Topic

Ethno (as in ‘ethnic’) refers to people, culture, a culture’s collective body of beliefs, aesthetic,
language, knowledge, and practice.

Botany is the study of plants—from the tiniest fern or blade of grass to the tallest or oldest tree.
Botany includes all the wild plants and the domesticated species. Domesticates are species that
we humans have selected over time from the wild plant species, then tamed and trained to
optimally produce for us: food, fibers, medicine, materials, and more. The domesticated species
are both the subject and object of agriculture.

Ethnobotanical knowledge encompasses both wild and domesticated species, and is rooted in

observation, relationship, needs, and traditional ways of knowing. Such knowledge evolves over
time, and is therefore always changing and adding new discoveries, ingenuity and methods.
The impacts of modern human societies on traditional cultures and natural habitats have caused
huge losses of individual species, and profoundly disrupted communities of species (plant,
animal and fungal). Displaced or dispersed peoples—who may have passed along hundreds of
generations of observations and customs via oral tradition—lose their languages, the names of
things, and their place in the web of relationships. Sometimes new relationships develop as
people migrate, and this generates new or modified ethnobotanical knowledge.

Ethno botany 
It is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a
local culture and people. An ethnobotanist thus strives to document the local customs involving
the practical uses of local flora for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods,
intoxicants and clothing. Richard Evans Schultes, often referred to as the "father of
ethnobotany", explained the discipline in this way:
Ethnobotany simply means ... investigating plants used by societies in various parts of the world.
Scope and importance

Ethno botanical knowledge is very ancient. It provides information regarding the traditional
uses of plant wealth which can be utilized in integrated tribal development. The ethno
botanical studies throw light on certain unknown useful plants and new uses of many
known plants which can be exploited for developing new sources for some plant products
and agro based industries such as, food processing, fibres and floss, cordage and basketry,
extraction of edible and non edible oils, gum, resins, tannin, dye extraction for the
upliftment of tribal communities.

With the opening of new vistas of ethno botany, the scope of this natural science has now
greatly increased both in terms of its theoretical contribution towards the understanding of
plant- human relationship and the practical knowledge of tribal people in medicine,
agriculture, health and industry.

The tribals depend mostly on forest flora for meeting their day to day needs and primary
health care. They collect and utilize many wild plants for food, medicines, fibres, oils, gums,
tannins and dyes from the ambient vegetation of their localities.

The agricultural practices are not technologically advanced and most tribal groups in north-
east part of India resort to shiffing cultivation widely known as jhum.

There are community land, clan land and individual land and the individual users of land
have right of possessing inherited land. Jhuming or shifting cultivation involves felling of
forest trees, clearing of shrubs and undergrowth in limited area and turning of soil for
sowing crops.

The cleared land is used for agriculture for short time and when the fertility of the soil
decreases, the area is abandoned by tribals and then they shift to new area and clear the
forest vegetation for agricultural purpose. Jhuming has caused deforestation and soil
erosion. Thus the existing land use and its unscientific management have aggravated the
problems of soil erosion, floods, depletion of water resources and overall productivity.

Therefore, it has now become essential for botanists, agricultural scientists, anthropologists
and government agencies to take stock of the problems of the tribal communities and make
coordinated efforts in this direction. It requires proper management of settlements of tribal
population because the migration of tribal communities compels them for shifting
cultivation.

Tribals have knowledge about the utility of many plant species which are unknown to
modem society, it is for the botanists to collect information regarding the traditional uses of
such wild plants from them. Anthropologists have to deal with the cultural aspects of the life
of tribals. The tribal culture is changing rapidly due to urbanization, rapid industrialization
and changing pattern of life.

The medicinal plants are almost the exclusive source of drugs for the majority of world
population even today. Plant products constitute approximately 25% of the total prescribed
medicines even in most advanced countries like U.S.A. The record of use of herbal
medicines in India is very old. India with diverse ethnic groups and rich biodiversity has a
century old heritage of medicinal phototherapy for the treatment of various diseases and
promotion of health. The branch of ethno botany which deals with the traditional systems of
medicine or folk lore medicines is called medico-ethno botany.

Tribal communities utilize ethno medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases and
disorders like diarrhea, dysentery, fever, headache, skin diseases, boils and blisters,
rheumatism and gout, piles jaundice, ophthalmic diseases, toothache, bone fracture, snake
bite, helminthic or worm infection, cuts and wounds, cough, cold, asthma, leprosy etc. The
ethno medicinal data will serve as a useful source of information for the chemists,
pharmacologists and practitioners of herbal medicines for detection and isolation of
bioactive compounds used in modem medicines.

During the last few decades, a succession of the so called Wonder drugs e.g. reserpine
quinine, ephedrine, cocaine, emetine, khelline, colchicine, digitoxin, artemisin,
podophyllotoxin’ guguhpid, taxol etc. have been discovered from plants with rich ethno
botanical lore in tribal societies. The isolation of these alkaloids from plants heralded a new
era in the use of plant products in modem medicines.

The last thirty years or so witnessed a resurgence of interest in the traditional medicines and
drugs obtained from plants all over the world. The tranquilizers rescinnamine and reserpine
have been isolated from the roots of Rauvolffia serpentina which has been in use in India for
more than thousand years in folk medicine for the treatment of snake bite insanity, epilepsy,
fever and high blood pressure.

The native of Madagascar used Catharanthus roseus (Sadaa bahar) as an oral hypoglycemic
agent. It yielded two important drugs; Vinblastine and Vincristine which are known to be
effective in leukemia (blood cancer). Out of 120 active compounds currently isolated from
higher plants and used in modem medicines 75% show a positive correlation between their
modem therapeutic use and the traditional use of plants from which they are derived.

The efficacies of a number of phytopharmaceuticals derived from plants such as atropine

(pupil dialator), berberin (used in gastrointestinal disorders), caffeine (a stimulant),
digitoxin (a cardiac tonic), emetine (antiamoebic), ephedrine (anti asthmatic), morphine
(analgesic), papain (protein digestant and anthelmintic), quinine (antimalarial), reserpine
(tranquilizer), Vinblastine and Vincnstme (antileukaemic), Camptothecin, (antitumour),
forskoline (hypotensive and antispasmodic) with rich folk-lore have been discovered.
The recent discovery of certain bioactive compounds such as artemisin (antimalarial drug
from Artemisia annura), taxol (anticancer drug obtained from Taxus brevifolia), hypericine
(antiviral from Hypericum perforatum), Gossypol (a male contraceptive from Gossypium
spp), yue chukene (antifertility agent from Murraya penniculata triggered the interest in
medicinal plants all over the world. Further efforts are being made with a view to discover
potent herbal medicines based on ethhotherapeutics prevalent in tribal and aboriginal
societies.

The primitive societies in India have been dependent on herbal medicines from the time
immemorial. In fact, all traditional systems of medicine had their roots and origin in folk
medicines or ethno medicines. The knowledge of ethno botany plays a vital role in the
primary health care and economy of the tribals and aboriginal populations of our country
and has potential for the discovery of new herbal drugs and new sources of nutraceuticals
etc. The study of ethno botany provides valuable information’s to the scientists, planners
and administrators for the preparation of action plan for the economic emancipation of
tribals and Eco development of tribal areas.

Aims and Objectives of Ethnobotany
 To train people or students for utilization and conservation of medicinal plants.
 To create awareness about its role in cultural social and health of people.
 Conservation of our national heritage before its extinction.
 Preservation of unwritten traditional knwoledge about herbal plants. Proper
documentation of indigenous knowlegde about medicinal plants.
History
The idea of ethnobotany was first proposed by the early 20th century botanist John William
Harshberger. While Harshberger did perform ethnobotanical research extensively, including in
areas such as North Africa, Mexico, Scandinavia, and Pennsylvania,
Medieval and Renaissance
During the medieval period, ethnobotanical studies were commonly found connected
with monasticism. Notable at this time was Hildegard von Bingen. However, most botanical
knowledge was kept in gardens such as physic gardens attached to hospitals and religious
buildings. It was thought of in practical use terms for culinary and medical purposes and the
ethnographic element was not studied as a modern anthropologist might approach ethnobotany
today.
Age of Reason
Carl Linnaeus carried out in 1732 a research expedition in Scandinavia asking the Sami
people about their ethnological usage of plants.
The age of enlightenment saw a rise in economic botanical exploration. Alexander von
Humboldt collected data from the New World, and James Cook's voyages brought back
collections and information on plants from the South Pacific. At this time major botanical
gardens were started, for instance the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in 1759. The directors of the
gardens sent out gardener-botanist explorers to care for and collect plants to add to their
collections.
As the 18th century became the 19th, ethnobotany saw expeditions undertaken with more
colonial aims rather than trade economics such as that of Lewis and Clarke which recorded both
plants and the peoples encountered use of them. 
Development and application in modern science
The first individual to study the emic perspective of the plant world was a German physician
working in Sarajevo at the end of the 19th century: Leopold Glück. His published work on
traditional medical uses of plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the
first modern ethnobotanical work.
Beginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany experienced a shift from the raw
compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the
beginning of academic ethnobotany.

