

which influence religious life

in

more direct manner.

a

is,
Faith revealed truth. Superstition
in

belief
is

true faith. Curiously

of

therefore, the absolute opposite

enough, some people manage the teachings
to

in

believe
of

be

religion and superstitious

to

at

the same time.

They the striking contradiction
or of

are either not aware

do
of

faith and superstition, they not understand

what superstition really
is.

Religion, whatever kind, teaches man

of

acknowl
to

edge his smallness, his insignificance,

his helplessness and
God’s grace and mercy for help,
to

to

to

turn trust
in
all

Divine Providence for disposing things

as

best.
is

Humility
is,

therefore, the very basis

of

the religious
attitude.
Its

Superstition acts quite differently. true nature

is
168 S E LF IMPR O VEM EN T

pride and an undue exaltation of the position held by

man within the universe. Superstitious belief and be
havior can be divided into two classes. Superstitious
people either believe that they can, by some “magical”
procedure, influence destiny and fashion it according to
their own wishes, or they feel convinced that they are,
in some mysterious way, warned of dangers or advised
how to act. The first group indulges in magical prac
tices, the second trusts in forebodings. Carrying amu
lets, touching wood for the sake of avoiding misfortune,
making “the horns” to paralyze “evil eye,” these pro

all
magic. Avoiding traveling Fri

on
cedures belong
to

of
days, being thirteen table, etc., but the reverse
at

is
magical practice. Taking black cat that inadvertently
a

way in
is of of

an
presage evil may serve
as

as
crosses one's
a

stance for the second kind superstitious belief.

the quite pre on
of

The use magical tricks based

sumptuous idea that man may acquire some knowledge
enabling him things. Magic
of
to

influence the course

the Almighty Himself. The
of

lets man take the place

magician credited with supernatural power far be
is

yond what man. To him the real master

to

conceded
is
of

of
the world not blind fate, the heathens old
as as
is

thought, nor Divine Wisdom, Christianity teaches,

he

but man insofar possesses some secret knowledge

as

and power. point out greater

to

not necessary
at
It
is

length that this attitude denotes indeed pride un

as
a

ruly unfounded. Pride which, according say

to

the
of as

ing Dante, was the first beginning downfall,

all
of
on

has always been and still the soil which grows the
is

ugly and poisonous plant

of

superstition.
of

Belief forebodings and signs

in

the same nature.

is

Man feels sure that Fate or Providence will trouble

to

regulate his ac
special message whereby
to

send him
a

tions. By this
he

he

becomes certain that holds quite

a

peculiar and eminent place; else the superhuman powers

 H A N DI C A P S OF REL IGIO US L I FE 169

would not care to warn him. The black cat does not
portend evil to everyone whose path it crosses; only to
him who knows how to interpret this sign; he is picked
out, as it were, and the pet of these unknown powers.
This indeed still quite superficial analysis of supersti
tion proves sufficiently between true faith and
that
superstitious belief there is an unbridgeable abyss. Faith
can never be identified with superstition; the so very
“enlightened” people who are accustomed to do so are
either incapable of understanding the nature of faith or
blinded by prejudice. Superstition can never become
reconciled to faith. There is an absolute incompatibility.
Superstitution may appear in many cases as a rather
innocent foible. It may be one, since it is not so much
superstition itself the basic attitude supporting it
as
which is so absolutely incompatible with faith. Any
one who wants to be true to faith and who detects
within his mind an inclination towards superstition or
some habits pertaining to it had better be warned and
submit his conscience to a careful examination; he is
sure to discover an unthought-of amount of hidden, un
ruly and even unhuman ambition.
Superstition is a trickish method for escaping a situa
tion which is as inevitable as it is painful; that is the
simple and wholehearted acknowledgment that law
governs human life and is stronger than human will.
Life is full of the everlasting battle of human will
against these laws. Self-assertion is a normal feature of
it,

he

personality; man can not do without

so

because did
crushed. This attitude—provided
he

be

would simply
stays within the proper limits—is not only necessary
it

keep man alive, but morally right too. Our own

to

it
is

its
of

to of

personality represents value own which we

a

have, paradoxical though may seem, take care.

it

Personality not something given ready

us
as
to
is

to a

made thing; rather something entrusted

us
as
it
is

a
170 S E LF IMPRO V EMEN T

task. Man finds himself as a kind of raw material out

of which he has to fashion a respectable personality.
Man has to find a middle way between indulging in
an unruly love of himself and abandoning his task of
forming his own personality. This middle way can not
be discovered by means of a compromise. A compromise
is always a poor solution; what is needed is something
more than a mere compromise; it is a real synthesis
which is not only between, but also above the two ex
tremes.
There have been always and there are today too, cer
tain people who decry the middle way as mediocre and
as unworthy of man. They hail extreme measures; they
are radicals. To
them the radical alone deserves to be
called a man in the full sense of the name.
This idea which in modern times has found but too
many admirers is far from being clear. It is rather
misty because it is often based on a perilous confusion
of two terms of which the outward manifestations may

all
be rather alike, though their nature is not at the
same. There radicalism and there intransigency.
is

is

an
an

Radicalism implies utter one-sidedness, linked

to

absolute incapacity seeing another's point

of

of

view
ignore Reality,
or

to

it.
at

to

least determination
a

however, not one-sided; the radical

or

extremist view
is

accordingly necessarily wrong. Intransigency means

is

the unwillingness make concessions once the truth

to

of course intransi
A

has been ascertained. radical

is

intransigent person
an

gent; but not necessarily

is

very intransigent defending

be

One may
in

radical.
a

the Church through

of

moderate view. The attitude

out the centuries since her foundation striking ex
is
a

ample thereof. The Church never made, nor will she

make any concessions; regard
to

the truth she

in

preaches she utterly and thoroughly intransigent; but

is

not
to

she has never been addicted radicalism. She does

 H A N DI C A PS OF RE LIGIO US L I FE 171

all
teach, for instance, that men are equal, nor that
there are essential and unbridgeable differences; she does

be
not believe man “born good”

to

J.
J.
Rousseau

as
taught, nor does she hold him “radically bad”

be
to

as
some Protestant philosophers and theologians will have
him to be.
To follow the middle way not

all
make shal

at

to
is
low and cowardly compromises. The faith the Church
anything but compromise. not

It
enunciates
is

is

a a
a
“meeting half-way,” not making

of
concessions, not

a
bargain with hostile forces. compromise can always

byA
to be

symbolized figures.
or

expressed

A
man wants
sell for $5.00, and another wants buy for $4.00;

to
on

of
they will compromise price

It
$4.50. the same

all is
a
all

with economic affairs, the same with political

treaties. This compromise.
is

pos
no

But there are situations where compromise

is
sible. Two people standing
at

cross-road have either

a

part,
of
or

decide for one

to

to

the two roads. But

they may eventually agree look out for third way,
to

to a

the middle road. There such road be found

is

oftener than one would think, people would only

if

look for it.

to

care
furthered by the idea
of

The success radicalism

is

that by following the middle road man has give up

to

the pursuit
of

ideals. This not true either. The

is

uncanny
of

ideals radicalism are rather figures; they are

one-sided that they generally exclude others which
so

truth are quite compatible with the first. The radi

in

cals become, accordingly, more less narrow-minded;

or

they wore blinkers which allow them per

to
as
if
it
is

very small section

of

ceive but reality.

a

radical for strenuously and per

be

One need not

a

sistently pursuing
an

ideal; one had even better not be.

of no

do

The ideals real things;

in

more exist isolation than

the world ideals structure just complex the
as

as
is
a
172 SEL. F IMP R O VE MENT

world of reality. No true ideal contradicts absolutely

another one. But radicalism excludes all but the one
or the few ideals it
views. The radical is subjectively
an idealist, or at least may be one; but his idealism will
remain rudimentary.
There are two extremes one has to avoid when pur
suing an ideal. The middle road between these ex
tremes has to be found. Both are equally dangerous.
There is the Scylla of unruly self-reliance and the
Charybdis of unwarranted self-distrust; one may speak
also of the dilemma between exaggerated hopefulness
and unreasonable despondency.
Though it is written that God’s yoke is light, many
people find religious life exceedingly hard. They give
up or do not even start because of the difficulties they
will have to encounter. Many desist from further en
deavors because they do not progress as fast as they
imagined they would. Impatience is as great an ob
stacle here as it is elsewhere. Most people know, how
ever, that they ought to go on; they need, therefore,
some excuse for not doing so. One rather popular ex
cuse is found in the idea that there are two kinds of
ideals, namely, one for the common man and another
is,

for the elect. A perfect religious life according

to

this view, something reserved for some persons who are

as,

gifted leading
peculiar life
or

special manner
in
a

for instance, those holy orders. People holding this

in

view find confirmation of their ideas

in

the numerous
a

by
on

religious life written

or

books monks nuns for

the members of their Orders. true that some of
It
is

long ago and that they

of of

these books belong

to

ages
an

suppose sometimes order life and world different

a
of

from those today. But this cannot invalidate the

Christian life always and every
of

truth that the goal

is
no

where the same. There special ideal for the monk

is

absolutely be
no

be

the priest,
or

ideal which would

 HA N D I C A PS OF RE L IG IO U S L I FE 173

yond what every man ought to strive for. Some people

may simply ignore this truth; but the majority holds
the opposite view just for the sake of silencing the voice
of conscience. They are rather like the fox who made
himself believe that the grapes were no grapes after all.
This is not the only occasion where to have an excuse
ready is very useful indeed. The habit of excusing is
a thoroughly bad one. It springs mostly from vanity,
from the desire to avoid the unpleasant feeling of hav
ing made a mistake or committed a fault. Man wants
to appear better than he is in the eyes of the world, but
even more in his own. By inventing excuses he tries to
fool his conscience in the same manner he is trying to
fool his fellows. This habit of excusing every mistake
would not be so bad after all, if the goal a man is striv
ing for were really perfection and if his not having at
tained it were the reason for his making excuses; but
this is not the case. These people do not seek perfec
tion for perfection's sake, but for the gratification it af
fords their vanity; they want to be perfect as they want
to wear a nice suit; the attire of their soul has to be as
tie

their patent-leather
or

or

faultless as their their hat

do

shoes. Those who really aim perfection not look

at

around for excuses; they rather register their mistakes

inevitable and facts by
be

because they know them

to

which they may profit.

Man can not hope for making progress religious
in

becomes fully conscious

of
he

is he he

life unless the mistakes

makes; by hiding them before his own conscience
of

will never move on. The habit excusing himself

therefore real hindrance.
a

is,

of

This habit however, but one side more general

a
of

of

attitude—the unwillingness becoming aware one's

true nature. This unwillingness truth itself sign
in
is

a
of

something being amiss with our personality.

If

we
were quite sure that we never can detect serious de
a
174 SE LF IMPRO V EMEN T

ficiency, nor any greater imperfection, nor something

basically wrong within ourselves, we surely would
gladly investigate the depths of our personality. That
we shun such an exploration is a sure sign of our know
ing dimly that rather unpleasant discoveries await us.
Of some of these painful things we have a more or
less clear idea; of others we just feel that they will be
all

To
the first class belong

of of to
but agreeable face.
many memories

of

or
deeds which we are ashamed
which we repent having done; they are not entirely
forgotten, but they have been banished from our every
day consciousness, and we don’t want them turn up

to
again. There are, furthermore, many good purposes,
formed once and never carried out or abandoned after
re do
is of

be
few attempts;

to
these too we not want
a

minded. There perhaps some undesirable quality

as,
which however manifests itself only occasionally for
of

instance, outbreaks sudden anger; every time such

an outbreak occurred we resolved that should be the
or it

do
last time; but we forget this resolution rather we
all

not follow up. We know the time that we ought

it
do

do

something, but we not act according

to

to
our
all

knowledge. From these things we look away but

do

gladly,
of
to

too and we not like become aware them.

Of these things we know sometimes; but there are
others we never really know, though their presence
is

not absolutely hidden us. There the vanity which

to

is

up
all

pervades our actions, the egoism mixed with our

most unselfish intentions, the pride which will boast
humility and sincerity, the ambition
of

secretly even
which never satisfied by any success whatever, the un
is

ruly longing for praise, the ingrained tendency for

envy—all those attributes
of

average human nature

which are the powerful agents
of

of

most our troubles.

Try
all

we may convince ourselves that right

to
as

of is

with us, that we are quite respectable sort man,

a
 HA N DI C A PS OF RE LIG IO US L I FE 175

still, in the depths of our minds we know this to be un

all
this knowledge

to
true. And we do not want at

all
prevent any

do
become really clear. We

to
we can
light falling into these depths.

of of

of
This reluctance becoming aware our true nature
and the real state things very great, indeed the

of is
a
religious progress. Many

on
greatest, obstacle the way
other undesirable features are but manifestations of this
basic attitude.
hypocrisy and pharisaism has been
of

The fact
touched upon already. We

all

or
behave more less like
Gospel pride his fault

in
who took
in

the Pharisee the

lessness, telling God how righteously lived, and how

he
was for not being like other people, for in
he

grateful
stance like the man there behind who just beat his breast
on

saying: “God have mercy me, sinner.” We have

a

assume this attitude, because

us
to

better than
it

enables
of

any other shut the eyes fact

in
what we
in
to

face
know ourselves
to

be.
Another feature deriving from this lack sincerity
of

real progress.
of

of

the conviction not being capable

is

becoming better be
do

of

We not doubt our capacity

utterly bad, but be
be
so
to

cause we know ourselves

cause the very first step would lead into acknowl
us

edging that we are far from being perfect

as

we make
as

ourselves believe. The difficulty we recoil from not

is

the way and

its

length, but
to of
so

much the steepness

face the true picture
of

the fact that we have our

personality.
vanity.
of

There are three degrees The lowest

is

man who looks the mirror and

at

in

found
in

himself
a

by

admires himself. The next degree represented the

is

man who, looking the mirror, deplores

of

in

behavior
a

by

his ugliness, implying

he

this that fact

in

entitled
is

vanity
of
of

beauty. But the highest degree man

to

of is

who never even goes near mirror for fear discover

a
176 SE L F IM P R O V EM EN T

ing that he is not as handsome as he believes and wants

himself to be.
Despondencyand pusillanimity are two dangerous
obstacles. They are much more common than is gen
erally known. They are, both of them, children of
vanity and ambition. There is a peculiar kind of spiri
tual ambition, the wish of reaching the heights of re
ligious life, not for the sake of God’s glory, but for
the sake of gratifying our vanity. St. John of the Cross,
in the introductory chapters of his treatise on The Dark
Night, where with the faults of beginners, has
he deals
given us a wonderful description of this spiritual am
bition; and in a way we never cease to be beginners.
Because man likes so little to do what is really neces
sary, he often goes off in rather curious bypaths which
indeed are truly nonsensical. He acts exactly as it is
written, swallowing camels—or having swallowed them
already before——and straining at gnats. He is anxiously
avoiding even the semblance of sin and imperfection, he
is trembling at being eventually caught in one of the
many snares besetting his way, he is suspecting sinful
ness everywhere and obsessed by the idea that he might
have violated some law or that he will do so in the next
all

moment, and he is unaware the time that something

basically wrong with him. There are certain over
is

of

conscientious people whose life filled with the fear

is

they may which they pos

or

sins which have committed

sibly could commit. This state call scrupu
of

mind
is is

losity. To discuss nature and origin ques

its

of

out
tion; this problem indeed belongs the pathology
of
to

neurosis, since scrupulosity truth nothing else but

in
is

compulsory neurosis. Only one point

of

peculiar form
a

made clear: scrupulosity has nothing com

be
to

in

has
mon with real and earnest striving for perfection;
it
is
a

all endeavor of this kind.

to

rather an absolute obstacle

Scrupulosity
of

essentially the outcome perverted

is

a
 H A N DI C A PS OF R E L I G I O U S L I FE 177

religious life. A person afflicted by this state would do

well in reading carefully over the passages Father Wil
liam Faber devoted to this matter in his treatise, on
Growth in Holiness. But it is doubtful whether a
scrupulous person would be willing to recognize the pic
ture drawn by Father Faber as that of his own person
ality.
The masters of ascetic theology have always been
aware of the fact that scrupulosity is anything but a
sign of a really tender conscience. It is the effect of a
wrong spiritual ambition combined with cowardice.
John Charlier, surnamed De Gerson, and honored by
the title of the Very Christian Doctor, who had been
chancellor of the University of Paris in the fourteenth
century, treated of scrupulosity in a small book en
titled On Pusillanimity. Many of the men who by pro
fession had to take care of souls, be they priests or
alienists, have seen very clearly into this matter; but it
is very difficult to make the scrupulous person see what
he is really about.
Pusillanimity may manifest itself in other ways too.
The catechism mentions a sin called despair of God's
mercy. This attitude is commoner than one would
think. Even more frequent is another, closely related
to the first, namely, the idea that God does not care for
one. Many people believe themselves to be what they
term God’s step-children. Many of these people think
that they humbly accept whatever God sends them; but
in truth they arenot as humble as they believe. For
to pass a judgment on God’s plans and on the way He
is treating us, we must first be able to see through His
mind. By feeling like a “step-child” of God man in
dicates that he in fact knows perfectly how God ought
to treat him, that he has quite an inkling of what he
his

deserves and that, accordingly, equal

to

mind
is

penetrating Eternal Wisdom. man would but care

If
178 S E LF IMPRO W EMEN T

to figure out what the real meaning of this attitude of

is,

its
of
he
criticism would become aware nonsensicality.
There are quite few who think and speak they

as
if
a
say: “What pity the Lord did not consult

to
wanted

a
made the world; He would have profited

he
me when
by
my advice.” Much course wrong

of

in
indeed this

is
world; but not wrong because creation

it. in
bad
it
is

is
itself, but because wrong

of of

of
the use man makes
how

is,
What these critics Providence find fault with

of
ever, often not this
or
that accidental feature the
They
its

world but basic construction. are quite shocked,

for instance, that there are differences between individ
uals, that man must die. They
or

between the sexes, or

no
are extremely shocked by the fact that better place
They
to

has been allotted are dissatisfied with

them.
everything, grumbling everything, sure that they
at

would have done much better, had they but been asked.
Not certain kind of dissatisfaction were es
as
if
a

sentially and always wrong. Dissatisfaction indeed

the great dynamic element pushing mankind forwards. is
If

man had not been dissatisfied with his condition no

progress would have been achieved
at

all. Dissatisfac
curiosity—which
of

tion and but kind dissatisfac

is

forces urging
of

tion the intellect—have been the great

improve
on

the way
of

of

man onwards discovery and

ment. Dissatisfaction with himself the strongest mo
is
on

tive starting him perfection. But this

to

the road
feeling reasonable and valuable only long
so

as
it

deals
is

reality be
of

of

with sides which are essentially capable

ing changed, and nonsensical when turning
it

becomes
on

reality which must necessarily remain the

of

features
Same.
of

Fear death natural reaction; but revolt against

is
is a

the fact that man mortal animal nonsensical and

is
a

of is,

indeed wrong. Natural though

of

fear death—
it

and, for that matter, many kinds fear—are antag

 H A N DI C A PS OF R E LIG IO US L I FE 179

onistic to religious progress. Fear and anxiety may be

come a kind of obsession filling, as it were, the mind so
completely that scarcely any place is left for any other
thought.
It

of all

be
is impossible to detail here that could and

on
ought be
the subject fear and anxiety.
so to

said
This large and important matter that

to
discuss
is

a
thoroughly special treatise would become necessary.
it

Only few things can

be
pointed out which are imme
a

of
diately related the question religious development.
to

Fear and anxiety are emotions which generally as

sume rather egoistic character. Even the fear for an
a

mostly truth fear for ourselves. When we

of in

other
is

our beloved we are thinking more

of
fear the death
“our loss”—as language very aptly expresses it—than
losing. Usually what
of

on of

the person we are danger

in

we fear has direct bearing our own welfare;

to
a

is,

up certain degree, quite right

of

to

take care this

a

and even duty. Here everywhere else the pass

as

it
is
a

ing beyond limit which becomes wrong.

a

the Lord,” say the Scriptures,

of

“The fear “is the

beginning not more than just
of

wisdom.” But
it
is

the slave,” says St. Bern

of

the beginning. “The fear

“In
of

ard, “is the lowest degree religious mind.”

trembling and fear,” writes St. Paul, “we work our
in

But the important thing not fear

in

salvation.” this
is

and trembling, but our working our salvation, which

means our keeping mind God’s honor and glory. The
in

an
of

fears which usually beset human life are mostly

death the thought
of

is of
in

other nature. Even the fear

God’s judgment plays but
of

small rôle; fear death

a

much more “natural” than that.

not for everyone St. Francis did. We
to
It

feel
as
is

be

may not make our own his words: “Praised

to

able
Thou, our Lord, for our sister, bodily death.” But
be

we may try get more correct and more rea

at

to

least
a
180 S E LF IMPR O VEM EN T

it,
sonable view of death. Did we but fear there were
much wrong with our attitude. We do, however,

so
not
not only fear death; we revolt against and we feel

it
it
No
be
tremendous injustice that we have
to

to
die.

a
life,

of to of
be
matter how sure we may future we never

a
go
on
prefer eternally.

In
theless would this life this
feeling there good deal envy too. We have

to
is
a
depart from this world, and others are allowed stay

to
Oſl.
rebellion which becomes, not only
of
It

this element
is

an
of
fear, such religious
in

to
the instance obstacle
is,

progress. of
course, the peculiar form

in
Revolt
it
of

which the pride the weak and the helpless asserts

self. Man knows but too well, whether

he he
allows this

no
thought not, that
or
to

become conscious match

is
for the great forces governing reality,

be

he
that calls

it
destiny by whatever name. There
or
so or

them God

is
a
knowledge deeply rooted human nature that one
it in

an
of

would really like think inborn one, which

of to

as

to of
its

tells every soul finiteness and smallness and

something infinitely greater than man. He forced
is
it,
its

he

recognize existence; may deny but there

it
is

strong for man

to

resist, too
It

nevertheless. too
is

strong even for his revolting openly against He

it.

needs must hide his rebellion before his own conscious

be able to maintain this attitude. He has in
to

to

ness
vent, this expression may pass, some trick enabling
if

up

of

him keep the attitude rebellion without seeming

to

very powerful one in

so.
do

these tricks,
of
to

One
a

the commuting subjective unwillingness into

of

deed,
is

the atti
an

objective impossibility; replacing, that

is,

will not” by the other:

“I

“I

tude of: can not.”

There are temptations allegedly strong that they
so
be

but one has every reason

to

can not resisted; doubt

ought ab
of

Perhaps
to

the truth this statement. one

stract from certain, abnormal, which
in

indeed cases
 H A N DI C A PS OF R EL IGIO U S LI FE 181

in

as,
the will may really have become enfeebled for
stance, drug-habit. per

to
in

It
man addicted the

is
a
haps true that such man can not resist the temptation

to a
any more and has yield his craving for the poison.

to
But even remnant of freedom
in
these cases there

is
a
chance for recuperation. known that even

It
and

is
a
an

this kind may give way under the

of
inveterate habit
of

pressure some strong emotion; what emotional strain

by
reason ought

in be
may produce, will guided

to
to
able
accomplish. fact, there are not few cases
In

which

a
man found the strength habit.

to
overcome such
a

a
bodily
of

of
The excuse chronic intoxication and
changes influencing will does not hold good outside

of
irresistible temp
of

of
the cases toxicomania. The idea
tations probably altogether wrong; great the allur

as
is

ing force may be,

of
still needs the assent the will for
it

give way But we do, fact, cede very

it.
to

to

in
man
temptations which we can not, good con
to

often
in
overwhelming power. Why
to an

science, credit with does

man yield easily temptation?
so

of by
The answer has been given, once and for ever, St.
an

Augustine exceedingly interesting passage

in

his
his having stolen, when
of
he

Confessions, where tells

a

boy, fruits from the neighbor's orchard. He did not

eat those fruits; those
he

at

had home were better than

the stolen ones. What attracted him was not the spoil
be

got, but the stealing itself.

to

There indeed
is

peculiar fascination doing things forbidden;

an

old
in

adage asserts that we always strive for the things for

bidden and long for those denied us. The fact well
to

is
St.

known; Augustine supplies the explanation. By

by

by

trespassing, ignoring commandment, con

a

be

sciously acting contradiction what we know

to

to
in

law,
of

being
to

the man gives himself the illusion

greater than the law-giving power;
he

gives himself for

superiority and even, when the
of

moment feeling
a

a
182 S E LF IM PR O V EM EN T

commandment ignored be of Divine origin, the illusion

of being more than God Himself. It is as if the words
of the serpent were still resounding in man’s ears: “You
will be like gods. . . .”
The self-willed and self-asserting ego shrinks from
the idea of submitting whole-heartedly to the will of
God. The devil takes, it is said, the hand when he is
offered a finger; but God is sure to take the whole man.
And where will our precious self be when the Almighty
it;

gets hold of assert our self, when has but

to

to
how

it
God’s will; and will not such
do

total surrender simply

a
its
abolish our personality and turn freedom and dignity

do
into bondage and slavery? We not, rule, ask

as
to a
these questions, because they are contrary what we
have been taught. But we oftener than not behave

as
our mind. they are—and there If
in

such ideas were

if

large extent the out

no

it—they are
of

doubt
to
is

We simply
of

come ignorance and misunderstanding.

do

God,
of

of
not know enough, either reality, or

or
of ourselves.
all

After therebut reason and knowledge show to

is
us

the way. vain that the Scriptures say

in
It

not
is

that we shall know the truth and truth shall make us

free.
freedom held by many people are, how
on

The ideas
ever, often very far from the one implied
in

the words
to on
of

the Gospel, and the ideas truth are not less so.
Faith teaches man that truth be found
in

revelation
is

the Church, and that freedom

of
in

and the ordinances

the assent given truth well the de
to
in

in

consists
as

as

act according
it.

termination But the human

to

to

mind confuses very easily objective truth with ideas

it

can completely understand and which can find out

it

by itself, and believes that freedom had only

be

in
to
is

of

lawlessness or, least, where the laws are man’s own

at

making. strongly reminded

of

Here again one the

is
 HA N D I C A PS OF REL IGIO US L I FE 183

treacherous promises made by the serpent: “You will

be like gods”; being like gods means having nothing
above onself, being the absolute master of one's fate, the
supreme power within reality; knowing about good and
evil means that the laws ruling over human behavior
shall be made by man himself, that he shall decree what
is permitted and what forbidden.
The difficulties which belong in a special sense to re
ligious life, the resistance some people feel against obey
ing this or that commandment can not be detailed here.
Some general remarks, however, on the psychological
side of these difficulties and on the basic features of

is,
unbelief have to be mentioned. Faith according

to
the Church, due
of

the teachings Divine grace.

to

It
mere believing statements. But super
in

more than
is

its

natural though faith essence, not without

in

it
is

natural aspect too; grace supposes nature, and this is

a

of

statement theology implies that certain collabora

a

of
tion and certain readiness for listening
to

the voice
a

by
be

grace has prepared

the human mind
to

to
become
to by
of

of

capable being enlighted

the rays revelation.
on
an

Once meeting Religious

in

address delivered
a

Psychology man, equally famous priest, scholar

as
a

a
no

and statesman, remarked that there psychology

is
a

faith, the terms, faith being es

of

of

the strict sense

of in

sentially supernatural origin, but that psychology

a

may well inquire into the essence unbelief, since this

of

the natural factors influencing human

to

attitude due
is

of
be

mind. The same may said certain difficulties that

people who want
to

their faith
to

to

believe and adhere

religious life.
in

encounter
of of

Faith means the acceptance articles which rest on

the authority
of

of

Revelation, the Scriptures, the

authority means submission
it.

Church. Believing
to
in

Rejection authority
it of

always something like rebel

is

lion,
of

born out the desire for self-assertion.

at

least
is
184 S ELF IMPRO V E MENT

Many people feel that they can not believe what they
can not understand; they are utterly wrong in this, be
cause one can not believe and need not believe what
reason is capable of proving. We do not believe in
mathematics; we knows its statements to be true, be
cause we can prove them, demonstrate them and make
everyone see that they are true. There are, of course,
many things we believe, insofar as we are not able to
verify them. The layman believes what the scientist
or the historian tells him, not having the possibility of

all
inquiring by himself into these things. We believe
foreign country,
all of us

what traveler tells about because

a

a
no

we have means going there and seeing with our

of
own eyes. But
in

these cases there the chance

is
verification; had we studied physics, read the original
documents, gone the foreign countries, we could
to

ascertain whether the reports and statements are true

be
no

great difficulty
or

not. We see, therefore,

in
lieving these people, unless they tell
us

things we deem
differ
be

altogether improbable.
to

But with faith

it
is
ent; nobody can expect get
of
to

verification the
to a

faith; we have simply

of

articles believe them.

The human mind does not, fact, find this belief
in

too difficult; there have been

at

all times and there are

today many very clever men, many who are fully ac
quainted with the principles science, many thor
of

oughly capable handling the methods

of

of

science and
of

logic, who readily believe what faith and the Church

teach. Believing these things evidently not all
at
in

is

contrary
of

The articles faith are indeed not

to

reason.
An unpreju
it.

against reason, though they transcend

its

diced and clear-headed philosophy may even push

up

by

inquiries point where the answer given faith

to
a

appears the most plausible one, though philosophy

as

can never really prove in

it.

not reason which

It
is

its

reject faith
or
to

doubt truth.
to

duces man
 H A N DI C A PS OF R E L I G I O US L I FE 185

The great anti-religious movements started with what

they called “humanism.” This term is used in many
senses; but it implies always that man is made the centre
of the universe, the pivot, as it were, on which

all
the
noteworthy that the French

It
rest turns. rather

is
Revolution, whose anti-Christian attitude generally

is
known, proclaimed solemnly the “rights

of
man.”
These rights were, truth, quite sufficiently safeguarded
in
by Christian religion; they needed not

be
to
stated

all
anew; they were not those bloody
at

in
discovered
times. Their being stated expressly by the spiritual
significant, however,
of

leaders the French Revolution

is
the general mentality: man was
of

be
made the abso

to
of

that time,

of
lute centre the world. The revolution
of
every revolution after
be

and the same may asserted

wards, turned not only against the social order, against
of

the supremacy certain classes, against the existing

of

structure society and the economic situation result

ing therefrom; turned against every order and
it

authority which was not acknowledgedly man’s mak

of

ing. Though the economic distress large majority

of
a

the people played manifestly the greatest rôle

of

in

the
origins the Revolution, the unwillingness accept
of

of

ing
an

established order, which moreover appealed

to

Divine institution, was very mighty factor prepar

in
a

ing the revolutionary attitude.

all

The war waged by

of

of

kinds revolutionaries,
free-thinkers, “progressive” and “enlightened” people
of

against religion declared, nearly without any excep

is

tion,
of

But reason, since

in

the name “reason.” can

it
an

all-convincing proof that the articles

of

not give
faith are true, can not disprove them either. Science,
no

criticising religious state

of

especially, has means

not man's reason but man's pride which
It

ments.
is

revolts against faith. This very pride which once, even

186 SEL. F I M P R O V EM EN T

before man yielded to the insinuations of the serpent,

had spoken: “I refuse to serve.”
What is true of the great anti-religious movements in
history is true also of the anti-religious attitude of
single individuals. It is not reason which hinders them
in accepting the teachings of the Church; they know
or are, at least, able to discover, that reason can not
bring forth any valid argument against faith; they
know that, so far as reason goes, it does not encounter

its
insurmountable obstacles on way faith. But pride

to

on
does; pride reluctant accept statements based
to
is

authority, even

of
be

the one Revelation. Pride

it

especially does not want submit

to

to
commandments
to to

which feels come from without and which

it

it
has

So
not been asked approve previously. deeply rooted

of
this pride that does not even listen

to
the voice
is

it

reason which quite ready accept statements

to

can
is

it
not prove; reason, fact, knows perfectly that there
in

are many things simply has accept without being

to
it

all
prove them discover why they are
or
to

at
to

able
and why they are just thus. That there world and
is
a

that ordered according laws, that these laws are

to
it
is

all

these things have

to be

they are, accepted

to

such
as

by human reason which never can hope penetrate

of

the essence reality. Science discovers these laws, but

telling why they are and why
of

quite incapable
us
it
is

they are just thus.

of

The acknowledgment the laws

on

ruling over nature indeed forced the human mind;

is

these laws were not recognized, man would have

to
if

pay the penalty. Things will fall down, whether man

willing gravity not; things
of

recognize the law

or
us to
is

their way, regard

do

of

will hurt we not keep out

if
of

our assenting Whether we under

to

less the laws.

go

things not, they will

of

or

stand the hidden essence

on

behaving they did since times unthinkable. Rea

as

son knows this, and knows too that there are other
it
 H A N DI C A PS OF RE L I G I O U S L I FE 187

laws which command no less respect than do those of

nature. Reason knows that there are the laws of morals,
it knows that there must be a ruling principle and an
ultimate cause of things and events. It is not reason
which recoils from accepting these laws nor from be
lieving in truth revealed. It is pride which bars the
way.
Quite a few people who stay outside the faith tell us
that they are quite content with accepting the teach
ings of the Church, but that they can not bring them
selves to believe in this or that special article or consent
to this or that special ordinance. They think that these
objections are dictated by reason. But reason ought to
convince them that the teachings of the Church are of
an irreproachable logic, and that to accept the premises
makes inevitable the acceptance of every conclusion.
The non-acceptance of certain single statements results
either from an incomplete understanding or from an
unwillingness which uses the apparent difficulties of
its

reason for ends and for remaining hidden from the

of

eyes the person himself.

by

Also the doubts which some believers feel assailed

other cause but the resentment ex
no

have generally
or by

perienced unruly pride against having submit

to

to

authority accept statements reason can not thor

to

oughly penetrate.
 PART III

HOW TO HELP ONESELF

1. What to Know

Inthe foregoing chapters many of the faults giving

handicap
all

of

or
rise to kinds difficulties and troubles
ping progress have been described and analyzed. The
descriptions are far from being exhaustive; much more
be
on

of
be

could said the single attitudes and features

havior, and there are many things which have not even

is,
been mentioned. What has been said however, not
withstanding this probably sufficient
incompleteness,
the many snares awaiting
of

for
to

man become aware

a
is on

his way and the many self-deceptions barring

it.
him
surely something,
even quite know
to
It

it

deal
is

about these pitfalls and dangers. To avoid the ones and

fully aware
be
of to

overcome the others we have first

to

the dangers which sur

of

them. But this knowledge

go

yet enable his way;

to
us

as

round does not

man
a

such knowledge may even have quite the opposite

a

making him
to of of

of

effect, namely, discouraging man,

a

feel incapable the task set before him, and may

it

thus bring him standstill. Knowledge being doubt

on a

the way progress evidently not

of

first
less the step
is

more than just beginning.

a

is,
be

The help gained from knowledge however,

is to

greater than generally believed. By becoming aware

of the nature of the real difficulties which we are
in

entangled we discover new sides

in

them and thus new

of

chances dealing with them. Knowledge often opens

an

suddenly altogether new way, one we never thought

189
 190 SELF I M P R O V EMENT

of before, giving access to a place which we before de

spaired of ever reaching.
But a man may set out, full of hope, to climb the
newly discovered path and he may suffer disappoint
ment. The path is neither as short nor as easy as he
thought. There are many ups and downs, many de
tours; there are abysses to be skirted, stumbling-blocks
to be avoided, steep slopes to be climbed; the man toils
on and on, but the summit seems to be as far away as
it had been when he started. Fatigue and disillusion
befall him; his ascent becomes gradually slower, finally
he begins to glide back, and before long he finds him
self at the spot from which he started.
One needs more to climb a mountain than the mere
knowledge of the route to follow. Nobody can hope to
reach the summit without having acquired a certain
technique and having undergone a certain training.
Technique and training can not be acquired from
books. They need, besides the theoretical knowledge, a
good deal of practice. The words of Aristotle on
acquiring a virtue have been already quoted; they
r contain a very important truth. A virtue can be ac
quired only by exercising
it.