Topic
Ethno botany as a multidisciplinary science:
Ethnobiology is the study of the relationships between people and biological fields of study, or
between people and nature. Many fields exist within the overarching domain of ethnobiology
(e.g., ethnobotany, paleoethnobotany, ethnozoology, ethnopharmacology, etc.). How do humans
interact with, learn about, think about, symbolize about, and affect the world/universe around
them?
ethnobotany can strengthen our links to the natural world. It is of central importance for
understanding the collective experience of humankind in a series of exceedingly diverse
environments and using those experiences to meet the challenges that we face. It makes it
possible for us to learn from the past and from the diverse approaches to plants represented by
the different human cultures that exist today. Ethnobotany is at once a vital key to preserving the
diversity of plants as well as to understanding and interpreting the knowledge by which we are,
and will be, enabled to deal with them effectively and sustainably throughout the world. Thus
ethnobotany is the science of survival.
Branches of ethno botany
Ethnobiology 
It is the scientific study of the way living things are treated or used by different human cultures.
It studies the dynamic relationships between people, biota, and environments, from the distant
past to the immediate present.
Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany investigates the relationship between human societies and plants: how humans use
plants – as food, technology, medicine, and in ritual contexts; how they view and understand
them; and their symbolic and spiritual role in a culture.
Ethnozoology
The subfield ethnozoology focuses on the relationship between animals and humans throughout
human history. It studies human practices such as hunting, fishing and animal husbandry in space
and time, and human perspectives about animals such as their place in the moral and spiritual
realms.
Ethnoecology
Ethnoecology refers to an increasingly dominant 'ethnobiological' research paradigm focused,
primarily, on documenting, describing, and understanding how other peoples perceive, manage,
and use whole ecosystems.
Ethnomedicine
It is a study or comparison of the traditional medicine based on bioactive compounds in plants
and animals and practiced by various ethnic groups, especially those with little access to western
medicines, e.g., indigenous peoples. Often these traditions constitute significant interactions with
insects as well, in Africa or around the globe. The word ethnomedicine is sometimes used as
a synonym for traditional medicine.
Ethnomedical research is interdisciplinary; in its study of traditional medicines, it applies the
methods of ethnobotany and medical anthropology. Often, the medicine traditions it studies are
preserved only by oral tradition. Often these traditions constitute significant interactions with
insects as well
Scientific ethnomedical studies constitute either anthropological research or drug
discovery research. Anthropological studies examine the cultural perception and context of a
traditional medicine. The purpose of drug discovery research is to identify and develop a
marketable pharmaceutical product.

Ethnopharmacology
It is a related study of ethnic groups and their use of plant compounds. It is linked to medicinal
plant use and ethnobotany, as this is a source of lead compounds for drug discovery.[4] Emphasis
has long been on traditional medicines, although the approach also has proven useful to the study
of modern pharmaceuticals.
It involves studies of the:

1. identification and ethnotaxonomy (cognitive categorisation) of the (eventual) natural

material, from which the candidate compound will be produced;
2. traditional preparation of the pharmaceutical forms;
3. bio-evaluation of the possible pharmacological action of such preparations
(ethnopharmacology);
 4. their potential for clinical effectiveness;
5. Socio-medical aspects implied in the uses of these compounds (medical anthropology).

Topic
Traditional Knowledge and Biodiversity
Traditional knowledge, indigenous knowledge and local knowledge generally refer to
knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or
local communities. Traditional knowledge includes types of knowledge about traditional
technologies of subsistence (e.g. tools and techniques
for hunting or agriculture), midwifery, ethnobotany and ecological knowledge, traditional
medicine, celestial navigation, craft skills, ethnoastronomy, climate, and others. These kinds of
knowledge, crucial for subsistence and survival, are generally based on accumulations
of empirical observation and on interaction with the environment.
In many cases, traditional knowledge has been orally passed oral tradition for generations from
person to person. Some forms of traditional knowledge find expression
in culture, stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs, and laws. Other forms of traditional
knowledge are expressed through other means.
Characteristics
Tribal Colleges preserve and pass on both general knowledge and, through employing
community Elders, traditional Indigenous knowledge.
A report of the International Council for Science (ICSU) Study Group on Science and
Traditional Knowledge characterises traditional knowledge as:
"a cumulative body of knowledge, know-how, practices and representations maintained and
developed by peoples with extended histories of interaction with the natural environment. These
sophisticated sets of understandings, interpretations and meanings are part and parcel of a
cultural complex that encompasses language, naming and classification systems, resource use
practices, ritual, spirituality and worldview."
Traditional knowledge typically distinguishes one community from another. In some
communities, traditional knowledge takes on personal and spiritual meanings. Traditional
knowledge can also reflect a community's interests. Some communities depend on their
traditional knowledge for survival. Traditional knowledge regarding the environment such as
taboos, proverbs and cosmological knowledge systems provide a lot of conservation ethos for
biodiversity preservation. This is particularly true of traditional environmental knowledge, which
refers to a "particular form of place-based knowledge of the diversity and interactions among
plant and animal species, landforms, watercourses, and other qualities of the biophysical
environment in a given place". An exemplar of a society with a wealth of traditional ecological
knowledge (TEK), the South American Kayapo people, have developed an extensive
classification system of ecological zones of the Amazonian tropical savannah (i.e.,
campo / cerrado) to better manage the land.
Some social scientists conceptualise knowledge within a naturalistic framework and emphasize
the gradation of recent knowledge into knowledge acquired over many generations. These
accounts use terms like "adaptively acquired knowledge", "socially constructed knowledge,"
and other terms that emphasize the social aspects of knowledge.[10] Local knowledge and
traditional knowledge may be thought of as distinguished by the length of time they have existed
- decades to centuries versus millennia. A large number of scholarly studies in the naturalistic
tradition[ demonstrate that traditional knowledge is not a natural category, and may
reflect power struggles and relationships for land, resources and social control rather than
adherence to a claimed ancestry or heritage.
On the other hand, indigenous and local communities themselves may perceive traditional
knowledge very differently. The knowledge of indigenous and local communities is often
embedded in a cosmology, and any distinction between "intangible" knowledge and physical
things can become blurred. Indigenous peoples often say that "our knowledge is holistic, and
cannot be separated from our lands and resources". Traditional knowledge in
such cosmologies is inextricably bound to ancestors, and ancestral lands. Knowledge may not be
acquired by naturalistic trial and error, but through direct revelation through conversations with
"the creator", spirits, or ancestors. Chamberlin (2003) writes of a Gitksan elder from British
Columbia confronted by a government land-claim: "If this is your land," he asked, "where are
your stories?"
Indigenous and local communities often do not have strong traditions of ownership over
knowledge that resembles the modern forms of private ownership. Many have clear traditions of
custodianship over knowledge, and customary law may guide who may use different kinds of
knowledge at particular times and places, and specify obligations that accompany the use of
knowledge. From an indigenous perspective, misappropriation and misuse of knowledge may be
offensive to traditions, and may have spiritual and physical repercussions in indigenous
cosmological systems. Consequently, indigenous and local communities argue that others' use of
their traditional knowledge warrants respect and sensitivity. Critics of "traditional knowledge",
however, see such demands for "respect" as an attempt to prevent unsubstantiated beliefs from
being subjected to the same scrutiny as other knowledge-claims. This has particular significance
for environmental management because the spiritual component of "traditional knowledge" can
justify any activity, including the unsustainable harvesting of resources.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed at the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1993, was the first international environmental
convention to develop measures for the use and protection of traditional knowledge, related to
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. By 2006, 188 had ratified the Convention
and agreed to be bound by its provisions, the largest number of nations to accede to any existing
treaty (the United States is one of the few countries that has signed, but not ratified, the CBD).
Significant provisions include:
Article 8. In-situ Conservation
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:
(a)...
(j) Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and
practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with
the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and
encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge,
innovations and practices...
Article 10. Sustainable Use of Components of Biological Diversity
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:
(a)...
(c) Protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional
cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements
At the Convention on Biological Diversity meeting, in Buenos Aires, in 1996, emphasis was put
on local knowledge. Key players, such as local communities and indigenous peoples, should be
recognized by States, and have their sovereignty recognised over the biodiversity of their
territories, so that they can continue protecting it.
The parties to the Convention set a 2010 target to negotiate an international legally binding
regime on access and benefit sharing (ABS) at the Eighth meeting (COP8), 20–31 March 2006 in
Curitiba, Brazil. This target was met in October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, by conclusion of
the Nagoya Protocol to the CBD. The agreement is now open for ratification, and will come into
force when 50 signatories have ratified it. It entered into force on 12 October 2014. As of
August 2020, 128 nations ratified the Nagoya Protocol. The Protocol treats of inter-governmental
obligations related to genetic resources, and includes measures related to the rights of indigenous
and local communities to control access to and derive benefits from the use of genetic resources
and associated traditional knowledge.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)