There are, however, quite

few who find this advice very objectionable. Prac
a

all

tising appears right long

be

so
to

to

them we have
as

acquire some capacity

or

train for some work.

to

to

wrong and even immoral,

he to be

But they
to

in

hold this
virtue; man prac
of

the case attempting acquire

a

tising virtue which has not really got, they say,

a

guilty
hypocrisy; simply assuming
of

he

becomes
is

fact does not have.

in

moral character he
all of
If

this were true there would be no chance

at
an

ever making progress, unless were by extraordinary

it
of

intervention Divine grace. The objection mentioned

spring from very tender conscience; but
to

it

seems
is
a

very confused idea

of

of

really either the result what

a
 WHA T TO KN O W 191

is,
con

an
hypocrisy just apparently forcible and

or
vincing reason for doing nothing.
By the name hypocrisy

of

of
called the behavior

is

a
person who wants create the impression being

to

of
some egois

of
honest, moral, pious, etc., for the sake
perfect

he

be
tical aims; maybe

to
wants honored

as
a
he

he
citizen, maybe get some position, maybe

to
wants
other people for some criminal pur
on
impose
to

wants
gratify his vanity. The
he

pose, maybe simply wants

to
hypocrisy that moral behavior
in
essential feature

is

is
a
being intrinsically good, but
its
of
assumed not because
The hypocrite generally
of

because some other reasons.

playing rôle; his picture has been im
he

knows that
is

in a

mortalized by Molière his “Tartuffe.” But there

is
an

also unconscious hypocrisy people who believe in

most perfect, while they have, truth,

be
to

in
themselves
only the outward behavior morality and are,
of

in
the
of

depths their souls, callous and egoistical; that what

is
called rightly by the name
of

pharisaism. These
is

all

morality; they are the

of

people know about the laws

of

severest judges their neighbors; they are shocked

by the slightest infringement
of

ethics, provided
it
is
by

committed others; they are prudish and priggish and

all

supercilious—but this only façade, behind which

is

dwell things wholly different.

º
its

To
of

strive for the good because

to

goodness,
the right things because their being right,
of

to

behave
by

the way prescribed morality because

in

the moral
it
is

way, truth the very opposite hypocrisy. The

of
in
is

mistaken idea which criticized here arises from an

is

certain sub
of

of

erroneous conception the importance

be

jective states mind. Not everyone can expected,

of
he

the way
he

nor can expect himself, knows

to

in

feel
do

willing
be

the right one. We may very well

be
to

to
do

certain things and them really and

at
to

the same
time not feel like doing them; many things are done
 192 S E LF IMPR O V EMEN T

But the point is not whether a man feels

(reluctantly.
like doing this or that, but whether he does it or not.
By acting according to the laws of morality man shows
that he is willing to respect these laws and to acknowl
edge their binding power. It is much if a man acts reg
ularly in this manner; his feelings are only of a sec
ondary importance.
An action which is right in itself does not become less
per
its

of is on
its
so, nor are results and influence the doer’s
sonality weakened by the fact that not associated

it
is,
with enthusiasm and feeling. course, more

It
do

pleasant things one feels enthusiastic about than

to

an

of
those which necessitate overcoming reluctance.
An action
of

be
the second type may perhaps more
meritorious. But the merit of an action does not de
sur
on

of

be
pend

to
the amount reluctance which had
mounted.
is,
of

course, not for this book theo

to
It

discuss the
sacrifice, still less the prob
of

of

logical side the question

its
of

of
lem merits. But the psychological side this
by
be

problem must touched upon few remarks.

a

all,
of

First there certain prejudice against sacri

is
is a

fice. This prejudice found not only with persons

of of

who deny the value and the need sacrifice—because

they profess some egoistical kind philosophy—but
also with people who know very well that there
is
a

sacrifice and that by making sacrifices they are

of

need
acquiring merit and obeying the laws
of

of

morals and
According
be

religion.
to

to

this idea sacrifice comes

regarded something “unnatural,” something alien
as
as

life, something like yoke

of
to to

the laws and the essence

a
by

of
be

born mankind. The enemies Christian

morality and the advocates “natural” life (by which
of

name they usually mean

to

life addicted pleasure and

a

gaining pos
of
to

much satisfaction human desire

as

as
 WHA T TO KNO W 193

sible) make much of this argument which in truth has

no strength whatever.
Sacrifice in the full sense of the word does not in
deed appear on a level of existence lower than that of
man. True sacrifice presupposes reason and free will.
But facts which present striking analogy to
a rather
sacrifice may be observed already in infra-human levels.-,
The essence of sacrifice consists in giving away some
thing valuable for the sake of realizing a still higher
value. If a man deprives himself of some pleasure and
prefers to spend the money for charity, he is making a
sacrifice; pleasure means something to him, it has a def
inite value, but he understands that an act of charity
represents objectively much higher value and he is
a
willing to realize this value, though the giving up of

If,
pleasure is felt to be rather disagreeable. however,
no

pleasure had allurement for this man, his giving

charity would still be,
of

money course,
to

charitable a
be

act, but there would no sacrifice.

Every kind
of

becoming
or
of

evolution causes some

be

be

destroyed,
or

disappear,
to
to
to

value not realized.

The values connected with childhood disappear when
be

the child grows evident—and

to

It

man.
is
a

mothers feel this most strongly—that the gradual dis

the charming features characteristic
all
of

appearance
of

values; some
of

childhood means real destruction

a

thing disappears which has definite value not only

in
a

an

the loving mother but objective sense

of

the eyes
in

raw diamond cut and polished; from this

A

too.
is

of a

stone results whose value much greater than that

is

the raw stone; but the original size has become dimin
are lost altogether.
of

ished and parts

it

to of
of

The disappearance certain values for the sake

others, higher ones, probably due
of of

the realization
is

general law reality. does not make any differ

It
a

by

ence whether this realization brought about the

is
 194 S ELF IMPRO V EM EN T

forces of nature, as in the growth of the child, or by

ºr
^ the cunning of man. No value can become real unless
value, of a lesser rank, is destroyed.

all
Sacrifice, therefore, is not at “unnatural”;

it
is
of
rather the manifestation this general law within the
Denying the sense, the value,
of
level human existence.

of
and the necessity denying the

to
sacrifice amounts
peculiarity and dignity human nature. By taking this

of

do
point not,
of

of
view the adversaries Christian morals
human nature; they

of
they believe, defend the rights
as

are rather dragging down this nature

of
to
the level
mere animal life. -

Allpeople agree that sacrifice remains what and

it
is
its

retains specific value, whether one feels enthusiastic

an
The emotional background
or

about not. not

no is
it

essential part
of

sacrifice,

of
as

indeed action
in it
is

the con

of
‘whatsoever. Action consists the adoption

re
clusions reason proposes and realizing the aims
in
/

sulting from these considerations. The objective truth

an

on which action based and the objective values

it
is
t

realize are the only things which matter; feel

to

strives
A.* t

an

ing but accessory factor.

is
^.

---
virtue with
of

person, therefore, acting the line

A

in

its

already full extent and

to

out possessing this virtue

emotionally
he

reacting do, does

as

not would wish

to

not become guilty hypocrisy. He would become

of

he so

only were satisfied with making believe and

he
if

if

did not really want acquire this virtue.

to
no

misinterpretation and
to

There truth not liable

is

of

misuse. This holds good also for the idea sacrifice.

of

An astonishingly large number people believe that

by doing something disagreeable they are making
a

sacrifice and, accordingly, acquiring merit. The ques

Maybe
is of

tion merit not one this book can consider.

is

some merit, even

in

there rather nonsensical action

a

long really good intention. There are,

so

there
as

is
a
 WHA T To KNo W 195

however, people who will take on themselves really great

troubles, real sufferings, and who are, nevertheless, un
aware of their neglecting some very obvious and im
portant duties. They deny to themselves, for instance,
some innocent pleasure; they are intent on procuring
some very unpleasant sensations—for instance, putting

all
a lot of salt in their soup—and they do not realize at
that they are lacking true love for their neighbors.

in
many opportunities for making sacrifices
so

There are
which are some good, by which we may help other
to

people, alleviate sufferings, that

or

contribute little

to
a

really

to or
need not turn
to
we such more less nonsensical
to be

actions. There will enough turn eating

to
on time
disgusting things
or

sleep broken nut-shells when

all

other sacrifices we possibly can make are done with.

an

But doubtful whether average person—we leave

it
is

out the saints—will ever arrive this point.

at
be

not enough make sacrifices; one

to

to

resolved
It
is

must know what sacrifices are indicated. Here al

as
be

is:

ways the first question begin.

to

to
asked where
In

of

of

regard the improvement progress

or
to

ourselves
general answer clear from the very outset. There
is
a

are two ways: one starting

of

personality
at

the centre
and proceeding towards the periphery, and second one
a

starting from without

or

from the outward manifesta

tions and penetrating gradually into the core per
of

sonality.
In

change the attempt

to

the first case we have

to

very basic attitudes and ideas which, consciously not,

or

regulate our behavior.

In

to

the second case we have

try these underlying attitudes by trans
to

influence
by

forming our habits step step.

has been explained already that the faults
It

man
a

gets into, the difficulties har

he

commits, the troubles

rassing him, have their origin the very depths
of
in

his
personality, that they spring from
of

are expressions
or
196 SE LF IMPR O V E MEN T

certain deeply buried but exceedingly powerful ten

dencies of human nature. The first way of procedure,
the attempt to reform and to remould personality from
within, seems therefore to be the best and indeed the
only way. This idea is theoretically quite right. But
things present a somehow different aspect from the
point of view of practice. The access to the depths of
personality is often not so easy that we could think of
working immediately on the basic attitudes of the ego.
Even if we have discovered what these fundamental at
titudes are like, even if we have become sure that un
ruly pride, exaggerated self-love, uncommon vanity, or

all
cowardly ambition are at the bottom of our difficul
all

ties; even perfectly clear us, even

to
this we

if
if

is

in

be
know what we ought do, we still may quite
to
of

capable translating, were, this knowledge into

as
it

efficient actions. Though we may know what amiss

is
brought

be
with ourselves and what changes have to
of
be

about, we may helpless

in

face this task we

as

as
ever had been before.
There very hard, though diaphanous shell around
is
a of

the centre our personality. Once we have torn away

is of

the veil which forbade clear vision the depths of

a

the ego, we may see quite clearly what lurking inside

this shell; may indeed become clear crystal, but
as
it

also not less hard. Our knowledge penetrates far

it
is

deeper into ourself than does our will. We see the

we
of

the deep, may shudder their aspect,

to at

monsters
but we cannot break through the shell kill them.
In

some rare cases indeed the shell may burst open

the pressure from
or

under the tension from within

by

without; man can become suddenly changed real

a
by
be

change
or

to

conversion forced circumstances.

on As

Such cases are, however, exceptions. rule man

a

patiently and persistently

to

so

has work the shell

 W HA T TO KNO W 197

as to make it slowly thinner until his will can break

through.
Neither is the task of getting a clear vision of what
is contained in this shell an easy one. Rarely are we

all
given such an insight

of
sudden; generally the

a
the basic attitudes develops only grad
of
knowledge
ually. Happily we need not wait until this vision has
become complete and perfectly clear. we had, this

If
very bad indeed. The knowledge

of
be

would our self

all
never really completed; we may believe we know
is

about ourselves and we may, nevertheless, suddenly dis

whose existence we were wholly un
of

cover things
of

be
aware. The discovery

to
the self can not likened
determining
of

of
the the geographical position some
lonely island, lost amidst the The geographer's task
sea.
he

done, this case, once has figured out the exact

in
is

latitude and longitude. Discovering the self more

is
drawing richly
of

like complete map some structured

a

country. One gets first general survey, for instance,

a

by photography taken from airplane; this picture

an
a

on

being small scale, shows that there river

at
one
is
a

place and farm another, that there are some hills

at
a

of

and that parts the land look swampy. larger map

A

be drawn on which all the little brooks will have

be to

has
represented and the roads and the bridges, the
to

third map, still larger, shows

A

houses and the barns.

on

the wayside
or

noticeable trees and the crosses little

a

hill,
on

chapel somewhere shows too where farmer

it
a

Jones’ land ends and neighbor Smith's acres begin. This

he

map real help the wanderer, since can gather

to
is
a

by

may shorten his way walking straight

he

from that
it
on

following the sinuosi

of
or
to

that tree instead

this
the road. But even this map does not supply
of

ties
a

the country. The people who dwell

of

real knowledge
by
bit

it,
on

of

were,
as

this earth and who know

it
of

heart, have quite another kind knowledge. Jones

198 SELF I M P R O V EM EN T

may tell his neighbor that his car got stuck in the hole
on the way to the stony acre, and Smith will not only

all

in he
know about the spot, but will also know for sure
that this hole has become, and what way did, more

it
dangerous since the last great rainfall. This really

is

by
knowing the land. Such knowledge not got

is
a

by
an
studying map however large, nor
a
by occasional
visit and strolling over the ground. To know things
this manner one must live there, must have lived
in

there. And even then, after having been there life

a
up
time, things may turn which had been hidden until
this very moment. Some day, perhaps, Smith will cut
an
down hedge and find old and rusty gun which had
a

been thrown away years and years ago, maybe

in
the
Civil War, and whose existence nobody knew. Or
of
he

tree and dig out

its
may cut down stump and
a

come on skeleton with fractured skull; and when

a

a
he

of

an

his discovery
tells old woman will remark that
she remembers her grandmother mentioning the disap
of

pearance farm-hand the time when she was still

at
a

little girl.
a

of on

of

We may live lifetime the land our own soul

a

and still remain ignorant many details. Every day

may bring new and astounding discovery. There may
a

old and forgotten things which have fallen into de

be

we

cay. Sometimes just look them without being

at

But sometimes also dim light

to

able locate them.

a
on

long ago, things

of

and we remember things

us

dawns
which had been brand new then and which we could
we

have used perhaps, had but paid attention

to

them.
We too, like the man who lost his rifle, throw away
of we

we

things could have used, and too discover skeletons

telling awful deeds which did not appear
so

horrid
at

the time they were perpetrated.

Self-knowledge, therefore, never completed; the
is

careful search for hidden motives, for egoistical ten

 W HA T TO KNO W 199

dencies masquerading as the purest altruism or appear

ing as the inevitable results of circumstances, for unruly
self-assertion going crooked ways, since it dares not

all
show in the open; the hunt for this can never

let
given up. But we have not,
be

be
this said once
more, wait until this search end; we can, we

at
to

its

is
im

of
are even obliged start the work

to
reconstruction
mediately after having made our first discoveries.

A
country full indeed won thoroughly for
of

swamps

all is
cultural ends only after the swamps have been dried
up; but one can begin sow after the first few acres
to
have been turned into fertile soil. the same with

It
is
personality. Unveiling some nefarious tendency, break
its

ing into hiding place, gives foothold for progress

a

and provides spot, however small, build upon.

to
a

This search for the truth about ourselves and the at

tempt unveiling the hidden egoistical tendencies
of

their own. They too may be

of

have some dangers

egoism and vanity. pursu
of

come masks Instead of

ing his task for the sake
of

of
an

truth and objective

good—the perfection
of

personality being such good

a
go

gratify
on

—man may hunting for faults merely

to

his vanity find some plausible excuse for his not

or
to

making progress. There are some who declare that they

of

cannot even think improvement, since they have

as

very incomplete idea

of

yet themselves. There are

a

very thorough knowledge

of

of

others who boast their

a

own personality; but who become enthralled by and

so

the study
of

their own precious ego that

so

in

interested
they forget the real goal and strive for self-knowledge
third group
its

of

for own sake. There persons who

is
a

many bad mo
an an

vanity,
of

so

discover such amount

all
of

tives, great
so

their
in

influence self-assertion
do

actions that they really not feel like doing anything;

do

they can not one really good deed; whatever they do,
bad. By being charitable they are serving their
it
is
200 SE LF IMPRO VE MENT

vanity, therefore they helping other

refrain from
people; by listening to another they are humoring their
curiosity, therefore they prefer to do the talking them
selves; by doing conscientiously their work they are
but feeding their pride, therefore they neglect their
duties.

it,
Self-knowledge, or laboring for may thus become
very dangerous. Here again one must know about the
middle way and keep wrong develop

it.
to

to
It

as
is
an

undue interest own personality

in not

as
it
one's

is
care for only, one kind
of to

as
There seems,
at

all.
it

it
is
motive which will make the middle way:
us

to
hold
faith. Religion alone teaches man
be
to

that found
in

seek perfection not for his own egoistical

he

that
to

has
ends, but for the glory God. Having his eyes riveted
of
on

this primary aim, man can avoid being caught

in
the
snares menacing his way
of

progress.
These snares are, truth, quite dangerous. The
in

of

knowledge psychology supplies the many forms

which hidden pride, deeply buried ambition, the will
or
definitely de
of

self-assertion may assume has often

a

structive influence. By becoming acquainted with these

man may learn
to

theories distrust even his clearest

a

in
an

impressions He develops
or

inclination
to

ideas.
of all

terpret his thoughts and actions according

of to

these
he

theories psychology; becomes incapable

naïve
he

and unsophisticated experience; whatever

or

thinks
does needs must have some deeper signification,
or

feels
be

there must something quite different hidden behind

Widely though the various schools
of
or

beneath.
psychology differ their theories, they nevertheless are
in

agreed that mental phenomena may have significance

a

different from the one they present immediate ex

to

perience. But psychology does not say that this the

be is

rule; psychology only warns might

us

that this the

case. The generalization which makes some people
 W HA T TO KNO W 201

look for a hidden meaning is not the fault of psychol

ogy, but the result of a misuse and a misunderstanding
of findings.
its
right his motives, espe

of
Man being suspicious

in
cially when is

he

an
some apparently moral

or
finds excuse
reason for actions which are either wrong

in
themselves
painful for others. But

be
whose results prove
or

to
we ought

of
an
know that the moral value
to

action
on

depends first objective by

it.

It
the value realized
indeed but too evident that bad, least objec

or
at
is

up
with those prompt
be
tionable motives will mixed
ing gratify
an

We are apt
us
to

to
even moral action.
our vanity being charitable feel proud because
or
to
in

our having resisted temptation. But there are many

of

gratifying vanity and many opportunities for

of

ways
feeling proud. Instead deploring the fact that our
of

charity was not born

of
an

unadulterated love for our

grateful that
be

neighbor, let was not merely

us

it

vanity which made

us

in

act this manner.

our motives will, there
an of

no
A

close examination
is
of

of

doubt that, reveal amazing amount egoism.

The analyses sketched out the foregoing chapters
in

of
an

have shown that exaggerated love ourselves and

unruly
all

an
of

of
an

too great lack love our neighbors,

pride and very poorly developed humility, over
an
a

strung ambition and hardly less marked cowardice,

a
a

unwilling
to a an

greediness for sensational experience and

accept the place allotted us, craving for
to

to

ness
of

omnipotence and
to

reluctance submit the laws

a

reality, that—to summarize

all

one word—the
in

this
declining
of

predominance our ego and our

to

notice
this fact are the most powerful and the most frequent
reasons of our manifold troubles and difficulties.
an
of

be

We must destroy the roots evil sure that

to

we have really gained victory. complete and last

A
a

ing victory
be

not hoped for. The evil springs

to
is
202 SEL. F I M P R O V E M ENT

from the very essence of our nature; we can not radi

cally change this nature. It is therefore always possible,
even probable, that the evil will return. But if we have
become watchful and have learned how to discover it
its

be
in initial states, we will deal with

to
able better

it
than we did before. Benjamin Franklin remarks some
his Autobiography that

of
he
could not boast
in

where
having become really humble, though acquired per

he
fectly the behavior humility.

of
“Had become

I
humble,” says he, probably would have been proud
“I
my humility.”
of
once more, because
of

of

be
at an

evil can, course,

or
The influence lessened
temporarily, by more super
be

even abolished, least

ficial and provisionary means.
In
medicine there

is
a
of

distinction what called causal and symptomatic

is

treatment. The first name means method based on a

of

of
the knowledge the ultimate causes some disease
for ex

is,
and attacking directly these causes; malaria
of

ample, due presence micro-organisms

to

the certain
germs are destroyed by quinine.
in

the blood and these

Symptomatic treatment means the appliance some
of
agent which causes certain symptoms disappear with
to
on

out acting directly their causes; for instance, the use

ab
of

of

drugs which alleviate pain produce

or

fall
a

normally high body-temperature. The causal method

is

doubtless more efficient, and corresponds

to

the ideal.
it

Symptomatic treatment often inefficient because

it
is

of

leaves untouched the reasons the pathological state.

all

becomes important, however,

It

in

cases where some

symptom imperils life gives rise great subjective
or

to

sufferings. There are, furthermore, certain conditions

by which vicious circle becomes established
of

the sort
a

that the pathological process underlying the whole dis

by

ease re-inforced the very symptoms resulting from

is

To choose very simple instance: heart palpitations

it.

feeling
of

give rise anxiety and oppression, but these

to
a
 WHA T TO K N O W. 203

emotions, on the other hand, tend to produce an ac

celeration of the heart rate.
There is a causal and a symptomatic way of procedure
also in regard to the troubles of behavior and of moral
life. Here too the symptomatic method very often
proves of no avail. This fact is generally known.
Nearly everybody remembers the many efforts he has
made to overcome this or that habit and of their having
been altogether fruitless.
It
is,

for instance, very often attempt not

to
useless
being untidy any more

of
not being given
or
fits

to
long

of
despondency,
so

the roots these habits remain

as

within ourselves. This does not, however,

to
amount

a
license for keeping our faults and for not doing any

do
thing against them. We have, even we not see
if

go
on
any results coming from our endeavors, trying
these faults or, to
of

get rid least, prevent their

at
to

to
further growth. The apparently fruitless pains and ef
forts will prove very useful afterwards. When the basic
attitudes have been reformed, or, rather, when we begin
reforming them, this training opposing faulty habits
in

will become very great help. habit, once estab-N

A
a

lished, does not disappear moment's notice, even

at
a

after the attitudes conditioning have been uprooted.

it

There us which causes habits

in

certain vis inertiae

is
a
go

phenomenon like one we

or
to

It

on. more
is

less
a

very often machine; even after the current

in

see
a

driving motor has been switched off, the wheel will

a
go

on

turning, because the impulse has been given

it
all
of

does not spend itself sudden.

a

The vicious circle which has been mentioned before

pathology, namely, the mutual re
of

phenomenon
as
a

of

inforcement symptoms and their causes, common

is
a

behavior troubles. Wrong attitudes give

in

occurrence
undesirable habits, and these habits contribute
to

to

rise
fortify re
of

increase and these attitudes. The process

204 S E LF IMPRO VE MEN T

building moves along circle but in the opposite sense.

a
Discouragement lessens the energy of action, which
proves accordingly inefficient; the result is failure and
failure means a deepening of discouragement. When,
on the other hand, a man learns that failure is not an
equivalent to defeat, that it is inevitable, that prog

all
by “trial and error” and that, therefore,

he
ress can
is

be
not expect his doings successful the first time,

to
and that, furthermore, having achieved little progress

a
it,

he he
already success
or
step towards when has come
to is

a
change his attitude towards these facts, will sup
port failure much better; the depression which used

to
conditioned by failure will become less will dis
be

or
it
be
appear altogether and his courage will strengthened
of

instead being diminished.

judging their chances for overcoming some habit
In

of

getting rid some fault people generally make one

or

on
great mistake. They lay much more stress failure
on

success. They complain that many cases

so
in

than
they have been unable avoid falling back into their
to

habit, though they concede that sometimes they hap

be

their struggle against

it.
pened victorious We
to

in in

have, however, mind that the positive

to

bear facts
have always much greater importance than the nega
a

pointing exclusively
of

tive instances. Instead them,

to

remembering only the failures, we ought take ac

of

to

success, however rare they may

of

of

count the moments

have been. There every reason hope that we shall
to
is
be

achieve again what has been achieved already

to

able
twice; every success increases the chance
its
or

of

once
being repeated, only we take care look things
at
to
if

from the right angle.

of

One has, course,

avoid the opposite error—the
to

hasty conclusion which considers first success sure

as
a
a

lasting victory. Whoever would indulge

of

sign
in
a

This unwar
be

disappointed.
to

this belief bound

is
 WHA T TO KNO W 205

ranted optimism is however less frequent than op

its
posite.
Discouragement sets much too easily. After few

of in

a
failures many despair success. They are not suffi
ciently conscious complexity

of

of
the enormous human
chemist seeking synthesize some new com

to
A
affairs.
years; his ex

of
he
pound knows that for couple

in
is

a
will

of

he
periments may fail several hundreds times;
achieves the synthesis after having
be

very glad he
if

failed six hundred times. Human life, individual and

social, much more difficult handle than the things

to
is

chemical laboratory. The chemist may change

in

at
a

his will the temperature and the time and the concen
tration and the acidity and any other factors; ac

he
is
quainted with almost every factor influencing the proc
But man desiring
it.

rebuild
to

to
ess and able alter
is

his life and his personality does not know

in
the same
way the factors determining his experiences and reac
he

be

tions; and those knows are not arranged and

to

easily. We ought, therefore, much be

do to
influenced
as

more patient than the chemist

is.

not take But we

these facts, and give up generally after hav
of

account
that we did try
“a
ing met failure. We say, indeed,
thousand times”; but this never true, not even
as
is

so a
up

rough approximation. The reason why we give

is,

courage; but vanity too plays

of

of

soon course, lack

great rôle therein; we believe we are entitled quick
to
a

and thoroughgoing success the very moment we con

-
do

anything
at
to

descend all.
progress and improve
be on

When starting the way

of

lengthy period
of

prepared for
to

ment we have
a

unceasing endeavor, for plenty

of

relapses and failures.

painfully felt, one great com
is,

But there this need

as

is

pensation. things moral and religious earnest striv

In

ing, conscientious work, honest attempts have definite

a
of

themselves independent
in

value the success achieved.

206 SE LF IMPRO V EMEN T

In economic life it is only real achievement which

counts, and it is much the same with social life; in both
cases it is important to have reached a goal. But in the
field of morality it is different; there the movement
towards a goal is not without merits, if only it is really
honest.
This is indeed a great consolation; even the altogether
fruitless attempts are not deprived of sense, though they
do not lead up to success. Man, however, wants more
than consolation for his failures; he wants, and he is
quite right in this, to learn how to avoid them.
A religious person will indeed find much help and
comfort in prayer. God may answer and help him who
earnestly seeks His help. Man left alone is powerless;
unless God succors the weakness of human nature, noth
ing good can be achieved. “We have to know,” said
St. Ignatius of Loyola, “that in truth nothing depends
all

on us, but we have to act as if our

on
depended

of
We have be, according Epistle
to

to

selves.” the St.

James, not only hearers but also doers
of

God’s word.
simple Arab, having

to
Once come from the desert
a

Mecca, accosted the prophet Mohammed: “Tell me,

prophet,” said, “since you are bound know; ought
he

to

let

bind my camel may

or

trust God and

to

in

the
I

beast run free?” And the prophet replied: “First you

bind your camel, and then you trust God.” Even
in

though man can achieve nothing without the help

of
do

his part, however small

he

Divine grace, must may

it

be.
that we ought un
all

The usual idea suppress

to
to is

giving
all

habits, oppose
to

desirable tendencies rise

contrary
all

difficulties, refrain from

to

to

actions the
in of

of

society apt
or

morals. But this method

to

laws
is

end failure.
of

The attempt merely suppressing opposing what

or

wrong
of
be
to

we feel not successful because

it
is

is

a
 W H A T TO KNO W 207

purely negative nature. If we tell a man that he need

not pay attention to this or to that without pointing
out to him some other thing he may turn his eyes to,
we put him to an indeed very difficult task. He has to
find out by himself where to turn his attention, and he
is likely not to find anything captivating his interest,
since he is interested just in the thing forbidden to him.
The fact of being prohibited to look in a certain direc
is,

do
tion furthermore, quite strong incentive

to
so.

a
of

be
The chance his obeying will rather small unless
we provide something sufficiently interesting. The at
things forbidden has

its
of

of
root, course,

in
traction
the unwillingness This
of to

submit restrictions. to

is
a
all
well-known topic many fairy-tales over the world:
you may open
all

the doors, but the one which the

little golden key fits you must not open. -

commands are generally more effi-)

or

Positive rules
cient than prohibitive measures. person desiring

to
A

acquire new and better ones

to

lose certain habits and

by

will profit more

of
considering the positive aspect the
be

obeyed.
to

laws
These laws are very often misunderstood. Man tends,
by

his very nature, please himself and rebel against

to

to

of
of

of

the laws reality and morals. He not aware

is

the fact that this rebellion turns much against him

as

self against reality. Man conceives these laws which

as

curb his own stubborn pride something alien

to

tend
as
of

his person, something outside the ego, something

to

no

emanating from region which man has

to

access
a
he

he

which does not belong. He feels

to

and were
as
if
on

the world,
of

outside depended his free will

as
if
it

join reality He knows,

of

he

course, that
or
to

not.
he

cannot dispense altogether with reality, but believes

can restrict his contact with reality just
he

that
to

the
he

minimum pleased Man can create for

to

concede.
is

reality
he

himself the illusion that acknowledge

to

free
is
it;

truth, get outside

or

of
he

reject never can,

it.
to

in
208 S ELF IMPR O V EM E NT

willingly not,

is,

of
of an
or
He

or
member element this

a
very reality from the first moment

to
his existence
his last. He cannot even imagine existing

as
himself
reality surrounding him and be

he
without which

to
a
longs. The mistaken idea, reality and the human

as
if
person were two things which come together only ac

on
cidentally, fed certain phrases, very commonly
is
used, but wrong nevertheless; phrases like these: “the
individual and society,” “the ego and the world.” These

an
imply
absolute opposition

of
to
antitheses seem the
two terms. But the individual does not exist independ
ently
of

and isolated from society; human personality

develops only within society. impossible imagine

to
It
is
human being absolutely alone; without the contact
a

with others there neither speech nor thought, nor

is

of
character, nor morals. Man necessarily member
is

a
an

society and reality. The laws governing

of

element
reality—in
of

the largest sense the word—are accord

ingly also the laws Though
of

individual existence.
these laws may sometimes appear strange
or

or
alien
as

truth the very basis each in

of
even hostile, they are
in

dividual’s existence. By revolting, therefore, against

reality, man wages war against his very own
of

the laws
existence; the very personal being
of

person becomes
a

endangered by
its

of

unwillingness accept the laws

to

reality and them. This the reason why

to

to

submit
is

maladjustment reality leads inevitably

to
to

conflicts
within personality itself.
The same reflections apply morals. Morality
to

the
is

sum-total of all laws related the order of values.

to

an

Values are not vague notions, floating

in

were
as
it

empty space, and they are not mere subjective states

feelings. They are very definite side reality;
of
or

every being, says philosophy, one and true and good;

is

any
of

reality
or

goodness value much feature

as

to as
is

other we credit things with. Maladjustment the

is,

therefore, personality
as

as

moral laws
to

disastrous
 W H A T TO KNO W 209

is the non-adaptation to what is generally understood

by the term of reality.
This point must be well understood. No real prog
ress and no improvement can be hoped for, unless man
is fully aware of this: that by submitting to the laws of
reality and those of morals and by regulating his be
havior as far as possible according to them, he is not
only obeying forces which resent and punish disobedi

is,
ence very hard, but that he the same time, serving

at
by

this himself and his own ends. By revolting against

by

making the indeed futile attempt

of to
these laws and
undermining the very basis
he

escape from them

is

his own existence.

an
of

The essence law always assertion. The law

is
be a

may, true, expressed negative form, but

in
it

it
is

a
by
its

of
essentially positive nature. Some the ten
is

commandments, for instance, are couched negative

in
a
form: thou shalt not. So are often the definitions and
by
of

ordinances the Church. But we are taught Christ

of

Himself that the essence the law positive one,

is
a

of
when He says that the two great commandments,
of

our neighbor, contain

of

the love God and the love

all

the whole law and the prophets.

by

negative for
of

The meaning the laws expressed

a

mula undoubtedly positive one. The commandment

is

which forbids theft enjoins fact the respect for an

in

other's property. The commandment forbidding mur

der teaches the sacredness of human life. Human nature
formula enjoining respect for prop
is,

being what
it

erty
of

preaching
or

the sacredness human life would

probably much less efficient than the solemn: thou
be

choose the nega

fit

shalt not. Eternal Wisdom saw

to

tive form, because more impressive and because

it
is

God, His mercy, enunciated His people just the

of to
in

things forbidden
of

minimum duties. Avoidance

is

moral life;
of

indeed but the indispensable minimum

just platform from which
to

start.
it
is

a
210 SE LF IMPRO V EM EN T

It has been pointed out repeatedly that recognizing

the objective order of value is of an absolutely decisive
importance in self-improvement. A mere theoretical
knowledge, however, is not sufficient. Even before we
proceed to apply our knowledge to the regulation of our
actions, we must develop within ourselves the attitude
of respect or reverence, as the one which alone is due
to the order of values. We have to admire only what is
really worth being admired, we must learn to be en
thusiastic only about what really deserves such a reac
tion. On the other hand we know that every
have to
bit of reality is endowed with some value and that
reality contains nothing which would be totally de
prived of value.
This awareness of values and their order is just what
is aptly called reverence. This state of mind has become
unhappily rather rare in modern times. It is not for
these to investigate the reasons which have
pages
brought about this decline of the sense of reverence.
The fact itself is too evident to be in need of further
proof. But it is very worth while to cultivate this
sentiment. Reverence is not identical with deference.
It is rather a peculiar attitude by which we become
aware of the dignity of things and of human individ
uals.
It denotes a sad lack of respect if a man will go
trampling down the flowers of a meadow regardless of
their beauty. It is disrespectful to disturb the quiet of
the woods by senseless howling. It is not less disre
spectful to strew papers and empty cans on a beautiful
spot on the shore of a lake. A man who uses a fine and
costly blade to chop wood is behaving not only in a
stupid but also in a disrespectful manner. So does one
who tears out the leaves of a book to wrap up some
thing.
its

Respect, in truth, means—in fullest and most

 WHA T TO KN O W 211

literary sense—having a good look at a thing, becom

its
ing aware of

its
nature, using according

to
destina

it
handling ought

be
tion and

to
and deserves

as
it

it
handled.

or all
Respect things, whether they issued from

to
due
is human industry

of
God’s creative will are products
thing ranks

of
and genius. The higher

it. in
the order

a
values, the greater the respect due Man being

to
is
the highest creature within this tangible world, deserves

of
the greatest amount respect. of
There saying

is
a
Immanuel Kant, which without being absolutely true,
great truth: “All things,”

he
contains said, “have

a
a

price; man alone has dignity.”