It describes indigenous and other traditional knowledge of local resources. As a field of study in
anthropology, TEK refers to "a cumulative body of knowledge, belief, and practice, evolving
by accumulation of TEK and handed down through generations through traditional songs,
stories and beliefs. It is concerned with the relationship of living beings (including human)
with their traditional groups and with their environment." Such knowledge is used in natural
resource management as a substitute for baseline environmental data in cases where there is little
recorded scientific data, or may complement Western scientific methods of ecological
management.
The application of TEK in the field of ecological management and science is still controversial,
as methods of acquiring and collecting knowledge -- although often including forms of empirical
research and experimentation -- differ from those used to create and validate scientific ecological
knowledge from a Western perspective. Non-tribal government agencies, such as the U.S.
EPA have established integration programs with some tribal governments in order to incorporate
TEK in environmental plans and climate change tracking.
There is a debate whether Indigenous populations retain an intellectual property right over
traditional knowledge and whether use of this knowledge requires prior permission and
license. This is especially complicated because TEK is most frequently preserved as oral
tradition and as such may lack objectively confirmed documentation. As such, the same methods
that could resolve the issue of documentation to meet Western requirements may compromise
the very nature of traditional knowledge.
Traditional knowledge is used to maintain resources necessary for survival. While TEK itself,
and the communities tied to the oral tradition, may become threatened in the context of
rapid climate change or Environmental degradation , TEK is proving critical for understanding
the impacts of those changes within the ecosystem.
TEK can also refer to traditional environmental knowledge which emphasizes the different
components and interactions of the environment

Importance of Traditional Knowledge in Biodiversity Conservation

Topic
Cultural diversity
It is the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to monoculture, the global
monoculture, or a homogenization of cultures, akin to cultural decay. The phrase cultural
diversity can also refer to having different cultures respect each other's differences. The phrase
"cultural diversity" is also sometimes used to mean the variety of human societies or cultures in a
specific region, or in the world as a whole. Globalization is often said to have a negative effect
on the world's cultural diversity.
The Importance of Cultural Diversity
In the same way that biological diversity increases the resilience of natural systems, cultural
diversity has the capacity to increase the resilience of social systems.
Culture can be defined in a myriad of ways, such as a set of practices, a network of institutions
or a system of meanings. Cultural diversity has been formally defined to comprise the variety of
languages and ethnic groups present in the world. However, in practice, cultural systems contain
a great deal more, coding for the knowledge, practices, beliefs, worldviews, values, norms,
identities, livelihoods and social organisations of human societies.
The maintenance of cultural diversity into the future, and the knowledge, innovations and
outlooks it contains increases the capacity of human systems to adapt and cope with change.
Different cultures, though, value nature in different ways and have different connections with
their natural environments.

The Convergence of Biological and Cultural Diversity

Nature and culture converge on many levels that span values, beliefs and norms to practices,
livelihoods, knowledge and languages. As a result, there exists a mutual feedback between
cultural systems and the environment, with a shift in one often leading to a change in the other .
For example, knowledge bases evolve with the ecosystems upon which they are based and
languages comprise words describing ecosystem components.
If plants or animals are lost then the words used to describe them are often lost from a language
shortly after and this will change the way the natural environment is shaped by the practices and
livelihoods of those human communities. Nature provides the setting in which cultural processes,
activities and belief systems develop, all of which feedback to shape the local environment and
its diversity
2.1 Humans place in nature:
Beliefs, meanings and worldviews Culture can be understood and described as systems of
meaning, the way in which people interpret the world around them. These meanings and
interpretations are perhaps the most diverse in their linkage to the natural world, with the most
conspicuous links often observable within traditional resource-dependent communities. Not only
do these communities interact with biological diversity on a daily basis, but their values,
knowledge and perceptions are strongly centred on nature. It has been suggested that the
difference in cultural worldviews and cosmologies of nature between industrialised and resource-
dependent (or subsistence-oriented) communities stems from a difference in need and purpose.
Whereas many indigenous and traditional communities regard nature as a force managing them
(e.g. through droughts or famines), many industrialised communities strive to achieve the
opposite and assert their dominance in managing nature. Thus the former will view themselves

Topic
Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the
human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize
more than others. The most well-known types are copyrights, patents, trademarks, and trade
secrets.
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of
intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the
information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time.
This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to profit from the
information and intellectual goods they create. These economic incentives are expected to
stimulate innovation and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on
the extent of protection granted to innovators.

Indigenous knowledge and intellectual property rights

It refers to what indigenous people know and do and what they have known and done for
generations – practices that evolved through trial and error and proved flexible enough to cope
with change.
Intellectual property, very broadly, means the legal rights, which result from intellectual
activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields.
Intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods
and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those
productions. Intellectual property has increasingly assumed a vital role with the rapid pace of
technological, scientific and medical innovation that we are witnessing today.
Moreover, changes in the global economic environment have influenced the development of
business models where intellectual property is a central element establishing value and potential
growth. The complicated contemporary issues especially the ethical, cultural, historical,
political, religious/spiritual and moral dimensions rather legal involved in the relationship
between indigenous/traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights.

Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural
heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions, as well as the
manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures, including human and genetic
resources, seeds medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions,
literatures, designs, sports and traditional games visual and performing arts. They also have the
right to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural
heritage, traditional knowledge, and traditional cultural expressions. (United Nations
Declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples, Article 31, 2007.)

Bioprospecting 
(also known as biodiversity prospecting) is the exploration of natural sources for small
molecules, macromolecules and biochemical and genetic information that could be developed
into commercially valuable products for
the agricultural, aquaculture, bioremediation, cosmetics, nanotechnology, or pharmaceutical indu
stries. In the pharmaceutical industry, for example, almost one third of all small-molecule drugs
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) between 1981 and 2014 were
either natural products or compounds derived from natural products.
Terrestrial plants, fungi and actinobacteria have been the focus of many past bioprospecting
programs, but interest is growing in less explored ecosystems (eg. seas and oceans) and
organisms (eg. myxobacteria, archaea) as a means of identifying new compounds with
novel biological activities. Species may be randomly screened for bioactivity or rationally
selected and screened based
on ecological, ethnobiological, ethnomedical, historical or genomic information.
When a region’s biological resources or indigenous knowledge are unethically
appropriated or commercially exploited without providing fair compensation, this is
known as biopiracy. 
Various international treaties have been negotiated to provide countries legal recourse in the
event of biopiracy and to offer commercial actors legal certainty for investment. These include
the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Nagoya Protocol.
Case study
The neem tree
In 1994, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and W. R. Grace and Company received a European
patent on methods of controlling fungal infections in plants using a composition that included
extracts from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), which grows throughout India and Nepal. In
2000 the patent was successfully opposed by several groups from the EU and India including the
EU Green Party, Vandana Shiva, and the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM) on the basis that the fungicidal activity of neem extract had long been
known in Indian traditional medicine. WR Grace appealed and lost in 2005.
Basmati rice
In 1997, the US corporation Rice Tec (a subsidiary of RiceTec AG of Liechtenstein) attempted
to patent certain hybrids of basmati rice and semi dwarf long-grain rice. The Indian government
challenged this patent and, in 2002, fifteen of the patent's twenty claims were invalidated.
CBD
Under the rules of the CBD, bioprospectors are required to obtain informed consent to access
such resources, and must share any benefits with the biodiversity-rich country. However, some
critics believe that the CBD has failed to establish appropriate regulations to prevent biopiracy.
Others claim that the main problem is the failure of national governments to pass appropriate
laws implementing the provisions of the CBD. The Nagoya Protocol to the CBD, which came
into force in 2014, provides further regulations.