This dignity human nature invested with forbids
is
be

ever regarded

or
that man mere instrument tool
a as
a

or that he be considered mere element and factor.

as

dignity became known

byof

The true

to
idea human
humanity only Christianity. The notion
of
human
a

of all
person being something altogether different from
other beings was hidden even the greatest minds
to

of

the pagan world. When the sponsors the French

Revolution proclaimed the “rights
of

man” they did but

repeat what Christianity had taught the world for
But by detaching the “rights
of

eighteen centuries.
man” from the religious background, where alone they
find support, these philosophers and politicians pre
a

of

pared the catastrophes subsequent times.

do

We have use things and we are entitled

to

to

so.
They are not
to

But we are not allowed use our fellows.

the world “for us”; they are there first for God,
to
do in

His will and serve His ends, and secondly for

to

They are not born

be
to

or

themselves. used misused

by us, nor
or of
be

pleasurable
to

or

more less ornaments

our life, nor opportunities we may profit by
be
to

gain satisfaction from just things we can take and

or

our pleasure.
at

leave
212 SE LF IM PR O V EM EN T

Every man has, of course, certain duties towards his

neighbors. We have those duties towards them, they
have them towards us. The fact, however, of another
neglecting the duties he has towards us is no excuse for
our acting in the same way. His not behaving as he
ought or even the sufferings his misbehavior brings to
us do not dispense us from doing our duty. This is
another of the fundamental truths man has to know if
he wants to progress on the way of perfection and find
an outlet for his troubles. The laws of morals are
absolute laws, which amounts to saying that the obliga
tion put on us is not influenced by any circumstances
whatsoever. Many people, for instance, know that
there is something amiss with their relations to others;
they know even that they have to behave differently;
they are even willing to change, but they expect others
to change first. “I know,” a man will say, “that I am
treating my wife badly and I am quite disposed to
change my behavior, provided that she first leaves doing
this and begins doing that.” The same words may be
uttered, slightly modified, by a wife in regard to her
husband or by a member of some social group in regard
to his fellows.
is,
all

They are, them, wrong. Their attitude

of

of of

course, not unnatural, insofar

as

the result
it
is

primitive egoism; but surely contrary

to

morals
it
is
of

and, therefore, reality. The command

is to

is to

the laws
rightly every single individual;
to

behave
it

issued
his personal duty obey this command and there are
to

an

no conditions whatever which may serve

as

excuse.
making the fulfillment
of

of

The very common habit

on

duties depend conditions but another trick played

is
an

by unruly will
of

of

self-assertion,
or

but the result

very efficient though veiled craving for omnipotence.
a

fact, equivalent making demands

is,

This behavior
to
no in

rights. Every man has

to

where there are know that

 W H A T TO KNO W 213

it is for him to begin, thathe is not allowed to wait

until another begins. By following this rule more suc
cesses may be realized than is generally believed, though
it will take quite a time until this point is reached.
There is one truth more which has to be recognized
ere man can start on the way of self-improvement. We
all

usually distinguish between more and less important

things and deeds. this we are quite right. But
In
we

if
consider things from the point moral prog

of

of
view
ress, they assume somewhat different aspect. There
a

course, greater and lesser wrongs; there are after

of

are,
all

grave and light sins. But wrong wrong, whether

is
great small. We can not, moreover, know for sure
or

but slightly wrong, be

in an

to
whether action we deem
may not,
of

of
the course time, become the source

a
very great evil. An old French legend tells

of
good

a
tempt. The devil
to

man whom the devil once came

convinced this man, whose reason apparently was not
he

very well developed, that

to

had commit one bad

might, said the devil, choose among three
he

deed; but
he

propositions; commit murder,

or
to

was free either

adultery, get drunk. The poor man thought he
or
to

he

would choose, since choose must, the lesser evil and

Being
he

he
So

promised that would get drunk. did.

woman; when
of
he

drunk
to

ceded the allurements

a

came home and his wife reproached him for having

he

spent their money and having behaved scandalously,

he

got furious, gripped knife and murdered her. Thus,

a

all

the devil got him commit the three sins by induc

to

ing him the least grave one.

is, to

This after all, but legend, and rather naïve

a

one too. But illustrates, and not unaptly either,

it

great truth. We ought

be

careful whenever some

to

thing appears unimportant though not alto

us
as
to

as

gether right. We ought rather every mo

to

consider
an

important
of

ment our life one, one which

as

as
214 S ELF IMPRO V EMEN T

might become decisive for our whole future. We do

not know what the effects of our words or acts may be.
This does not imply that we ought to be over-cautious
or timid in our actions, or that we are not allowed to
indulge in fun and pleasure. The knowledge of the
possible importance of our actions should not become a
means for shunning action altogether. But we have
to know that we are taking certain risks in any action
whatever. These risks can not be avoided, since om
niscience and a knowledge of the future are denied to
us. The more the central attitudes regulating our be
havior are in accordance with the laws of reality, the
lesser these risks will become.

2. What to Do

A
man, having perused the foregoing chapters and
wanting to get from them advice on how to deal with a
particular difficulty, will probably feel that he has got
nothing which could be of any help to him. He has
indeed got nothing—as yet. The mere reading of the
arguments exposed above, even acquiescing in them, is
not enough. There are two kinds of assent; though
both are assent, they are nevertheless very different by
nature and by the effects they have on the human mind.
We may the truth of some statement without being
see
it it;

really touched by our assent remains thing merely

a
of of

the intellect and does not penetrate into the depths

our ego, not into the place where our will and our
there were, between
It

basic attitudes are rooted.

as
if
is
of

our intelligence and the centre our personality, some

thing like filter hindering certain things from sinking
a

of

down into the deeper layers our self. needs quite

It

time and not little effort make the things we

to
a

our per
of
be
to

know true sink down into the core

sonality and become efficient there. Mere reading and
 WHA T TO DO 215

the thought: “This is quite true,” are not sufficient for

causing a reforming or rebuilding of personality. It is
only after these thoughts have become parts, as it were,
of our very personality that they begin to influence our
attitudes and the behavior resulting from these. Even
if nothing more could be said on the topic of self-im
provement than has been explained hitherto, a definite
effect could be expected, not an immediate one indeed,
but one developing slowly and often after quite a time.
kinds of development need time; it is quite un
All

all
of
reasonable to expect changes to set in sudden.

a
be

This may exceptional situations,

in
the case some
when the soil has been already prepared for long time,

a
though the person himself may

of
be
quite unaware
on

there going within his being slow but all-pervading

a

rule we observe slow and gradual

as

revolution. But
a

evolution.
of

This slow process transformation very often not

is
all

by the subject whose personality

at

in

noticed

it
is
on

developing. man may meditate some moral truth

A

and feel very convinced by even when becoming ac

it

no
he

quainted with the first time; may notice change

it

his conviction, and never

of

the strength
in

whatever
theless become gradually transformed. One morning
he

he

say, another man, and does not know

so

rises,
to

what was that brought about this change.

it

of he

easy for man who already knows clearly that

It
is

making mistakes and that many

of

his troubles are

is

let

his making
of
to

the ideas about the real reasons his

misfortunes sink into his mind. He will gladly accept
he an

explanation, even his credit, because

to

not
if
is
it

his unlucky state. quite an

of

get out
to

It

wants
is

other thing with man who does not even suspect that
a

all

might guilty bringing about

of
or he

be

his troubles,
of

great deal them, himself.

at

It

least indeed
is
to a

not easy dislodge the ideas such man has formed

a
 216 S E LF I M P R O V E MENT

about the reasons of his difficulties. If he is told that he

is an egoist, that he is greedy for success, mad with am
bition, dominated by unruly pride, too much of a
coward to strive earnestly for achievement and too
much conceited to see his own faults and the limits of
his nature, he will get furious or—if his manners do
not allow for such a reaction—tell you that your words
are pure nonsense. He knows, he will say, that he is
anything but ambitious, that he is far from conceited;
he knows for sure that it is not his fault if he does not
get along with people, or is unpunctual, or given to a
more or less immoral habit, or is not letting his re
ligious life develop any farther. All this is due, such a
man is sure to declare, to circumstances, to the wrong
ideas others have of him, to his temperament, and—inso
far as there can be the question of mistakes of his own
control by himself.
all

—to factors which are beyond

indeed the greatest handicap attempts all

to
This
in
is

improve
he

could manage
or
to

make another see how

lessen his difficulties—nobody really willing be
to

to
is

gin. They all, more less, expect others begin

or

or
to

change, something turn up.

or
to to

to

circumstances
be, generally, pretty bad situation
A

he in

man has
a

of
be

think may
to

even possible that the cause

it

the unhappy state

be

things. helped:
of

But can not

it

the only way helping oneself

of

an

start with abso

to
is

lute sincerity good will. the ideas ex

If

and real
a
º

plained before appear first glance rather absurd,

at

if
all
do

they but appeal our minds, we may

at
to

least
view; nobody ex
be

consider them possible can

as
a

pected accept whole-heartedly

at
to

and once ideas

so

which are variance with all he used think.

be at

to

much
But everyone may expected
give some considera
to

tion even ideas which seem him altogether strange.

to

to

These ideas are, after all, not nonsensical; they have

be

been found work many, many cases;

to

to

in

true and
 W HA T TO DO 217

they are propounded by men who have made the study

of human nature their life’s work. We have very often
to devote some thought to ideas which at first appear
to be rather phantastic or contrary to everything we
believed. Such situations occur in science, for instance;
to quote but one famous instance: the medieval scholars
felt sure that the earth was standing still and the sun
moving around it;

to of
but after the work Copernicus
had become known, the scientists had abandon

a
be
statement they had believed absolutely true.

to
(There were, however, some who did not feel this way.
rather noteworthy that St. Thomas Aquinas held
It
is

of
the geocentric theory but for hypothesis physics
a
and conceded readily the possibility another explana
And during of
tion. the fourteenth century there were
who—long before the times Copernicus

of
some scholars

no an
—defended the heliocentric theory.) The fact that
contrary what was believed until now
to

idea
is

is
sufficient reason for refusing
to

look into the matter.

man who refuses absolutely
to

little
A

devote even a

thinking unwonted ideas proves by this behavior

to

he

that these very same ideas rejects are true, since he

the utmost, crediting
be
to

to

shows himself conceited

an

himself with infallibility and incapable

of

objective
of

analysis his own situation.

do

The first thing

is,

accordingly,
to

to

devote some
thought
to of

interpretation
to

the one's behavior.

It
is
be

not necessary, even rather avoided, that one

it
is

uninterruptedly re
to

devotes too much time the

the motivating forces
of

work
of at

in

search one's mind.

By this one runs the danger becoming easily dis
couraged and also becoming unduly interested
in
of

is,
be

oneself. The very first rule

to

observed that the

ordinary life, the daily work, the habitual occupations
suffer—unless some of the latter be
of

have not
to

kind conflict with moral laws; gambler, for in

to

a
 218 S.E. L. F IMPRO V EMENT

stance, wanting to reform has not to continue gambling,

telling himself that he will give it up when he has be
come sure of his true motives. But it were wrong, if
a man would neglect his work or his family or even a

is, up

his
let
harmless hobby and

all
self-analysis take time.

of
The descent into the depths the self moreover,

a
by
tiring and painful task; forcing oneself too much
a

one risks finding this task very soon too distasteful for
on

on
going This self-analysis may,
it.
with the other
hand, condition very contrary
an

to
in
interest oneself
of

the real goal these endeavors. As has been explained

try

be
already before, we have develop what can
to

to

is,
interest, that look our

at
to
called disinterested
a

of
the dispassionate and objective manner
in

selves

a
\scientist. person, however, not accustomed ana

to
A

lyze himself his actions, may become quite enthralled

or

by the discoveries
he

makes. There definite fascina

is
a

tion psychological analysis which may indeed become

in

its
dangerous, because distracts the mind from real
it

up

study

to of
task and lets become wrapped with the
it

mental things; case this man will continue

in

such
a

on

observe very carefully whatever going his mind,

in
is
he

be

will discovering, for instance, some

in

interested
did not imagine their pres
he

egoistic motives where

will content himself with just registering
he

ence, but
this fact without developing his discovery into prac
a

tical rule of action.

is,

of

therefore, advisable that the study

It

oneself
of

and the search for the hidden motives one’s behavior

be

short time every day; ascetic theology

to

limited
a

recommends that one ought devote some few min

to

conscience, re
an

of

utes every evening

to

examination
viewing one's actions during the past day and taking
all
of

notice faults committed. Something like this

of is

regard the self-analysis spoken

to
in

also advisable
is,
of

here. But there course, great difference between

a
 W HA T TO DO 219

the examination of conscience and the analysis of self;

in the first case, man goes over his life during the last
twenty-four hours to find out where he failed to do
right, using his conscience and his knowledge of his mo
tive as a guide; but self-analysis does not, at least in
to its

of
initial stages, dispose such guide; yet

as
has

it
a
discover the true motives especially actions which

in
all

right point

of
seem from the subjective view. The
the one existing between

as
difference about the same
is

confession and talk with medical psychologist.

a
a

Mental treatment has been considered repeatedly

as
an

analogy something replace

or

as
to

to
confession
even
confession. This idea quite mistaken, for two reasons.
is

no

First, obvious that analysis and no discussion

it
is

with even the cleverest psychologist can replace the

one's sins being forgiven. Second,
of

sacramental factor

of
be

noted that also the psychological structure

to
it
is

both these situations—in the confessional and

in
the
of

the psychologist—are basically different.

of A
office
man seeking advice from the psychologist because
some subjective trouble some objective difficulty, may
or
he

deplore these facts, but not repent them. His need

is,

mental attitude accordingly, another from the very

beginning; for
he

be

be

helped, but not

to

to

wants
given. But there another element still more import
is

of

confession the penitent accuses himself

In

ant. what
he

knows have been sinful or, least, wrong; the

at
to

man consulting the psychologist does not accuse him

of
he

self; complains certain unpleasant experiences;

the starting point him, not the feeling guilt,
is,

of
to

suffering.
or

He does not confess this

of

but the one

having been bad because having
its
of

that action
as

by

wrong motives;
he

be

been prompted
to

rather wants
get entangled difficul
so

told how not

to to

to

in
as

behave
Or short formula: the
in

ties. summarize this

a
220 SE LF IMPRO V EM EN T

penitent wants to become better, whereas the “patient”

wants to become more efficient and more happy.
The difference pointed out in the last paragraph ex
plains also, why the usual confessions prove so often in
efficient in regard to improvement. Very wrong ways
right from the point

all

at of
of behavior may be

of
view
confession, because the penitent does not feel guilty
all; even does not see any reason why
he

he
should men
that difficulty

he
his confessor, because

to
or

tion this
does not feel guilty and, accordingly, does not feel like
discussing these things the confessional. Take, for
in

of

of he
instance, person who incapable decision; does
is
a

by

not commit sin not deciding; his chances be

a

coming guilty sinful action are even less than nor

of

a
a

of
he

person’s; does not discover any trace

is, in
mal sin
behavior; why all? This person
at

this mention
it

way, quite right; nor would the confessor feel

in

it
a

his duty girl

of

behavior;
to

discuss such feature

if
a

a
the confessional, that she was unable
to

to
were
in

relate
buy,
of

decide what kind bathing

suit she ought to
though already July, the confessor probably would
it
is

feel that this does not regard him

at

all. But this fact

having
to of

her not bathing suit, though she going

is
a

leave for the beach within few days, may very

be
a

important from the point

of

of

view the psychologist

of

and, accordingly, self-analysis.

Since medical psychology has been mentioned, will
it
on

put
be

this subject.
to

in

well some few remarks

as

do

on

Many people who life, especially,

of

not get
in

course, when they believe, have been told, that they

or

are “nervous” turn today for help and advice

to

medical
psychology hope get well by mental treatment.
or

to

this they are not wrong either. But one has be

In

to

the fact that there are different schools of

of

ware
medical psychology, which not only use different
methods, but start from very different principles too.
 WHA T TO DO 221

Some of these schools profess theories

which are in no
way compatible with the principles of Christian ethics
or Christian philosophy. It ought to be clear, from
what has been said in the foregoing chapters, that men
tal treatment—in the full sense of the word—has al
ways to deal with the total personality and, accordingly,
with the general ideas of the individual. A treatment
which is based on principles altogether alien to a per
son's faith will, therefore, be either inefficient or it will
make havoc with, or even destroy faith. If a man
feels that he ought to seek help from a medical psychol
ogist, he will do well to take care that the one he turns
to can be relied upon as to his philosophical and religious
principles. Psychoanalysis as taught by the pupils of
is,

Freud for instance, absolutely incompatible with

Catholic, even with
all

true Christian faith. religious

A
person, wanting preserve his faith, has inquire
to

to
carefully what kind the psycholo
of

psychology
it
is

gist follows, ere

he

entrust himself
to

his influence.
so be

The first rule, then,

to

to
observed refers the time
self-analysis;
to

It
devoted does also the second.
expect quick results. The
to

states that we are not

overcome, the bad habits we want to
to

faults we want
of,

get rid avoid, the difficulties

to

the mistakes we want

long standing.
of

escape are, usually,

to

It

we desire
expect that things which have gone
to

were not sensible

or on

for years and years will disappear within few days

a

Allusion has already

or

weeks even months. been

the fact that rebuilding personality
to

made task
is
a

practically, never
is,

which will last for years and

which
really completed. The things one has deal with are,
to

moreover, mostly hidden carefully, rooted deeply,

so so

so

uproot, that long

so

difficult
to

to

discover and hard

a

needed for any noticeable success

be
to

time indeed
is

achieved. We know perfectly that we have

be

patient
to

when trying influence another person; nothing

to

is
222 s ELF 1 M PRo VEMENT

nearly so much in need of patience than education. The

medical psychologist knows too that he can not trans
form a personality within a short time, and he will in

so.
variably tell his “patient” (There definite rea

is
a
son for putting this word between quotation marks;

a
man suffering from what commonly called nervous

is
trouble indeed not patient

in

as
the same sense one
is

a
suffering from some bodily disease. The differences,
however, cannot be
detailed here.) We are, however,
rather impatient when our own self implicated;

is
chang
of

of
be

the question moral reform,

or
whether
it

ing our life, physical trouble. We will tell an

of
or

other suffering from some disease and having stay

to

in
patient; but we become very im
he

be
to

bed that has

patient when we find ourselves the very same situa
in

the same with everything related our

to
It

tion.
is

selves. We know perfectly that education needs time; at

to

but we want self-education proceed formidable a

Tate.
For detecting the attitudes work behind our un
at

desirable habits or the mistakes we make better not

it
is

direct one's attention primarily just the things

to

to

probable that there the

be us

which trouble
It

most.
is

unveiling will more difficult then elsewhere, because

troubles are just the screen behind which
or

these habits
the unwished for qualities hide and the undecipherable
mode by which they find expression. Man's nature be
ing, has been pointed out more than once, unit,
as

the very same attitudes must become visible also

in

other places. To get

of of of

true idea our nature we can

a

any
or

start with action feature behavior whatever.

By inquiring into the motivation some behavior the
or

person himself does not reckon bad

as

nuisance
a

habit, but which felt somehow unpleasant man

in
is

by
of
he

ner his fellows may discover the reasons other

important
of

more features his behavior. especially

It
is
 W H A T TO DO 223

worth while to consider little actions which are done

without any particular intention and surely without any
afterthought of aggression, even more or less involun
tarily, and which offend or disturb others.
When one has made a mistake or behaved in a way
one knows to be wrong, one feels naturally the desire
to find some excuse. This desire arises not only when
/
others criticize or resent our behavior, but also because
man wants to silence the voice of his own conscience.