Traditional knowledge database

Due to previous cases of biopiracy and to prevent further cases, the Government of India has
converted traditional Indian medicinal information from ancient manuscripts and other resources
into an electronic resource; this resulted in the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library in
2001. The texts are being recorded from Tamil, Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian and Arabic; made
available to patent offices in English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish.
The aim is to protect India's heritage from being exploited by foreign companies. Hundreds
of yoga poses are also kept in the collection.
 Biological patent
It is a patent on an invention in the field of biology that by law allows the patent holder to
exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the protected invention for a limited
period of time.
The scope and reach of biological patents vary among jurisdictions, and may include biological
technology and products, genetically modified organisms and genetic material. The applicability
of patents to substances and processes wholly or partially natural in origin is a subject of debate.

Bioethics
It is the study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and medicine. It is also
moral discernment as it relates to medical policy and practice. Bioethics are concerned with the
ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life
sciences, biotechnology, medicine and medicalethics, politics, law, theology and philosophy. It
includes the study of values relating to primary care and other branches of medicine ("the ethics
of the ordinary"). Ethics also relates to many other sciences outside the realm of biological
sciences..

Topic
Role and Application of Ethnobotany in Resource Development (Particularly Modern
Medicine)

The Role of Ethnobotany in Pharmaceutical Prospecting

Plants have been the cornerstone of medicinal therapies for thousands of years and continue to be
an essential part of health care for much of the world. The traditional origins of many current
pharmaceuticals have been obscured by the process of drug development, such as aspirin from
willow bark (Salix spp.), reserpine for hypertension from the Indian Snake Root (Rauwolfia
serpentina) and D-tubocurarine, widely used as a muscle relaxant in surgery, from arrow poisons
(Chondodendron tomentosum,), but the plants used in traditional medicine continue to supply the
industry with raw materials and new ideas. Of the frequently quoted 25% of prescription drugs
sold in North America that contain active principles derived from plants (Farnsworth, 1988),
three-quarters were initially recognized by the industry because of their use in traditional
medicine (Farnsworth, 1990). The current directions in the industry, however, are not so much
determined by swashbuckling histories, as by which screening methodologies generate the best
new drug leads.

Ethnobotany is just one strategy for discovering new compounds, but the pharmaceutical
businesses that have chosen to focus on leads from traditional medicines have not based their
decisions on altruism alone. To test this approach a theory of species sampling described as the
ethno-directed sampling hypothesis was proposed. It maintains that using the combination of
indigenous knowledge and ethnobotanical documentation as a pre-screen will allow the
researcher to obtain a higher number of leads in a pool of plant samples compared with a group
of plants selected at random (Balick, 1990).

In an initial test of the hypothesis, plant samples from Belize and Honduras were subjected to an
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) screening by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). Six per
cent of the random collections indicated activity, whereas 25% of the ethnobotanical collections
were active (Balick, 1990).

More recent studies using in-vitro and in-vivo screens with traditional pharmacopoeia continue
to show high rates of pharmacological activity. In a screening of plant species used as medicine
by indigenous communities in Samoa, over 86% displayed significant chemical activity (Cox,
1990). Screening results from a newly established company, Shaman Pharmaceuticals, have
revealed that of the samples that displayed promising chemical activity, 74% directly correlated
with the original ethnobotanical use (King, 1992).

The NCI recently re-embarked on medicinal plant research in the mid-1980s, initiating species
collection in many different parts of the world. In a sample of NCI's latest screenings for activity
against HIV, less than 2% of the random species collections showed in-vitro activity worth
pursuing further in the laboratory, whereas over 15% of the ethnobotanical collections indicated
preliminary chemical activity against the virus (M.J. Balick, unpublished data), later attributed to
other compounds with previously known anti-viral effects such as tannins and polysaccharide.
These were not pursued as this search was limited to 'novel' compounds.

The depth and breadth of ethnobotanical research to date has been conducted almost as spottily
as the research on biological diversity. Explorers and field researchers have not systematically
and consistently targeted the most likely leads first. The focus of research has been shaped by
many external factors including geographic access, funding stipulations, language barriers and
chance. Hence, it seems unlikely that the potential of future discovery has been significantly
diminished by the subtraction of each new compound from the pool of information. With the
increasing importance of supply issues, in concert with the pursuit of new products, it is probable
that ethnobotany will continue to provide as valuable leads in the future as it has in previous
decades and centuries.
Natural products and individual cultures pose significant obstacles for industries which are
striving to maintain consistent levels of quality and supply on a large scale. The costs involved in
finding and isolating useful compounds, developing a product and out maneuvering the
competition often seem to outweigh the potential benefits of any therapy short of the cure for
cancer. Many of the major pharmaceutical companies were founded on the commercialization of
products derived from plants, but most have largely converted to synthetic production and cut
back on natural product research (Farnsworth, 1988).

Pharmaceutical companies have developed mass screening programs to accommodate a large

volume of botanical samples. These screening processes are capital intensive and usually rely on
spotting chemical actions that have been previously recognized in the laboratory and are already
understood. A recent departure from this approach is an effort currently underway at Shaman
Pharmaceuticals, located in San Francisco, California. Shaman's strategy is to develop more
efficient discovery processes by focusing on plants with a history of human medicinal use
(Shaman, 1993), species whose activity has been recognized in a traditional context. They hope
thereby to significantly increase their rate of success and cut the investment of time and capital
required to prove a drug successful and to take it to market. In their initial charter, Shaman
established a parallel non-profit-making company called The Healing Forest Conservancy to
address the needs and rights of the communities in which they conduct ethnobotanical research.
This effort to recognize the value of wild species, ecosystems and traditional knowledge is aimed
at bridging the seemingly divergent interests of both traditional people and Western consumers
(Shaman, 1993). Although driven by shareholders' interests, the company has consciously linked
their success as a business to their ability to protect the resources on which their business is
founded.

Case study topic:

Role of ethnobotany in modern medicines with special reference to Rauvolfia serpentina,
Trichopus zeylanicus, Artemisia sp. and Withania somnifera

Case study
The botanical collections of early explorers and the later ethnobotany have played important
roles in the development of new drugs for many centuries. In the middle of the last century
interest in this approach had declined dramatically, but has risen again during its last decade, and
new foci have developed. The systematic evaluation of indigenous pharmacopoeias in order to
contribute to improved health care in marginalized regions has been placed on the agenda of
international and national organizations and of NGOs.
Medicinal plants are an important element of indigenous medical systems in Mexico. This study
uses the medicinal plants in four indigenous groups of Mexican Indians-Maya, Nahua, Zapotec
and Mixe-as an example. A large number of species are used for gastrointestinal illnesses by two
or more of the indigenous groups. At least in this case, the multiple transfers of species and their
uses within -Mexico seems to be an important reason for the widespread use of a species.
Topic
Role and Application of Ethnobotany in Sustainable Management of Plant Resources

In many parts of the world, a number of communities practise different forms of nature worship.
One such significant tradition of nature worship is that of providing protection to patches of
forests dedicated to deities or ancestral spirits.
Conservation of natural resources is the wise use of the earth's resources by humanity. It is the
management of valuable natural resources such as timber, fish, topsoil, pastureland, and
minerals, forests, wildlife, parkland, wilderness and watershed areas. There are several
definitions of the concept – conservation, some stressing the structural roots of anthropologist
interests, others arguing from the point of view of economic reasons.
Usher (2000) defined conservation as the maintenance of genetic, species, and ecosystem
diversity in the natural abundance in which they occur.
Thomas (2003) sees conservation as the sacrifice of immediate rewards in return for delayed
ones.
Smith and Wishnie (2000) defined conservation as actions that prevent or mitigate biodiversity
loss and are designed to do so.
In time past, local people have developed a variety of resource management practices that
continue to exist in tropical Africa, Asia, South America and other parts of the world