º/
An inquiry into the validity of these excuses will prove ,
quite a good method for finding out something about
one's hidden motives and about the tendencies
ing one’s behavior.
A man willing to make progress and to free himself
of the undesirable qualities he may notice in his per
sonality, desiring to diminish the amount of friction in
his dealings with other people and with reality in gen
eral, will do well in remembering the main sources
which are at the bottom of the difficulties of which
human life is so full. Even if he does not, or not as
yet, feel convinced of his being subjected to these dark
forces, he will do well to think of such an explanation
as a possible one.
The insinuation that one is an egoist, proud, am
bitious in a wrong way, etc., is as a rule rejected very
forcibly. It is quite a while before someone who has
thus far given no consideration to this matter becomes
even inclined to concede that these ideas may not be
quite nonsensical. At first he will deny that there are
any unknown motives or hidden attitudes at work in
the human mind. After a certain time, if the facts are
pointed out to him over and over again, or if he has
devoted some reflection to the question and, perhaps,
made some observations of his own, he may be inclined
to concede the existence of these things—in other
people. A rather long time will pass before he comes to
224 SE LF IMPR O V EM EN T

seethe working of the aforesaid forces in his own mind;

even then he will only concede that such things exist
and that he has found the statements he at first rejected
to have been proven in this or that single case; but he
will go on denying that the rôle played by these atti
tudes is as great as he had been told. It will be again
quite a bit later when his eyes are opened to the truth
about himself.
In trying to
get some insight into his own personality,
a man may use still another method. Lord Macaulay
somewhere remarks that an author ought to strike out,
in his manuscript, every sentence which pleases him
particularly because, says he—and Macaulay knew
something of writing and style—this sentence is sure to
be bad. This advice may be applied also to the study
of one's personality. It is quite useful to analyze such
actions we feel particularly proud of; maybe this grati
fication of our pride or our vanity is not the effect just
of the beauty or the goodness of our action; it may re
sult as well from this action giving satisfaction to some
of the more undesirable qualities of our self.
Every little knowledge about ourselves calls for corre
sponding endeavor for improvement. We have, happily,
not to wait until we have reached a complete knowledge
of our personality; thereon the necessary remarks have
been made already in an earlier chapter. But the great
question is how to proceed in bringing about or even for
preparing this so very necessary improvement.
It has been pointed
out more than once that a merely
negative procedure does not promise much success.
Even if we have become quite sure of pride or egoism
playing an enormous rôle within ourselves, we are not
able simply to suppress or to uproot them. It is much
better to help the opposite tendencies to develop. In
stead of trying to combat directly—in frontal attack,
as it were—egoism and distrust against others and the
 W H A T TO DO 225

tendency of finding fault with them and of criticizing

them, we might, for instance, try to discover positive
and even lovable features in each of them. No one is
without some assets, so long as he is to be considered
normal; it is different, of course, with the insane or
idiots who, however, do not come in here. There is an
old legend telling that once our Lord walking with His
apostles passed a carrion lying at the side of the road,
and that the apostles turned away full of disgust, re
marking on the stench and the ugliness of the thing;
but the Lord said: “Look at the beautiful white teeth.”
There may indeed be some beauty left even in a carrion
and some good even in an utterly depraved individual.
And we have not, as a rule, to do with carrions and de
willing
is,

praved people. There strange to say, more

found the average man for recognizing some
in

ness
little good some person low morality,
of
or

criminal
in
a

than the people we meet daily life. We are,

in

in

in
a
way, more lenient against those we may, for some rea
son, condemn than with those we can not number with
the black sheep.
the in
of

bad,
so

were not we would use little

It

if

genuity we apply excusing our own mistakes, find

to
in

ing some excuse for the actions we disapprove

in

others.
To discover the good qualities another person one
in

first know him. fact that we generally

to

It

has
is
a

rather egoistical point

of of

look other people from

at

view; we ask ourselves whether this man may

be
he

some help for our own ends, whether will prove

amusing, interesting, whether we will profit some
or
by

do

how having intercourse with him; but we not

of

he

ask what kind man is—unless this question

a

do

going
of
he

be

again
to

means whether use—nor

is

we try study him for his own sake. Mention has

to

been made once before of the attitude of the scientist

an

he

who studies objective manner the matter

in

is
226 S E LF I MP R O V EM E N T

observing. This attitude is not the ideal one; but it is

still many times better than that of criticism and dis
trust. If we cannot love our neighbor, we might at
least become interested in him as a reality. Man is not
less interesting than fishes or birds; but many people
know quite a lot about fishes or buzzards and devote
much time to finding out about them, while they do not
all

find out about their fellows. Or they

to

care at

on
gather very precise information broadcasting, screen
technique, old Siamese idols and what not, but they
neglect become acquainted, even desultory man
to

in
a
to of
ner, with the essentials human nature. Knowledge
got from books only; they
of

be

human nature not

is

are very instructive they are the right kind, but

of
all if
do

they not supply one has and ought know.

to

A
man desiring know about fishes will not content him
to

go

out fishing and ob

he

self with reading books; will

of

serving the habits

in

in
fishes rivers and lakes and the
sea. To become acquainted with human nature one has
observe man, study his habits, interpret his
to

to

to

no
actions, find out about his interests; there hope
to

is
of

learning how deal with man unless one comes

to
to

know him really.

of

of

People who complain being out touch with their

fit
of

fellows, not being able into company, and

to to so
to

a
of

on, are mostly not kind which induces others

a

do

first sight; they not know what

at

receive them
talk about, they feel that they are boring others and
in
by

be

them; but they began really

to

are bored
if

people they would, after time, discover how

in

terested
a
of

get touch. The proper study man;

to

mankind
in

is
is,

this saying, old contains great truth. There

as
it

fact nothing within this world which can become

in
is

interesting, even fascinating, the study

of

man.
It as

as

as

person
so

difficult talk
to

to

indeed not another

is

when one knows what his main interests are.

 W H A T TO DO 227

is,
Such an objective study of our neighbors how
ever, more than just

of
method becoming interested

a
them, be

of
them; helps also develop real love
in

to
it
cause the more the interest grows, the more the posi
tive sides become They are hidden, generally,
visible.
prejudice and, accordingly,

of
to

our eyes, because

a
one-sided and merely subjectivistic kind

of
knowledge.

by
Love, like every other virtue, developed training

is
The emotional quality

of

be
or

exercise. love can not

brought about by mere will. We can not command
not only

of an
our emotions and feelings. But love emo

an is
tion;
is,

and even very much so, attitude will.

it

an
an
Moral philosophy distinguishes affective, that

is
emotional kind, and an effective kind

of
love. The
will; the second can brought

be
first not produced
at
is

person willing lov

to to

in
about whenever behave
is
a

a
ing way. We are not requested feel like loving
everyone, but we have act according the com
to

to
By
of

acting way, conscien

in

mandments love. this

tiously and long time, we not de
so

seldom arrive at
a

veloping even the feeling

of

love.
As love for other people grows within personality the
gradually pushed into the background.
of

love oneself
is

This way
of

of
all an

dealing with undue love oneself

promises greater success than attempts suppressing
at

this egoistic inclination ever does.

has been made clear before, that reason—if
to
It

it

has
called thus, even intelligence—is the very key which
be

opens the gate barring the way perfection. Egoism

to

best uprooted—as far possible all—by the

at

this
as
is

is

utterly non
of

strengthening the conviction that

it
is
of

of

sensical. Love oneself makes the ego the centre

enormous im
an

the universe; the ego credited with

is

portance; good what good for the ego, bad only

is

is

unpleasant Right only what the ego

to
it.

what
is

is

fitting
its

its

preconceived
or

finds useful for

to

ends
228 S ELF IMP R O V E M ENT

wrong is

all

of
an
ideas, and that opposite nature.

is
Reason can not but tell every sound mind that this posi
tion unmistakably wrong. Reason can not but make
is
sure
of the fact that human individual very in

is
a

a
significant element within the whole reality. Reason

of
very great extent on
us

that we depend

to
teaches

a
other factors; our personality would not exist all,

at

if
there were not or had not been others further its de

to
velopment; we ourselves would not exist all,

at
others

if

on
of
dependent
us
had not taken care and we are still
others for continuing exist; these very obvious
to
thoughts ought that we are not the ulti
us
to

convince
reality. Reason does even more. shows,
of

It
mate aim
only we would trouble the right way,
to

of in
if

use
it

of
that man’s place the great order reality
in

not

is
justify such
of
an

the kind overrating the ego.

to

The one great and truly important idea every man

of

become absolutely sure that there are laws,

to

has
is

man's consent, ruling over reality and,

of

independent
willing recog
he
be

therefore, over man too, whether

to

not,
to

to
or

nize them and that he has bow these laws

he

undermine his very own existence.

to

unless wants
This point the religious mind,
or
of

familiar
to

view
is
be

ought person
to

familiar But even

at

it.
it

least
a

re
of

any faith
or

who does not believe the articles

in

of

jects religion altogether can not but see the truth

by

this. Man indeed serving his own ends better sub

is

mitting reality than by revolting against

of
to

the laws
them and by trying
to

make his own small mind and

his own petty wishes the law
of

the universe. There

is

well-known text the Scriptures implying this fact

in
a

by stating that man will save his life by losing

it.

not only wrong from the

of of

The attitude egoism

is

point morality,
of

view also stupid, because

it
is
it

endangers person. To this

of

fact the existence

in

a
of

many will object, course, that they know quite few

a
 W HA T TO DO 229

people who are undoubtedly extreme egoists and who

fare in spite of this or perhaps even because of
this, very well. The egoist is believed to be successful,
to achieve his ends because he is not hampered by moral
scruples, to realize happiness because he is able to get
what he wants. The old truism of the egoist never
being happy because of his insatiability will not answer
this objection, even though there is much truth in

it.
Another fact may carry more weight; unscrupulousness
very often ends badly, because the laws reality—and

of
morality are real too—are not neglected with
of

those
out some punishment supervening. One need but read

of
the papers discover that many those who attained
to

wealth and influence and position by more less dis

or
honest means meet punishment after all. The argu
ment that sins are punished hereafter may not impress
the modern mind very much; even the religious mind
of

It of

today has lost the sense reality earlier times felt

in
be

regard the future life. not pretended that

to

to
an is

egoism
to

man addicted even excessive feels

a

troubled his conscience, not the rule that

at
in

least
is
it
he

though there are many

of

does, this kind. He cases

let

does not his conscience trouble him, truth, though

in

his conscience aware of the faults he made and makes.

is

way compromise between the un

of

There escape,
is
a

to a

its
of

willingness the ego recognize faults and the

admonitions of conscience which never tires and never
be

can silenced completely; this escape and compromise

certain troubles known by the name
of

found
in
is

is,

fact, what one may call

in

neurosis. Neurosis
a

psycho
of

moral disease; psychology speaks neurosis

as
its

be

genic, meaning that sought for

of in
to

causes have
be

mental facts; but would quite correct speak

to
it

these troubles “ethogenic,” meaning that they spring

as

course, un
is,

morality.
of
to

from causes related

It

known what percentage the excessive egoists become

to
230 S ELF IM PR O VE MENT

a prey to neurotic disturbances; but it is well known

all

of
that extreme egoism is the rule with cases neurosis
coming under observation. From this one may con

its
clude that egoism, more pronounced forms,

at
least
of
kind guarantee normal and happy life.

to
not
is

a
a
the laws governing the universe, regulat
of
The idea
ing morally human actions, assuring socially the co

be
operation the single individuals, has
of

developed

to
into strong and unshakable conviction; the very

it
is
a

fric
of

of
basis normal life with the possible minimum
a

tion. All the theoretical arguments and practical ad

on

arrange one’s life are fact corollaries

to

how

in
vices
for philos
of

it.
or

this basic truth derived from

It
is

an
ophy and, still higher sense, for faith give

to
in
a

the question why these laws exist and whence

to

answer

do
they draw their power. The first thing rec
to

to
is
ruling over
all

ognize these laws things and over

as

every individual well. An attempt revolt against

to
as

these laws fruitless stupid.

as

as
is

The very moment we become fully convinced this of

fundamental truth we are led the discovery that our
to

up

nature rather limited one, that shut within

it
is
is
a

definite borders; wonderful though human nature

is
its

and astonishing though achievements are, they are

not allowed pass beyond these borders. This
to

true
is
of

every individual.
of

general, but also

in

human nature
of

recognize the limits set

us

to

to

Each has him and his

activity.
Not knowing about his limitation the great
of

one
is
on

est dangers man may meet the way progress. By

to
on

may bring
all
is he

overrating his power himself kinds

of misfortune. This
so

evident that need not be

it

all, there were not peculiar circum

at

mentioned
if

stance which intensifies this danger one sense and les

in

man striving for goals

he
A
in

another. can
it

sens
be

never reach—be that they are beyond his forces,

it
 W H A T TO DO 231

it that they are unapproachable by man in general—

will meet failure; he may become broken, he may even
meet death, but he need not suffer morally. Such a man
is perhaps a truly tragic figure, but he may remain an
absolutely But a man of high
upright personality.
strung ambition who is not really striving for achieve
ment, but only for success, and who, feeling incapable
of realizing his ends, shelters behind
excuses is not a
tragic hero but—were it not for his subjective suffer
ing—rather a comic person. There is also a definite
element of immorality in this longing for things which
are, by their nature and by the nature of man, beyond
the grasp of human will; it is immorality because of
the untruth it implies. Not recognizing truth which is
visible to every eye willing to see is as contrary to truth
as is telling lies.
The truth about man and his position within the total
order of reality and the truth about the individual per
son's situation implies also the true idea of the order
of values and, accordingly, of goals. It is generally as
sumed that, for the sake of pursuing the right goals
with the desirable energy, an education or training of
will is needed. But it has been shown that it is not
really will which is in need of training, but rather pur
pose. Recognizing a goal as desirable in a general way,
and truly striving after this goal, are two things. Not
every idea of something being good or valuable is al
ready a purpose. Nor is every purpose, or what mind
its

believes to be one, already capable of moving will in

psychology are very
of

direction. These facts often

neglected, even by certain psychologists. There are
the will,
on

the training
of

quite
or

few treatises on
to a

on

make the will stronger

or

how how
to

become
energetic. These books are, generally, not worth very
is,

fact, there far we know, only one

In

so

much.
as

re
of

of

which takes account the results psychological

232 SELF I M P R O V EM ENT

search and of the true conditions determining volun

tary acts; this book, a study of which will prove very
fruitful, The Training of
is the small treatise entitled:
the Will, by Johann Lindworsky. The following re
marks are largely indebted to Dr. Lindworsky's ideas.
The famous psychologist very strongly emphasizes
what has been pointed out here repeatedly: that we
ought rather to speak of good will than of a strong one.
The various ways proposed and followed to attain a
“training of will-power” are psychologically unsound.
It istrue that in some cases certain methods may become
successful; athletics, training in sport, learning how to
endure hardships have been recommended as efficient
methods for acquiring a greater “strength of will.”
is,

no

There however,
guarantee that this method will
all

work out right, since there are many people quite

endurance, for instance when train
of

capable
or

effort
ing for some game when camping, who nevertheless
or

resist sensuous impulses, overcome their re

or

fail
to

to

systematic work, their impatience when

or
to

luctance
dealing with their neighbors. These people learn

to
make use of their will where and when worth their
it
is

while, that where and when they are sufficiently in

is,

But from such success does not follow at

it

terested.
a

willing—to
is,
all

be

that this person will able—that

on

exert his will other occasions. The mental process

is

even more complicated man complains

A
in

some cases.
his will being too weak for his doing what ought
to of

he

told that going for systematic training

he

do;
to of in
in
is

sport will help him developing greater strength

in

will; being somewhat interested sport and anxious

in

through his training con

he

secure some success goes

of

scientiously and indeed proves capable quite remark

greater re
he

able achievements; but does not develop

a

profit re
he

sistance against his impulses nor does

in

Having had
of

gard the overcoming

to

his bad habits.

 W HA T TO DO 233

this experience he concludes that it is not his fault, if

his will is not stronger; he has done what he had been
told; he even achieved a notable progress; his failing in
other fields can not, therefore, be attributed to unwill
ingness, it can not but be the effect of some deficiency
of his organization for which he is not to be made re
sponsible.
The idea of approaching the essential difficulties by a
detour is useful in discovering the basic attitude, but it
is much less so in attempting to uproot them. The fact
just alluded to of a man acquiring “will-power” in one
or, perhaps, in more than one field, but not in the one
where it is most needed fits perfectly with the other,
described before, of there being individuals who are in
capable of enduring the boredom of work, though they

let
are capable of enduring the hardships of,

us
say,
vagabondage. All these facts concur demonstrating
in
will;
no

such thing

of
general strength
so as

that there
is

Dr. Lindworsky aptly remarks, but good

is,

there
as

a
is,

bad will. The problem therefore, not

to
and
a

strengthen the will, but good.

to

make
it

training which often

is,

of

There however, kind

a

ought not called, strictly speaking,

to be

proves useful;
it

by

training
be

all, this name,

or
at

called
if

has
of it
a

training
of

of

more the sense values than the

it
is

will. man who, for instance, rather unwilling

to
A

is

take upon himself the unpleasant

or

submit
to

to

rules
feelings accompanying work, might profit definitely by
punctual; instead taking his meals
of
be

first learning
to

just when feels like, having lunch one day

he

noon
at

half-past-two then, just for

at

and the next and

a

morning, ought
he

change,
at

to
in

the make
it

eleven
have his meals every day the same hour.
he at
to

rule
a

do

This training may man good,

to in

enters the
if

it
a
is,

right spirit, that be

he

thinks
worth while
if

it

regular hours, because this right. But

to

come used
is
234 S ELF IMPR O V E M ENT

this training would probably not be very efficient if he

did it because of himself. There is always this vicious
circle threatening everyone who tries to improve: im
provement means, in this matter, getting rid of oneself
or, at least, detached from oneself; by trying to do so,
a person becomes, on the other hand, interested in and
attached to himself. The only way to break through
this vicious circle is to strengthen in one’s mind the
idea, and to make it indeed the leading one, that im
provement has to be sought for not because of one's
happiness or efficiency or some other subjective aim, but
being objectively and intrinsically right.
its

because of
The indirect way which has been recommended

so
often, proves after
all

be
to

not efficient said

as

as
it
is
preferable seize the bull by the horns
to

to
It

be.
is

attack directly the faults and bad habits dis

to

and
one's personality. But this attack has not

to
it in

covered
be—let be said once more—a “frontal” attack and
to be

against the things

to

not limited
to
it

has resistance
attitude op
an

which ought disappear. Developing

wrong
be

posed the one which felt much

to

to
is

is
a

surer way.
trying
In

of

get rid
to

to

bad habits and avoid

course most important de
of

habitual mistakes,
to
it
is

stroy the basic attitudes engendering the undesirable

features of behavior. One will have
to

remember over
and over again that pride
or

or

rebellion cowardice
it
is

gives many unpleasant ex

or

so

ambition which
to

rise
be

periences. These basic attitudes, however, can

by

only getting hold

of

tackled and reformed their

not possible develop general
to
It

manifestations.
is

of

and, were, theoretical attitude, for instance,

as
it

humility; one has rather behave humbly

to

learn how
to

get
of

definite and practical situations. For the sake

in

ting nearer
of of

this purpose, one has

to

to

the realization
start with reforming just one wrong
or

the bad habits

 W H A T TO DO 235

features of behavior. It is not possible to set about re

all
forming

of

at
them the same time.
rather important

be

to in
Another rule still seems

to
this respect. Many people believe that they have
attack their bad habits each time these become manifest.
sudden anger will, for instance, pro

to
A

man addicted
will not let himself get angry

he
pose himself that
to

gets angry nevertheless, not only

he
any more. But
oppor

an
once but rather regularly, whenever

he
has
tunity for behaving

of
this way. His purpose
in not

no
becoming angry any more

of

he
avail, because gets

is

no
angry quickly that time left for thinking
he
so

has
of

of

his purpose and setting

He feels, work.

to
therefore, discouraged rather soon and believes that it
nothing can
be

is or
less the same with
It

done. more
is

other things too. But this method not the one which
ought applied. Nobody given

of
be

anger can
to

to
fits
them simply by wanting
of
be

expected get rid

or
to
by

do

the most char

A of of

purposing so;
of to

even one
it
is

acteristic features these outbreaks temperament

on

that they come very suddenly. quite lengthy

so

preparation necessary before one can hope put the

to
is
to on

Another way
of

brake them. procedure has, there

fore,
of
be

chosen. We have—in the case sudden

all

of

anger well
in

the other instances undesirable

as

as

behavior traits—to train for the right behavior during

of

the periods free from the manifestations these traits.