One of such approach is the use of traditional methods that have helped them to regulate
interactions with their natural environment.
The role of traditional beliefs in the conservation of a large number of elements of local
biodiversity, regardless of their use value, dates back to creation
Traditional conservation ethics are capable of protecting biodiversity species in particular and the
environment in general as long as the local communities have a stake in it.
Chacon (2012) and Krech (2005) have pointed out that the existence of traditional beliefs/taboos
does not guarantee sustainable harvest of natural resources.
Traditional African religion (ATR) and cultural practices as done in most part of African
communities are environmentally friendly and sustainable, thus contributing so much to natural
resources sustainability and conservation (International Institute for Environment and
Development, 1992).
In Africa and indeed Nigeria, the traditional belief system holds the ascription of supernatural
powers to objects called gods and goddesses. The major tenet of African traditional religion and
belief system lies in the belief that the abode of the gods and goddesses is located on rock,
streams, pond, tress, land or anywhere they so desire to live within the community. The gods
choose their followers through the rites of initiation with a core messenger who is the mouth
piece of the gods living among human beings. The gods or goddess communicate its will to the
people through the juju priest or chief priest. The belief system is that the gods protect the
community members from harm, famine, bareness, impotence, drought, epidemics and war
among others. The gods avenge their anger on whoever omits or commits any flaw for which
their presence forbids; hence, the cultural system holds to a very high esteem all the precepts of
the laws of the gods.
These beliefs and strategies are passed on to those who become initiated into adulthood in the
community during the rites of initiation. Most often, it is the men that are always initiated into
these community cults or sects which are often enshrined in religious or cultural beliefs and
superstitions and enforced by taboos. The taboos and beliefs have legal backing in the rules and
institutions of the communities which are strong enough to make people obey the religious and
cultural regulations.
The role of traditional beliefs in the protection of natural resources is reflected in a variety of
practices including sacred groves and sacred landscapes. For example, in India, particular
patches of forests are designated as sacred groves under customary law and are protected from
any product extraction by the community. Such forests are very rich in biological diversity and
harbour many endangered plant species including rare herbs and medicinal plants.
The traditional conservation of non human primates by Iban forest farmers in West Kalimantan,
Indonesia, is an important part of their subsistence economy, and as such aided the promotion of
certain aspects of the traditional Iban agroforestry system
In a research on traditional and indigenous methods of conserving biodiversity, Ntiamoa-Baidu
(1991) identified three indigenous methods for conserving biodiversity in Ghana and other West
African sub region (Nigeria inclusive). The tribal communities of Urhobos in Delta Central –
have a tradition of environmental conservation based on various religious beliefs. An essential
feature of Urhobos in the conservation of natural resources is totemism (the belief in a
supernatural connection between a group of people and a group of objects like certain animal
species, sometimes plants, or more rarely other objects). Usually, it is a taboo to kill or eat an
animal totem (Tonukari, 2007).

Topic
Tools of ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is an integrative, multi-disciplinary field of learning. So the tools of ethnobotanical
investigations are many: botany, mycology (the study of fungi), taxonomy (ways of
categorizing), anthropology, ethnography, archaeology, comparative folklore, religious studies,
medicine, chemistry, pharmacology (uses and effects of chemicals in plants), and more. Some of
the psychoactive species and their lore carry us deep into realms of ritual, mythology and
cosmology. Sometimes, in ethnobotanical inquiry, we call upon ancient history, or colonial
socio-economic histories, or even examine the roots of our modern social movements.
 Field ethnobotany is the observation of the human-plant relationship in places where it is visible
and may be either experienced and/or documented, in stories and images

Topic
Research Methodology and Design
Before you carry out any ethnobotanical research:
- First define the goals of the project (i.e. what you want to achieve) before selecting the approach
which best suits the interests, budget and schedule.
- Most methods used in ethnobotanical studies are time-consuming and can be expensive. Several
trips to the field may be costly, but usually the most successful projects are those which cover
several seasons and continue for a number of years.
- Long-term projects allow working with local people to record ecological knowledge in a variety
of contexts, including ritual occasions and seasonal farming activities.
- But sometimes it is not possible to conduct a long-term project. In these cases Rapid
Ethnobotanical Appraisal/study can be used -

(a) Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal (study)

The techniques are conducted in a short time without requiring expensive tools because
participants seek a sketch of local conditions rather than an in-depth-study.

A small group of local people is selected and interviewed qualitatively about a wide range of
topics in a semi-structured way. A wide range of topics may be covered in a preliminary way,
allowing a comprehensive view of how the community acts as a whole; (e.g. making
a preliminary list of biological resources at sites that have been set aside as protected areas or
simply conducting an initial ethnobotanical inventory in several communities in order to decide
where it would be most interesting to carry out long-term research).

Measurements are qualitative and few statistical tools are used in the interpretation of the results.
The techniques are highly visual and are carried out by community members, often in
collaboration with the researcher .However there are many faults with studies that only last a few
days e.g.

·         They do not allow a deep working relationship to develop between an ethnobotanists and the
community

·         Careful documentation of the cultural and biological aspects of local knowledge is not
possible since there is little time to make voucher collections, transcribe local names or talk with
a range of informants

·         Short time visits do not permit local people to learn rigorous ethnobotanical methods that
would allow them to manage more effectively resources in their own communities.
 i.     Ethnobotanical fieldwork requires researchers to collaborate with government
officials, scientists, and local people.
ii.   In most countries, researchers must obtain official permits before conducting any research,
especially when conducting research in indigenous communities.
iii. Fieldworkers should also obtain permission from community members before initiating research
activities. Researchers need to clearly and honestly discuss their goals, methodology and
consequences of the research to local communities.
iv Another important point is the selection of local informants. A common mistake is assuming
that one is dealing with culturally homogeneous groups. There is often a considerable degree of
intracultural variation and specialization. This must be taken into account when selecting
informants.
v.   Researchers are also expected to compensate informants and communities with a fair amount of
money and/ or through gifts and services.
vi.    The intellectual property rights regarding the ecological knowledge of the indigenous people
must be taken into consideration.

Preparation for Field Work (Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal)

General points to keep in mind when planning a rapid ethnobotanical assessment

 Obtain secondary information – maps, floras, faunas, vegetation analysis, census

statistics, and reports on forest use to gain a preliminary idea of the land, the people and the
conservation issues in the region. Consult the maps to select the specific site and villages that
you will visit. Have local people participate in the collection of these secondary sources of
information, whether in their community or in nearby government offices or universities.
 Form a multidisciplinary team. Make prior contact with a linguistic familiar with the
local language, a botanist who knows the flora, an anthropologist who has studied local people’s
classification and management of the environment and other researchers who have worked in the
region. These preliminary consultations should be made by a small committee that includes local
people when possible.
 Ensure community participation. Seek Full Corporation and permission of local
authorities before starting fieldwork. Ask them to recommend several local people, including
specialist resource users, who can work with the assessment team. A general presentation can be
made in the community to explain the goals of the appraisal, particularly if families will be
participating.
 Do everything systematically. The appraisal should be done systematically so that others
who wish to conduct a more thorough study consult your results and add to them. This includes a
map of sites that you visit, recording the names of all local people who participate in the
 Exercise, identifying the species encountered and recording the semi-structured
interviews that are carried out. The conclusions of the appraisal, together with any drawings,
charts or graphics created during the stay, should also be presented in a final report.