St. Ignatius Loyola remarks somewhere
of

his book
in
on

the Spiritual Exercises, that neither the periods

of
of

elation and exaggerated hopefulness—or consolation,

dejection and de
of
he

calls them—nor the periods

as

spondency—of desolation—promise the greatest prog

ress; the quiet time during which we may hope for
it
is

making real progress. Neither high nor low spirits

reason, the objectivity judg
of

of

warrant the coolness

of

ment,
or

the determination and freedom will which

236 S E LF IMP R O V E MENT

are needed really efficient purpose. Dur

for forming a
ing this quiet time we have to build up the resolutions,
which will, after having become sufficiently rooted in
our personality, enable us to resist the outbreaks of tem
perament and the relapses into our bad habits. By re
flecting on the reasons which made us angry, or de
spondent, or offended, or what not, the last time, and
by making sure that these reasons did not really justify
such a reaction, we become gradually able to keep a
cooler head or to refrain from untimely emotional
reactions.
A man will, however, gain by such meditations on the
mistakes he made only if he is ready to use the utmost

is,

all
puts away

he
sincerity against himself, that

if
Many people when re
of

thoughts excusing himself.

on

flecting
of

of
anger, despondency,
or

or
their fits on
the last time they felt offended, will concede that the
occasion such did not justify their reaction. But
as

per
on

hand; the
of

they will have quite series excuses

a

son who made them angry had behaved this way al

in

ready often that they could not help being angry;

so

they would not have felt they had not

so

offended
if

had similar experience just before; they would not

a

have become depressed they had not been unwell this

if

day, etc. All these thoughts have discarded alto

be
to
no

gether; unless they are, good will come from reflec

tion.
on

To
of

ponder the reasons behavior more efficient

is

merely deciding differently. The mere

to

than behave
wrong reasons
is,
to of

of

discovery course, not enough;

be

replaced by the right one.

be

they have would

It

concentrate only on
to

rather useless man were

if
a

it,
on

without making
he

he

what does and how does

ought
of

he

what
to

sure do.
But many people know perfectly what they ought
to

the right thing by

be

do,
or

least what
at

to

held
is
 WHA T TO DO 237

general opinion and the received code of morals, with

out this knowledge developing into motives. Mere re
flection or meditation on the rights and the wrongs of
the case is believed to be inefficient. It has even been
alleged that the moving power of the higher values is
very small when compared with the attraction the lower
values exercise on the human mind. Those who make
this statement have before their eyes apparently only

in.
the average situation man finds himself Before the
ruling
of

of

of
true ideas value, the order the universe,
the place man occupies within reality, have penetrated
of
into the deeper layers personality, the situation will
be indeed more or less the one assumed the said state

in
ment. But things become different after some con
sideration has been given

in
There
to

this matter.

is
mysterious reverence for truth;

he
man can not shut
a

his eyes completely exclude from them alto

so

to
as

gether the light

of

he he
truth. From the moment gets
even only the truth,
of

glimpse
so

much feels
as
a

do
by
he

again again; fact

in
attracted and
it

need
nothing but let the truth work his interior accord
in

in
its

ing peculiar way. Not only history, but

to

in

in

dividual life too, will truth report the victory, though

may take quite while until
it

it

does.
a

ought
of
be

impressed upon the minds men that

of to
It

the pursuit merely subjective aims, that the rebellion

against reality and the attempt make man the abso
to

the world are not only immoral, but very

of

lute master
stupid too. Adult people very often behave they
as
if

the years Youth, having

of

were still
in

adolescence.
imperfect knowledge forgiven
of of

be
an

but reality, may

for taking exaggerated views
in its

own importance and

for trying truth are beyond the
to

realize aims which

of

be

man. But adults may expected

to

reach behave
They close their eyes
to
in

more sensible manner.

a

truth, they try see reality not

is,

they
to

but
as

as
it
238 SELF I M P R O V E M E N T

would like it to be. They do not see themselves as they

are, but imagine themselves either to be supernormal
beings or to be below the average.
Contradictory as these two attitudes appear to be,
they have one very essential feature in common; they
both place man outside of the average and credit him
with an exceptional position.
It may very well be that one is—in some respect or
another—above the average. But whether this is true
or not, can be discovered only after the average station
has been reached. Neglecting this fact is characteristic
of the youthful mind. Youth has many pleasant fea
tures, and one understands well the desire of staying
young as long as possible. But retaining the enthusiasm
of youth, fine quality
its

its
of

being easily inflamed,

optimism, and on, does not amount preserving the
to
so

rest of the features of an adolescent mind too. An older

twenty
he

person behaving were still eighteen

It or
as
if

not youthful;
he

years old ridiculous. rather

is

to is

is
funny that most people try “feel young again” not
by trying re-awaken within themselves the fine quali
to

youth but rather deficiencies and even stupidi

its
of

ties
Few will try feel young again by recalling to
to

ties.
their minds the enthusiasm they used
to

feel when
young, by trying get enthralled by new topic
or

to

by forgetting their habit look

of

they were then,

or
as

ing for drawbacks and by just drinking good

in

the and
beautiful and lofty things—in which the world not
is

poor after all—and become rejuvenated; they

so

to

rather prefer certain utterly accidental and

to

turn
to

They
of

superficial kinds enjoyment.

to

seem confuse
youthfulness with foolishness.
youthfulness
of

quite true that certain amount

It
is

of
of

of

and the preservation some the fine qualities

youth could become very helpful and contribute quite
of
an

great deal improvement

to

individual life and

a
 W H A T TO DO 239

of the general situation. But the main thing in this is

not the repristination of the subjective features of
youth, not of way

of
its

of
feeling, etc., for the sake
feeling else some subjective experience. The import
ant thing or which youth reacts

to

in
recall the manner
reality, to is be
its
good and bad sides.
to

to
It
useless

is is
come enthusiastic when this enthusiasm not awakened
by true and lofty values. The mistake made by

so
do
many people that they are content not

to
feel and
is

trouble ask what their feelings are about.

to

enjoined that not feeling

be
can never sufficiently
It

of

of of
but the reasons feeling, not the subjective state
its

mind but correlated objective, not the strength

decisive im
aiming at, are

of
will but the goal will
is

portance. Nor can ever become sufficiently empha

it

on do

sized that wishes and ideas not count; only facts and
an

reality—for better

or
actions have influence for
WOrSe.
To make clearer and more practical the remarks con
be

will
to

the last pages, few

in

tained well show in

it

they a
concrete instances how work out. For this some
of

the previous chapters will

in

the features mentioned

No systematic grouping shall
be
attempt
at

serve best.
made; the following remarks are nothing but aphoristic
things which have been discussed
of

illustrations
at

length before. The examples which follow are—per

haps not unimportant point this out—all taken
to
it
is

from real observations. This fact may give them

a

credibility and make them more alive

of

greater amount
on

than mere constructions ever could be; the other

hand these stories are individualized and they are, there
fore, not applied just
be

they stand
to

to

another's
as

individual case.
of

of

Since this question the use example has been

little,
be

touched upon, will well

to

consider
as

it
it

before describing the “cases.” From studying the life

240 SE LF IMPRO V EM EN T

and the behavior of other people one may, of course,

learn many things. One may see what things to avoid
and what things to do, but only in a rather vague and
general manner. One discovers in another some quality
and feels it to be rather unpleasant; there is perhaps
something in one's own personality akin to this unpleas
ant feature, and the question arises, whether one's own
behavior is not as great a nuisance to others as this per
It without doubt, useful

is,
give

to
son's is to ourselves.
this idea some serious consideration. But then we be
come aware that there are, notwithstanding the definite
similarity, still great differences; that we are not behav
ing exactly the same way does this person. There
it in

as
behavior which are very
true, some ways
of
are,
is

much alike even very different personalities.

in

It
is
a
great mistake believe that negative traits are any
to

in
way “original”; they are not; they are rather typical,
and they become the more when verging on the ab
an so
of

normal. The behavior insane person appears

as
“original” only the uninitiated; the psychiatrist
to

so
knows that
in
more or less the same he has seen
it
is

many other cases. Nor “nervousness” anything

is

originality; the nervous per

of

which could remind one

sons are—in what regards their abnormalities—very
much like each other. only the normal and healthy
It
be is

personality which can credited with “originality.”

There was time when abnormality was considered,
if
a

it.
of

genius, something akin

to

not criterion
at

as

least
a

The unlucky formula imagined by Lombroso—Genius

and Insanity—has contributed much creating this
to

belief; but the thesis

of

be

Lombroso has proven

to

quite mistaken, and the “craze” for abnormality has

become markedly less. There are still, however, some
people who try show themselves different from and
to

superior others by cultivating less ab

or
to

more
a

do

people
in

normal behavior. But these not become,

 WHA T TO DO 241

fact, interesting;they are just nuisances and they are,

as a rule, soon deserted and left to themselves; there
fore, they have to try always to get new acquaintances
and to leave them again before they are found out.
The observations we make on the wrong behavior of
other people may help us in discovering the mistakes
we make ourselves and also the reasons determining this
behavior, since these reasons are, on the whole, always
the same. But the observations on the right behavior
of other people do not tell us more than what is right to
do; they do not tell us how to do The higher the

it.
morality perfection and, accordingly,
of

of
or

level
normality, the more individualized become the actions.

of in

of
This necessary consequence the nature
is
a

dividuality, explained above. Individuality and,

as

being become the more de

of

therefore, uniqueness
perfection
of

veloped the higher the degree The

is.
more potentialities are converted into actualities, the
an individual, that
of

more the characteristic features

is,

features this one being alone possesses, become mani

therefore quite impossible for be
to
fest. man
It
is

come “a second St. Francis of Assisi” or “a second

Napoleon.” Every human being exists but once, and
even more uniquely,
of

were, the higher his degree

as
it

perfection any sense whatsoever. This fact con

in
is

certain danger inherent

to

stitutes ideals.
a

ought
be

what their name implies—ideas,

to

Ideals
but not persons. person known from history—or,
A

eventually, from fiction—may appear the incarna

as

definite ideal and put the latter before our

of

tion
a

of

eyes; the importance considering such person

to
is
a

the conviction that this particu

be

sought primarily
in

Studying the lives

is of
be be

lar ideal can indeed realized.

the saints we may believe that sanctity
to

led
only something wished for, but never at
be

be
to

to

tained; we become, however, aware that sanctity may

242 SE LF IMPR O V EMEN T

exist in living men of flesh and blood; by becoming ac

quainted with the lives of men who devoted themselves
to the pursuit of an idea, to scientific research, to the
spreading of faith, to works of charity, we gain the con
viction that such a life may be realized, since it has been
realized in these men. But each of us has, if it is given
to him that he may realize some ideal or, at least, strive

do
its

after realization, this according his own

to

to
individuality.
Every age had

its
of
Take the case sanctity. saints;
of

but the ways realizing saintly life have been quite

of
different the different periods history.
at

Besides
doing only will,
of

their determination God’s there

is
saintly

of
but little likeness between anchorite the
a

the Christian era, and St. Gregory the

of

first centuries
St. Ignatius Loyola.
of

of
Great, Assisi,
or

or

St. Francis
Even saints belonging the same religious Order differ
to

widely

of
their personalities and their ways religious
in

life; the way

of

of

St. Teresa Avila was not the one

de

St. Thérèse l'Enfant Jésus went, though they both

right
of

all

the Carmelite Order. practice

to
It

were
is

some definite virtue demonstrated by some saint, but

as

an
no

ever really imitating such

of

there chance ideal

is

Not because we may not,

be

personality. such God's

if

will, become saint too and even excel the very same
in
a

virtue, but because our individual person absolutely

is

unlike the one we admire.

imitat
of

of

The example the saints and the problem

ing them only one very striking instance
of

general
is

rule. The right way

in of

acting doubtless traced out

is

us; but the manner which we proceed along this

to

way every individual. only

in

in
It

different the
is

is

very
of

negative sides
so

their nature that men become

much like each other. Instances of mistakes and of bad
behavior allow, therefore, for more immediate applica
tion than do those of virtues and achievements. The
 W HA T TO DO 243

idea of imitating exactly the life and the behavior of

some ideal personality, e.g., a saint, sometimes becomes
definitely dangerous and a serious handicap. A man
wanting to be like his ideal can not but become aware
rather soon that he is seeking a goal which can never
be reached; he therefore becomes discouraged and gives
up the pursuit of not only this, but of every ideal, be
cause he has made this one the symbol of perfection.
To be even more concrete; the lives of the saints
teach us the importance of sacrifice and self-abnega
tion. We may learn, by contemplating the achieve
ments of the saints, that these virtues are within the
reach of human nature, though their special develop
ment in each of these personalities is due, of course, not
to human nature alone. Not even men great by nature
as St. Augustine, or St. Bernard, or St. Thomas were,
would have achieved the progress to perfection we ad
mire in them without a peculiar help of God’s grace.
But it would be quite wrong for a man of business to
lead the kind of life suited to a Cistercian monk of the
twelfth century or to a bishop of the fifth. The at
tempt to copy exactly the life of the ideal ends gen
erally in failure. There was a student of theology who
had decided to become “a second St. Aloysius,” and
within a very short time too. He came soon to see that
he would never reach his end, and being too vain to
content himself with less, he gave up studying theology
altogether, became an employee of the government and
a very unhappy man for the rest of his life.
The idea of being entitled to realize a definite ideal
is but one special manifestation of a general attitude
which is wrong and dangerous. This attitude may be
described as the feeling of having to get and not hav
ing got “one's due.” It is indeed not “due” to a man
that he realize just the one kind of life, of perfection,
of religious state, etc., he imagines to be the best for
244 S ELF IMPRO V E MENT

him. Nor is it his “due” that he attain just the posi

tion in life he wants, or that he may use his faculties
just in the way he desires. There are, in fact, no rea
sons why a man ought to be just what he wants; the
one thing he has to do is to act in the best way in
whatever situation he may be. It is an unhappy habit

all
of most people to consider they have not, instead
turning their eyes
of

the things they have. they

to

If
were sincere they would have acknowledge that their

to
not having more trouble rather wonderful thing.

is
a
being unhappy,
of

of
The chances meeting misfortunes,
of of

suffering are
so

numerous that the average amount

less than one ought

is,
of
expect. There

to
trouble
is

course, disease and penury and moral suffering and

injustice; but many
of

of
the things men complain are
they believe them large
not terrible be. Quite to
as

as

a
part these things are, objectively taken, not
of

of so
bad
those who have suffer make them; many
to

the
as

difficulties are, moreover, bad only because people

so
be

an

injustice that they have difficulties

at
to

feel
If it

all. they did not feel that they are entitled

to
see
all
all

their wishes fulfilled and their plans realized, they

would suffer less. They are, very often, suffering so
intensely only because they are not getting what “is
due” them.
But there anything that really
to

due them?
Is
is
is

not Hamlet right remarking: “Use every man after

in

his desert, and who should 'scape whipping?”

If

we
were treated by fate Providence according
or

our
to

merits we doubtless would fare worse than we do. In

complaining our bad luck, we had better
of

of

stead
wonder our not being treated worse than we are.
at

This thought may prove great help indeed, shown

as
is
a

by the history girl thirty

of

of

some years. She was

a

high-school and always felt that she did

at

teacher
a

not get “her due,” either from fate,

or

from her
 W H A T TO DO 245

neighbors, or from the board of education; because

she had always to insist on what she called her rights,
she was easily offended, but she became offensive as
easily, and was not, therefore, liked by the other teach
ers nor had she friends. She complained very much of
being alone and of being badly treated by other people.
Her loneliness and the feeling of being shut out made
her rather nervous. She used to read a good deal, and
by chance got hold one day of a book on the formation
of character. Having learned from this book that a
change of character could be brought about she con
tacted a psychologist. During the conversations this
man had with the girl he pointed out to her that her
basic attitude of wanting to get “her due” was quite
wrong, that she did not and could not know what was
due to her, and he quoted to her the aforesaid words of
Hamlet. The girl being veryintelligent and quite
ready to accept advice, was very much struck by this
remark and forthwith began to think it over. She soon
saw that she was indeed overexacting and that she com
mitted the very same faults for which she rebuked
others. She devised a method for reminding herself of
this by becoming accustomed to say by herself, every
time she felt badly treated: “You don’t deserve a better
all

an

treatment; that’s quite right for you.” aston

In

ishingly short time she developed new attitude towards

a

life and her neighbors; her religious life too profited

be
on

very much, because she ceased argue with God

to

her being “only His stepdaughter.”

of

half
of

The development personal maxim

or

such motto
a

very often rather useful. St. Ignatius Loyola rec

of
is

ommends that person about become angry ought

to
a

first, before answering, say silently short prayer; the

a

advice good, because by this not only are we reminded

is

our religious background, but also because our mind

of

of

turned away from the immediate reason our bad

is
246 SE L F IMPR O V EMEN T

temperament. But it seems even more helpful to choose

some thought or maybe prayer adapted to one's peculiar
situation. A person given to fits of anger or of de
spondency or easily taking offence may, for instance,
learn to think on such occasions: “It is not worth
while,” or: “This is nothing compared with a real
cross,” or something of a similar kind. That this method
may become efficient is shown by the following “case.”
A lawyer felt very much handicapped in his work
by his becoming easily depressed; whenever things did
not work out as he expected, he became quite despond
mind, reaction
all

of
ent and lost energy and presence

a
be

which proved great nuisance, especially

to

in
the
a

his ex
of

of
courts. The main reason this was, course,
ceedingly high-strung ambition which made him in
of of

capable meeting any failure with equanimity. of He

was one those persons spoken earlier who can not
distinguish between defeat and failure. He adopted the
telling himself whenever such an opportunity
of

habit
he

for becoming depressed arose, that was not entitled

be

expect his ideas

to

to

realized. He condensed this

thought the one short sentence: “Remember that you
in

are not omniscient.” He too made great progress and

take things more normal way.
to

in

learned
a
be

has, however, pointed out, that one must not

to
It

of

let this attitude develop the sense stoicism. This

in

pagan origin, teaches absolute indif

of

an

philosophy,
ference and equanimity; this wrong, since there
in

it
is

things which have up our emotions, things

to

are stir
good and things bad. were indeed wrong we would
It

if

accustomed, just for the sake avoiding un

of

become
pleasant sensations, everything not worth
to

consider
on as

while; definitely our duty injustice—

to

react
it
is

by

especially when suffered our neighbor—or crime or,

on

the other hand, real heroism and goodness and beauty.

The stoic attitude not for the Christian mind; the
is
 WHA T TO DO 247

“apathy” these philosophers used to preach amounts to

killing emotional reactions and, accordingly,

all
les

to
sen the impetus towards the good and away from evil.
wrong kind

of
From this stoicism arises often tolerance

a
no
which longer distinguishes good and bad. We have
be

tolerant towards people—do not judge, we are

to

told, and you will not judged—but not

all
be

at
towards
bad, even in
or

A
bad deed we are

if
ideas deeds.

is
find some excuses for the man who was guilty
to

clined
indifferentism, which
of

of
this deed. The attitude

is
very common with the phlegmatic temperament, not

is
of by

person who en

A
the one demanded true morals.
get rid his overwrought sentimental re
or to

deavors
his wrong outbreaks
of
temperament has

to
actions
beware that he does not fall into the other extreme.
long time, until the per
In

many cases may last

it

a
of

son acquires the habit remembering such maxim

a
will help him avoiding has habitual mistakes. He
in
as

go
on

will making them and remember only afterwards

ought training
he

to

what
of A

have remembered before.

which has become established over period years
is
a

not broken within few weeks; the person has been

a

by
of on

every unpleasant sensation

an or to

accustomed react
a
fit

despondency, and this link be

of

anger one
tween such experience and the reaction thereon
is

not broken within few weeks; the person has become

a

ever, not without certain influence. By associating

a
of

of

the memory the last instance undesirable behavior

the disapproving afterthought, the
of

with the memory

habit becomes gradually and insensibly influenced.
It

even more helpful, though may not seem first,

so
at
it
to is

devote some thought one's wrong habits

to

in

time
a

when these are not actual

at

all.
by

who suffered very much her “sensi

A

woman
tivity” and felt that everyone was treating her badly,
of

had been told about the true nature her character.

248 S ELF IMPRO V EM ENT

She understood, not willingly indeed, but she could not

help seeing the truth, that she was very exacting and
that she overrated her position and the honor she was
entitled to very much. This idea did not help her at
first; she went on being unhappy and feeling offended
and disregarded and what not. But she adopted, after
a time, the habit of analyzing the single instances after
the emotional reaction had passed away. If it had been
but slight, she was able to think things over the same
evening; if it had been stronger she had to wait some
days for cooling down. She found it also very useful
to go over such instances which had occurred a longer
re

all
time ago (such a person does not forget; they
member every slight offence even had been committed

it

on
years ago). She turned her attention mostly the
wrong;

be
which she had been proved
to
in

instances
by

she had been offended friend not answering let

a

a
ter, but this friend had been hospital; she had
in
ill

been shocked by someone alluding certain things,

to

all
knew nothing
he

but she became sure later that

at
By analyzing
of

these things. her reactions

in

these
cases she became more and more doubtful, whether she
on

had been right all. This thought led her

at

to
a

her whole attitude which, by this, began

of

revision
change slowly and even without this woman notic
to

ing the change. She became aware only, rather

of
it

suddenly, when situation where previously she

in
a

would have found herself very much offended and

would have doubtless reacted accordingly, she remained
find out what her interlocutor
to

rather cool and tried

really meant
to

say.
This woman always knew, that her be
of

course,
havior was not right; but this knowledge was
of

no
the reasons prompt
of

avail until she became conscious

ing this behavior.
be

Just one observation more may

to

added make
 WHA T TO DO 249

plain the practical application of the ideas the forego

ing chapters sought to convey. There was a boy of
some twenty years who had come from a small town
and had registered at the university. He had hoped to
get in touch quickly with many of his fellows; but he
was disappointed. The other students did not behave
in an unfriendly manner, but they did not seem to care
much for the newcomer. He soon felt quite alone and
unhappy. He attributed his misfortune to the conceit
of his comrades who, he said, apparently despised him
because he came from the country and was, perhaps,
somehow uncouth in his manners. He called them
superficial and stupid because they did not try to find
out what a fine fellow he really was. In this trouble
he turned for advice to a psychologist whose lectures
he attended. This man asked him, after having listened
to his complaints: “Did you try to find out about your
fellow-students?” The boy felt actually stunned by
this question; he never had thought of his committing
exactly the same fault for which he so bitterly re
proached others. He objected, of course, after he had
recovered from the shock, that he had no opportunity
of getting in touch, not even so far that he could be
come acquainted with the personalities of his comrades.
He was told to join a club which met every week to
discuss matters of general interest: “You will not make
friends immediately,” said his mentor. “Content your
self with following the discussions, try to put in a word
sometimes, better a modest question than a criticism;
you will find an opportunity to be of use to someone,
and so you will gradually become known and get in
try
all

touch with others. First of study your com

to

observe their behavior among themselves,

to

rades and
do

regard yourself.” The boy promised so;

to

not
to
in

joined this club, but for quite

he

he

time did not feel

a

that he had advanced towards his aim. He neverthe

250 SE LF IMPRO VEMENT

went on; one day after

less, since he trusted his teacher,
discussion, one of the students remarked that he would
like to read a certain book and that he did not know
this opportunity,

of
where to get The boy took hold

it.
owning this very book. you,”

he
“I

to
could lend

it
said. “Oh, fine,” replied the other, “have you read it?”
lively dis
he
And since had, they became engaged

in
a
This day marked change his relations with

in
cussion.

a
his comrades.

Conclusion
3.

The subject with which this book had far

to
deal

is
from being exhausted. There are many things one could
and, surely, some readers would like

to
add see added.

be
But the book has not the presumption pretend
to

to
an

dictionary encyclopedia where one may

or
of

kind
a

on

find remarks any matter whatever. An encyclo

in
it on

all

pedia, e.g., chemistry, has

to

contain available
formation; fabricating
of

of

process
to

has tell the

of

sulphuric acid
of
well the chemical nature
as

as

some
en
an

dye. Even possible compile

to

were such
on if
it

cyclopedia human behavior—which very doubtful

is

—it would not have been what was intended here. The
is,
on of

incompleteness the description and explanation

though forced the writer by the necessary limitation
space and by his own restricted abilities, not some
of

thing
he

would have liked avoid. The basic idea

to
all

being that faults, bad habits, and

or

mistakes,
or

full,
of

many
of

the difficulties which human life

so
is

arise from but few sources which are invariably the

same, seems really better have the reader find out
to
it

about the things which have not been mentioned here.

man who sincerely wants improve and get rid
to

to
of A

by

certain habits will indeed profit more discovering

by
his
of

himself the reasons undesirable qualities than

 CONC L US IO N 251

being told exactly what these reasons are. The analyses

given in the foregoing chapters ought to enable every
one to find out exactly what is the matter with him. If
he conscientiously applies the methods used and the
ideas explained here to his personal difficulties, he is sure
to get at the bottom of things and to discover not only
the reason why these things exist, but also the method
of dealing with them.

is,
The first and main intention of the writer

to
make
they are and

to
people see themselves as show them that

be
and how they may become different. Much would
gained already, recognize that many

to
people came
if
of

of

their difficulties are their own making, and they

if
of
would cease accusing others. our
A
more severe view
own nature and more lenient one of the nature of our
a

neighbors would doubtless contribute

to
make life run
more smoothly. This leniency towards others quite

is
compatible with the strictest ideas truth and right;
of

leniency towards others not permitted degenerate

to
is

“liberalism,” which indeed

of

into washed out kind

a

an

but more pleasant name for utterly immoral

is

indifferentism.
This, then, the second and accessory aim this book
is

pursuing. happy life,

to
It

wants make clear that

is

\
a

that getting along with one's neighbors, doing good

\

work, making progress perfection, attaining higher

in

our recog
on

religious state, depend very much

of

level
2

nizing the basic truths about man and reality.

It

has
the preface
to
in

been remarked this book that one need

be

not philosopher for becoming better. But being

a
a

the term and having

of

philosopher the strict sense

in

philosophy are two rather different things. Each man

a

his own, whether

he

indeed has some philosophy

of

is

not; and
of

he

lives according
or

to

conscious this
to or it

man's fore
of

philosophy “world view.”

It

one
is

most duties find out about his basic ideas on himself

252 S ELF IMPRO V EM EN T

and on the world in general, and to correct these ideas

according to the invariable and inviolable standards of
truth.
But the truth about man is that he holds a very am
biguous position within reality. He has been “crowned
with honor and glory and set over the works of Thy
hands”; but this crown has been given to him and he
did not put it on his head himself; the works over which
man is set, are not his own works. There are eternal
laws ruling over the universe and over man too, who is
but one element within this universe. Recognizing
these laws is not yet humility, but it may be the first
step towards this virtue; nor is a full consciousness of
these laws equivalent to true piety, but it may be a
beginning. “Piety,” it is written, “is good for every
thing.”
 INDEX
Achievement, 155 Day-dreaming, 106
Action, 33, 34, 35, 44, 45 Decision, 48, 130
Aims, 60 —, lack of, 132
Ambition, 115, 122, 156, 159, 174, Defeat, 156
196, 201, 223, 234 Deliberation, 131
Anger, 235 Despair, 205
Anti-intellectualism, 158 Despondency, 176

32
Dictionary symptoms,

of
Anxiety, 179

38
Aristotle, 17, 82 Director, spiritual,
Assent, 214 Disappointment, 142, 156

f.
Augustine, St., 13, 16, 22, 46, 47, Discouragement, 97, 205
81, 181, 243 Discretion, 83
Authority, 62, 183 Disobedience, 91

12
Disposition,
Bashfulness, 69 Disrespect, 160
ft.

Bernard, St., 179, 243 Dissatisfaction, 120, 121, 122, 178

Boecklin, A., 145

62
Distance, disappearance of,
Buehler, K., 34 Distraction, 105
By-effects, 44, 45 Distrust, 76
Doubt, 130, 188
Catastrophes, reporter of, Dreaming, 103
ff.
81

Caution, 76 Duties towards neighbors, 212

Change,
1,
6, 6

Character, 10, 28 30, 31,

9,
8,

Education, physical, 129

32, 49, 51, 54, 55, 56 Efficiency, 120
f.

Charlier,
J.

Gerson
v.

Egoism, 50, 84, 112, 156, 182, 199,

Chesterton, 59 223, 227, 229
Children, 25, 26, 27, 73, 84, 111 Embarrassment, 69 ft.
Circumstantiality, 101 Environment, 53
f.

Compromise, 171 Enthusiasm, 134, 135

Conceit, 66, 68, 80 Envy, 174
Concentration, 107 Exactingness, 87, 153
—, lack of, 102 Exception,
f. f.

Confession, 219
Confidence, strict, 72
Failure, 17, 156, 204
Constitution, physical,
12

Faith, I83
Conversion,
9

Fatigue, 107
ff.

Copernicus, 217
Francis, St., 179, 242
Courage, 154
Cowardice, 216, 234 Franklin, B., 202
Cramming, 94 Freedom, 182
Criticism, 74, 75 Freud, 221

253
254 I N DEX
Life, modern, 63
Garrulity,65 f. —, social, 61
Gerson, de, 177

ft.
Goal, 45 —, religious, 166
Limitation, 230
—, pursuit of, 15

J.,
Gossip, 71 Lindworsky, 232, 233

ff.
Lombroso, 240
Gregory, St., 242
Love, 227
Habit, 16, 47, 79, 119
—, bad, Macaulay, Lord, 224
3,
4,

167
—, immoral, Manners, 88
4

33 86
Heredity, 56 Marriage,
Heroes, 145 Meaning,
Hesitation, 118 Mistake, 33, 223

85
Humanism, 185 Misunderstanding, 35,

70
Humility, 174 Modesty,
Humor, 68 Mohammed, 206
Hygiene, mental, 129 Molière, 191
f.,

Hypocrisy, 100, 175, 190 194 Morals, new, 129

Motives, 201
f.,
f.,

Ideals, 171 241 243 —, hidden, 198, 218

Ideas, new, 163
Idleness, 114 Names, general,

31
Ignatius, St., 206, 235, 242, 245 —, proper,
31

25
Neighbors, judgment on,
85

Ignorance,
Nervousness, 97, 102, 240
94

Impatience, ft., 100

Imperfection, moral, 130 Neurosis, 229
Indifferentism, 150, 251 Newman, Card., 36
Indiscretion, 83 Nietzsche, Fr., 157
Individuality, 29, 30, 241
Infallibility,
88

Opinion
40

others,
of
39

Interpretation, Opposition, 163

Intransigency, 170 Optimism, 147
Intuition, 26, 27 Order, 98
Irony, Originality,
77

240
f.

Irrationalism, 158 Overactivity, 117

James, St., 206 Part, 28, 124, 167

John the Cross, St., 176
of

Paul, St., 179

Johnson, Dr., 75
99

Pedantry,
f.

Perfection, 124 ft.

Kant,
I.,

42, 211
Person, 49 ft., 64
Know-better, 78 ft., 88
12, 20, 28, 29,
9,

Personality,
6,

Knowledge, 189
30, 37,38, 40, 50, 55, 60, 65, 124,
motives, 43
of
— —

169
of others, 25
—, —,

multiple, 49
Law, 207, 228, 230 rebuilding of, 221
Laziness, 112 ft., 115, 116, 156 Pessimism, 118, 141 ff., 152

Leisure, 114, 115 Pharisaism, 175, 191

 I N DE X 255

Play, 111 Socrates, 98

Postponing, 105,131 Specialist, 79
Prayer, 206 Speech, 64
Prejudice, 36 —, indistinct, 71
Pride, 75, 185, 186, 196, 216, 223, Stepchildren, God's, 177
234 Stoicism, 246
Propaganda, 161 Striving for good, 125 fſ., 136
Prudence, 130 Subjectivism, 137
Psychoanalysis, 221 Success, 155, 204, 216
Psychology, 10, 13 Superiority, 77
—, medical, 220 —, longing for, 66, 67
—, of sexes, 85 Superstition, 167

ff.
Purpose, 15 Suppression, 206

Radicalism, 170 Taciturnity,

67
ff.
Rate, individual, 117 Tact, 83

f.
Reason, 157 ff., 227, 228 Temperament,

5,

ff.
12, 119, 147
Rebellion, —, division of,

ft.
110, 237 150
Respect, 20, 210, 211 Temptation, 180

f.
— of things, 15 Teresa, St., d’Avila, 242
Responsibility, 30, 43, 48, 132 The rese, St., 242
Restlessness, 115 Thomas Aquinas, St., 217, 243
Reticence, 19 Time, quiet, 236
Reverence, 210
82

Tragedy,
Revolt, 91, 178, 179, 180, 208, Training, 190
209, 228 Transformation, 215
Rights of man, Treatment, causal, 202
f.
211
—,

symptomatic, 202
f.

Sacrifice, 192 ft., 195, 243 —, mental, 219

Sanctity, 242 Truth, modern, 162
Scrupulosity, 176
Unpunctuality,
f.,

Secret, 73
89

92
f.,

Self-abnegation, 243 Untidiness, 97 100

— -analysis, 218
-assertion, 169 Values, 133 ff., 208
—
-confidence, 17 —, order of, 134, 136, 160
—
-deception, 6 vanity, 75, 139, 174, 175 f., 196,
—
199
— -knowledge, 6, 22 f., 38 ft.,
197 f.
Werne, J., 62
Sensation, 83, 163 f. View from below, 127

Sensibility, 138 f. Whole, 28, 29, 60

Sensitivity, 139 f., 247 Will, 14, 46
Sentimentality, 164 f.
—,

strength of, 13, 233

Sign, 39 —, training of, 231
Sincerity, 174 —, weakness of, 12, 15, 47, 104
Slowness, 118
Society, 61, 63, 208 Youth, 238, 239

SET UP, PRINTED AND Bound BY BENZIGER BROTHERS, NEw York.