(b) Planning a long term project

After a rapid appraisal has been carried out, the research may be continued for a few weeks,
season or several years during which more rigorous research methods may be applied.
Regardless of the special techniques chosen and of the scope of the research, minimum standards
of ethnobotanical documentation should be considered as follows:

 Specimens of all species represented in the study must be collected, identified and
deposited in a herbarium, zoological museum, seed bank or equivalent facility. All specimens
should be accompanied by label detailing the scientific name, locality, description, collector and
number of collection as well as other information.
 All local categories of plants should be identified and information collected on the
distribution, use and management of the corresponding botanical species. This cultural
information should be confirmed in discussions with numerous community members
who represent the social diversity of the community where you are studying – rich and poor,
young and old, men and women etc. The age, educational background, occupation, and other
personal data should be recorded for each local person who participates in the project.
 All local plant names and other key terms must be accurately transcribed using a widely
accepted local writing system. The names may be recorded on tape by several native speakers so
that other researchers can review the accuracy of the transcriptions.
 Each plant population sampled for analysis in a laboratory or research centre should be
documented by a voucher specimen. The material used for analysis must be prepared in a
standard way in the field, appropriate for the tests that will be carried out.
 The local perception and classification of diverse aspects of the natural environment
should be recorded, including concepts of vegetation communities, soil types, geographical
landmarks, climate zones and seasons.
 The economic value of biological resources should be estimated. You may record the
price and availability of plant and animal products sold in rural marketplaces, assess the time
people spend in harvesting the resources and estimate the cost of transporting the goods to where
they can be sold.

Describing the field site

Table 1 Categories for describing the land, people and conservation status of a research site
______________________________________________________
Land
Geographical location and map
Surface area in km2
Longitude and latitude
Geological information
Elevation range
Major geographical landmarks
Soil types
Climatic zones and seasons
Vegetation types and seasonal successional stages
 People
Population size and distribution
Language(s) spoken
Ethnic affiliation(s)
History of settlement
Major social groups or classes Productive activities
Subsistence and commercial crops
System of land tenure
Rates of migration
Conservation status
Size and status of protected areas
Transportation infrastructure
Natural and human-caused disasters
Colonization
Agriculture
Logging
Alternative land-use schemes
Nature tourism
Extractivism (getting hold of natural resources e.g. oil, gas, precious metals.
____________________________________________

·      When you decide to carry out a long-term research you should describe the land, local people
and conservation status of the region where you will be working.

·      The geographical location of the research site should be stated, giving the country, state,
province, municipality etc. Citing the surface area in km2 aids in comparison with other research
sites. Reporting the longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates helps other researchers find the area
on a topographical map.

·      The history of the geological formation of the land should be described as well as the
topography, soil types and geographical landmarks (mountains, caves etc).

·      Delineate the major climatic zones, pointing out seasonal fluctuations in temperature and
precipitation. Characterize the floristic and faunistic regions and the major types of vegetation
that cover the land, including the various stages of succession observable in the study site.

·      State the size of the human population and give information on its geographical and
demographic distribution (e.g. major settlements and where they are located, number of men and
women, number of people per household etc). Record the language they speak, levels of literacy
and formal education. Describe their ethnicity and give approximate population of each ethnic
group.

·      After describing the land and the local inhabitants, characterize the conservation status of the
region.  Give the number and size of all areas that are officially protected, such as national or
buffer zones. Note any traditional system of protected areas that are maintained by local people. 
·      Indicate current threats to both protected and unprotected sites. Describe natural and human-
caused disturbances that affect broad areas in the region, including fires, floods, erosion and
long-range sources of pollution such as fertilizer runoff, pesticides and acid rain.

·      Report the extent of transportation infrastructure – roads, airstrips – and how it affects the ease
of access to natural areas.

·      Characterize demographic trends and their impact on natural resources and vegetation: Is there
large-scale colonization driven, driven by resettlement and immigration of people from another
region?; Are these colonists destroying primary forests/vegetation?

·      Assess the ecological damage caused by subsistence commercial agriculture, giving special
attention to activities which result in large-scale clearing of the vegetation, such as cattle-raising,
growing of export crops in plantations and shifting cultivation. Delimit the areas where logging
is practised and characterise the species that are targeted.

·      Calculate the amount of each that is harvested and determine who is processing and profiting
from the timber (community based sawmills, private pulp mills and so on).

·      Record other activities which threaten large tracts of land, such as mining and hydroelectric
projects. If non-timber forest products are being extracted from the region, state who is doing the
collecting (local people, scientific expeditions, commercial enterprises etc.) the species affected
and the approximate amount of material that is being removed.
Ethical Conduct
It is a vital facet to conducting ethnobiological research, research that deals with human
subjects, human knowledge, resources, and land.

Ethnobiologists adhere to a number of professional codes of ethics, depending upon their

professional affiliations and disciplinary fields. American researchers who work with human
subjects must undergo ethics training (for example, CITI) and each project is reviewed and
monitored by an Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Ethics
The Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethno biology has its origins in the
Declaration of Belém, agreed upon in 1988 at the founding of the International Society of Ethno
biology (in Belém, Brazil). The Code of Ethics was initiated in 1996 and completed in 2006. The
fundamental value underlying the Code of Ethics is the concept of mindfulness – a continual
willingness to evaluate one’s own understandings, actions, and responsibilities to others.

The Principles of this Code embrace, support, and embody the concept and implementation of
traditional resource rights as articulated in established principles and practices of international
instruments and declarations.
The Principles also facilitate compliance with the standards set by national and international law
and policy and customary practice.
The following Principles are the fundamental assumptions that form this Code of Ethics.
1. Principle of Prior Rights and Responsibilities
2. Principle of Self-Determination
3. Principle of Inalienability (not for sale)
4. Principle of Traditional Guardianship
5. Principle of Active Participation
6. Principle of Full Disclosure
7. Principle of Educated Prior Informed Consent
8. Principle of Confidentiality
9. Principle of Respect
10. Principle of Active Protection
11. Principle of Precaution
12. Principle of Reciprocity, Mutual Benefit and Equitable Sharing
13. Principle of Supporting Indigenous Research
14. Principle of the Dynamic Interactive Cycle
15. Principle of Remedial Action
16. Principle of Acknowledgement and Due Credit
17. Principle of Diligence (persistent work/effort)
The following guidelines are intended as a practical application of the preceding Principles.
Recognizing that this Code of Ethics is a living document that needs to adapt over time to meet
changing understandings and circumstances, if guidelines have not yet been articulated for a
given situation, the Principles should be used as the reference point for developing appropriate
practices.
Similarly, it is recognized that indigenous, traditional or local peoples conducting research within
their own communities, for their own uses, may need to comply with their own cultural protocols
and practices. In the event of inconsistency between such local requirements and these
guidelines, all parties involved will commit to work collaboratively to develop appropriate
practices.

The Practical Guidelines apply to any and all research, collections, databases, publications,
images, audio or video recordings, or other products of research and related activities
undertaken.

 Understanding local community institutions, authority and protocols...

 Establishing educated prior informed consent...
 Full disclosure and mechanisms to ensure mutual understanding...
 Communication, consultation, approval and permission...
  Good faith commitment and respect for cultural norms and dignity...
 Standards for mutually-agreed terms and conditions...
 Clarity and agreement of objectives, conditions and mutually-agreed terms...
 Compliance with moratoriums... Educational uses of research materials...
 Treatment of existing project materials...
 Ecosystem harms...
 Considerations in collaborative, interdisciplinary, cross-cultural research...

Hypothesis Testing in Ethno botany Study

 Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a

specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. For example, a study

designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a
hypothesis that states, "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people
will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep deprived."

Let's take a closer look at how a hypothesis is used, formed, and tested in scientific research.

How Is a Hypothesis Used in the Scientific Method?

In the scientific method, whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area,
a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment.1

The scientific method involves the following steps:

1. Forming a question
2. Performing background research
3. Creating a hypothesis
4. Designing an experiment
5. Collecting data
6. Analyzing the results
7. Drawing conclusions
8. Communicating the results

The hypothesis is what the researchers' predict the relationship between two or more variables,
but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which
is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to
develop a testable hypothesis.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers
expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology,
the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a
particular behavior.

Unless you are creating a study that is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always
explain what you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or research.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the
researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or
wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to
determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original
hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that
should be explored in future studies.

How to Form a Hypothesis

The first step of a psychological investigation is to identify an area of interest and develop a
hypothesis that can then be tested. While a hypothesis is often described as a hunch or a guess, it
is actually much more specific. A hypothesis can be defined as an educated guess about the
relationship between two or more variables.

For example, a researcher might be interested in the relationship between study habits and test
anxiety.

The researcher would propose a hypothesis about how these two variables are related, such as
"Test anxiety decreases as a result of effective study habits."

In order to form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

 Start by collecting as many observations about something as you can.

 Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
 Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
 After you have developed some possible hypotheses, it is important to think of ways that
you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as
falsifiability.

The basic format might be:

"If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change
in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples:

 "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not
eat breakfast."
 "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores
than students who do not experience test anxiety."
 "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a
driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Method of Ethnobotany Study

Nature and Sources of Data

The ethno- botanical research work is based on both the primary and secondary data. Primary
data are collected from the field study, and the secondary data from the relevant offices,
textbooks, research paper and publications, journals etc.
Primary Data Collection
The primary data are collected through direct observation, group discussion, discussion with key
informants (local healers) and direct personal interview with local inhabitants. Generally
speaking, questionnaire method of data collection is applied while collecting data.
Direct Observation
The use of fauna and flora by local people is observed and recorded through direct observation
and household survey. Similarly, the actual condition of medicinal organisms in the forests, the
different sources and the local management practices of medicinal plants is observed and
recorded.
Questionnaire Survey
A set of questionnaires is developed as a tool to collect data from the local community of the
selected study area. The questionnaire survey is used to collect the availability status of natural
resources to the local community and community awareness towards the medical ethnobiology.
Key Informant Interview
The key informants are interviewed so as to extract out the information about the flora and fauna
used by local people and their perception on climate change impact on medical ethnobiology.
The key persons/ informants are included include especially the traditional healers, political
leader knowledgeable peoples and old aged persons.
Group Discussion
Group discussions is organized that comprises from youth, local people to elderly persons that
helped to obtain the general information on various subjects like traditional medicine and
indigenous knowledge, sources of medicinal plants and their local condition, the problems faced
by the traditional healers that has supported to fulfill the intended objectives of present study.
Informal Discussion
The informal discussions with local people like farmer, youths, political leaders of different
political parties’, elder persons as well as with knowledgeable people of the community is
helpful for obtaining the relevant and necessary information.
Photography and specimen Collection
During the field survey, various known and unknown species of different medicinal plants and
animals used for traditional healing practices are collected and photographed.
Secondary Data Collection
The secondary data are collected from different reports, various books, journal published by
native and foreign institutions, newspapers and documents from related literature is adequately
consulted for relevant information.

Approaches of ethnobotany: Research Approaches

in ethnnobotanty, anthropology, folkloristics, and the social and behavioral

sciences, emic and etic research approachehes are used .
"The emic approach investigates how local people think…".How they perceive and categorize
the world, their rules for behavior, what has meaning for them, and how they imagine and
explain things.

"The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus from local observations, categories,
explanations, and interpretations to those of the anthropologist. The etic approach realizes that
members of a culture often are too involved in what they are doing... to interpret their cultures
impartially. When using the etic approach, the ethnographer emphasizes what he or she considers
important."
Although emics and etics are sometimes regarded as inherently in conflict and one can be
preferred to the exclusion of the other, the complementarity of emic and etic approaches to
anthropological research has been widely recognized, especially in the areas of interest
concerning the characteristics of human nature as well as the form and function of human social
systems.
…Emic knowledge and interpretations are those existing within a culture that are ‘determined by
local custom, meaning, and belief’ and best described by a 'native' of the culture.

Etic knowledge refers to generalizations about human behavior that are considered universally
true, and commonly links cultural practices to factors of interest to the researcher, such as
economic or ecological conditions, that cultural insiders may not consider very relevant .
Emic and etic approaches of understanding behavior and personality fall under the study of
cultural anthropology. Cultural anthropology states that people are shaped by their cultures and
their subcultures, and we must account for this in the study of personality. One way is looking at
things through an emic approach.
This approach "is culture specific because it focuses on a single culture and it is understood on
its own terms." As explained below, the term "emic" originated from the specific linguistic term
"phonemic", from phoneme, which is a language-specific way of abstracting speech sounds.[4][5]
 An 'emic' account is a description of behavior or a belief in terms meaningful
(consciously or unconsciously) to the actor; that is, an emic account comes from a person
within the culture. Almost anything from within a culture can provide an emic account.
 An 'etic' account is a description of a behavior or belief by a social analyst or scientific
observer (a student or scholar of anthropology or sociology, for example), in terms that can
be applied across cultures; that is, an etic account attempts to be 'culturally neutral', limiting
any ethnocentric, political, and/or cultural bias or alienation by the observer.

When these two approaches are combined, the "richest" view of a culture or society can be
understood. On its own, an emic approach would struggle with applying overarching values to a
single culture.
The etic approach is helpful in enabling researchers to see more than one aspect of one culture,
and in applying observations to cultures around the world

Topic
Local Perspective in Ethno botany Research
Topic

Ethnobotal Studies From Nepal and South Asia: lesson learnt

Ethnobotany of the Tharu Tribe of Chitwan District, Nepal

The Guruwas of the Tharu community have a sound knowledge of the medicinal value of the
different plants. Plants are widely used to treat common ailments in humans and animals even
today. The 71 plants species collected during the study were herbs, shrubs, and trees. The various
portions of these plants ranging from roots, shoots, barks, fruits, and juices were found to be used
as medicine. Sometimes a mixture of plant extracts was used to treat a single disease. A wide
variety of diseaese conditions. ranging from simple headache to problems associated with
pregnancy were treated by products from plants. Although only 71 species were identified during
this study, the authors believe that there may be other species of plants used as medicines by this
Tharu community.
Surviving on Knowledge: Ethnobotany of Chepang community from midhills of Nepal

The Chepangs of Nepal are rich in knowledge regarding the use of different plants and this
knowledge has been transferred verbally through the generations. This study analyzed traditional
knowledge regarding plant use among the Chepang communities from ward number 3 and 4 of
Shaktikhor Village Development Committee located in the central mid hills of Nepal. Semi-
structured interviews were conducted with key informants like traditional healers for medicinal
plants, and elder people and women for edible and other useful plants. The ‘artefact/interview’
approach was also used. People were using 435 different plant species for 845 various uses.
Eleven of these species belong to different IUCN threat categories. Stems had the highest
number of uses (180) followed by whole plants (163) and leaves (134). Fodder had the highest
number of species (198) followed by edible plants (136) and medicinal use species (115). 246
species had single-uses while 189 had multiple-uses. Fifty-six plants in use among Chepangs,
were not reported in any previous documents from Nepal.

Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by the People of Manang District, Central Nepal

Background:
The district of Manang (2000 – 6000 m) is located in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. The majority
of local inhabitants of the area are Gurungs, of Tibetan origin. The remoteness of the region has
resulted in continued use of plants as medicine in an area where the ethnobotany has sparsely
been documented.

Methods:
Interviews were conducted with amchi (Tibetan medicinal practitioners), local healers (including
priests locally known as 'lamas'), plant traders, and knowledgeable villagers (including herders)
regarding local plant names and their medicinal uses during several field visits (2002– 2005).
When convenient to the locals, a jungle or forest walk was done with the healers, allowing for
both plant collection and detailed information gathering.
Results:
This present research documented 91 ethnomedicinal plant species, belonging to 40 families
under 73 genera, and 45 new ethnomedicinal plant species are added. These 91 locally used
medicinal plants are found to treat 93 ailments. This study provides information on 45 plant
species previously unknown for their medicinal uses in Manang. The indication for use, mode of
preparation, dose and administration of medicine are described in detail for each species.

Conclusion: This wealth of ethnobotanical knowledge persists, and is being transferred to the
next generation in some areas in upper Manang, in a country where this is often not the case. The
senior amchi of the area (Karma Sonam Lama), who has been practicing Tibetan medicine for
three generations, feels that it is of utmost importance to conserve the traditional healing system
and to pass his knowledge on to the local community about the importance of medicinal plants.
He hopes that this will lead to the conservation and sustainable management of medicinal plants
in the villages. Over the duration of this research, the prices of several rare medicinal plants of
Manang increased dramatically, highlighting both the scarcity and the quick disappearance of the
species. This is only one example of a worrying trend of over harvesting of medicinal plants, and
highlights the need for conservation and management of medicinal plants of Manang district.

Medicinal Plants of Nepal

Medicinal plants are an important component of the vegetation of Nepal, and the distribution
pattern of medicinal plants has been found to be approximately 49.2% in the tropical zone (up to
1,000 meters), 53.96% in the sub-tropical zone (1,000 - 2,000 m), 35.7% in the temperate zone
(2,000 - 3,000 m), 18.9% in the sub-alpine zone (3,000 - 4,000 m), and 7.14% in the alpine zone
(4,000 m upwards). There are about 1,400 kinds of medicinal plants utilized by Ayurveda and
traditional healer in Nepal.

Some of the important and well-known medicinal plants follow:

Tropical and sub-tropical medicinal plants:

Terminalias, Cassia fistula, Cassia catechu, Aegles marmelos, Rauwolfia serpentina,

Phyllanthus emblica, Ricinus recemosus, Acorus clams, Acacia concinnity, Butte monster.

Temperate zone medicinal plants:

Valeriana wallichii, Berberis, Datura, Solanum, Rubia, Zanthoxylum armatum, Gaultheria

fragrautissima, Dioscorea deltoidea, Curulligo orchoidies.

Alpine & sub-alpine medicinal plants:

Aconitum Spp., Picrorrhiza scrophularaeflora, Swertia multicaulis, Rheum emodi,

Nardostachys jatamansi, Ephedra gerardiana, Cordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea.

Some of the regions where medicinal plants are abundantly found are, the Terai region of
Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Bardiya, Dhanusha,

Mid-hilly Region of Makawanpur, Syangja, Kaski, Lamgjung, Dolakha, Parvat, Ilam,

Ramechhap, Nuwakot, and

the Himalayan region of Dolpa, Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Manang, Mustang and Solukhumbu.

The institutions manufacturing Ayurveda medicinal products include Singha Durbar Vaidhya
Khana Vikas Samiti, Kathmandu; Gorkha Ayurveda Company, Gorkha; Arogya Bhavan,
Kathmandu; Siddha Ayurveda Pharmacy, Butwal; Pashupati Ayurveda Bhavan, Sarlahi; and
Classical Herbal Group, Kathmandu.

Religious and Spiritual Values of Forest Plants in Nepal

Rituals values of plants

All Hindu families in Nepal and in India have to perform pujas (religious rituals) on certain
occasions and is itself partially responsible for procuring the ritual objects necessary for them
(Pohle, 1990). These could be daily puja, seasonal, monthly, annual, periodic and occasional.
There is no religious ritual, which does not require plants and their products. Traditions Hindu
Books such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Veds, all put intention to preserve forest as a part of the
cultural heritage. An attempt has been made to return to the sources of traditional cultural value
in order to record and document the treasure of knowledge that still exits with different caste and
ethnic community.

The Hindu religion believes that the world is governed by supernatural beings that play various
roles of construction (Brahma), continuation (Bishnu) and destruction (Shiva). Many of the
major deities have a number of different forms, each requiring ritual worship at different times
and in different ways (Deep 1982). According to traditional belief, sodash sanskar (Six in
numbers) must be completed before acting as a human being and all activities in
this sanskar demand the use of plants and their products for example all most all Hindus and
ethnic groups cremate their dead in prescribed manner (Bista 1987), consuming a great deal of
fuel each year.

Forest management and religious forest

The practices of maintaining and managing religious forest and its potential to incorporate to
community forestry have been seen as an important way to manage forest in Nepal. Ingles (1994)
argued that religious beliefs and practices affect the way forests are perceived and managed in
Nepal. Forests are also affected by activities such as tree worship; establishment and
maintenance of sacred sites in forests, religious festivals and rituals conducted within the forest.
Moreover, religious forests provide refugia for species, which may otherwise have become
locally extinct. Religious forests are not harvested and there is a belief that it is devoted in the
name of the God.

Hindus and their Dharma

Nepalese society places a high value on dharma. Gyawali (1987) defined dharma as correct
lifestyles of living in harmony with one's nature in a world of perpetual change, a lifestyle in
harmony in three spheres; the philosophical, the social and the environmental. Various religious
rituals and social activities are carried out to observe dharma. During the religious rituals and
ceremonies, one or more deities are worshipped using actions, process and products prescribed
by texts or priests or local tradition (Ingles 1994). The social activities includes the construction
of temples, schools, rest houses for pilgrims, construction of drinking water taps, donating to
charity, constructing bridges, roads, chautara (resting place). All these activities require use of
plants or plants products.

Roles and values of plants and their products

Different pants and their products are essential with no replacement to perform various religious
rituals. This practice is higher particularly in rural areas as the case study area. Some plants
species are highly scared and worshipped such as Ficus religiosa, F. bengalensis, F. glomerata,
Magnifera indica, and F. glaberrima, Dsemotachya bipinnata, Ocimum spp and Phyllanthus
emblica.

Number and nature of species

It was found that more than 80 different plant species and their products are required to perform
religious and cultural festivals in the study area. The nature of species varies from annual herbs,
climber, palm trees, shrub to big sized trees and their parts. These are purely wild to
domesticated. With increasing development different kinds of flowers are used than were
traditional used. However, there are some plants products for which there is no substitute such
as  Dsemotachya bipinnata and bamboos used to transport dead body up to the cremate places.
The most commonly used parts in various ceremonies are leaf and flowers. Other parts used are
branches, stems, fruits, bark and roots. These part(s) of individual plants are either used in
individual basis or are used to produce composite products.

Tree worships and culture

In Hindu theology, specific plant and trees species are deemed to be incarnations, or symbols of
deities and other supernatural forces and must be worshipped (Ingles 1994). Harvesting of
worship tree was thought to be against worshipped god e.g. F. religiosa is not harvested easily
and there is religious merit by planting such worshipped trees is still common.

Uses

The plants and their products must offer and are essential for the purpose of religious rituals or
incense or decorative values or prayed for god. Some of the interesting and important uses and
values are pointed below.

 The pancha bhallap is made of leaves of five tree species (Ficus religiosa, F.

bengalensis, F. glomerata, Magnifera indica, and F. glaberrima) must be offered to start
any ritual functions.
 The weaving of different kinds of leaves and flowers in a rope made of Eulaliopsis
binnata is called toran, which must hanged, around the ritual performing place
called Mandap or Jangya.

 365 small stems of a shrub Solanum tubersum called datoon must be tooth brushed

in tija by all adult women.
  The beds of Gompherna globasa flowers and fruits of Jungles regia must be offered to
brothers by sisters in tihar as a symbol of long life.

 Trees marriage is practiced which involves the figurative marriage of one to another for
example Ficus religiosa to a nearby F. bengalensis.

 The Ocimum spp is planted in special day and grown up for 4 months and is marriaged.
The practice of everyday lightening in the evening at the Ocimum spp mandap is most
common.

 In a Newar family, there is a culture called bel bibaha, where a daughter must be

marriage with a Aegle marmelos before mensuration.

 Brahmin and Chhetri must hang threads made of cotton around their shoulders
after bratabandha.

 The sticks made of Prunnus cerasoides and Butea monosperma are essentials

for bratabandha.

 The sal leaves plates are essential for all ritual functions and is regarded
as chokho (uncontaminated).

 The weeds made up of fruit of Elaeocarpus sphaericus seeds or Ocimum spp stem are

used to pray the God.

 The Areca catechu fruits are essentials for all ritual functions.

 The firewood from Ficus benjamina is required to burn in fireworks at the centre of the
Mandap.

 The death body must be transported in green bamboo up to the cremate places where it
has to be burned with fuel wood.

Model Questions

1. Why is ethno botany multidisciplinary science? What are the major branches of ethno
botany? Describe.

2. What is ethno botany? Briefly describe historical development of ethno botany.

3. What is indigenous knowledge? What are its characteristics? How has Convention on
Biology Diversity recognized it?

4. What is cultural diversity? How is it important in biodiversity conservation?

5. What is bio prospecting? Describe the role of ethno botany in pharmaceutical industry
with examples.

6. What is biopiracy? How traditional ecological knowledge and intellectual property right
is related?

7. What is conservation? Discuss role and application of ethno botany in plant resource
conservation.

8. Describe tools and techniques of rapid ethno botanical study.

9. What is ethical code and conduct of ethno botanical study? List out ethical principles and
guidelines of ethno botanical study.

10. Describe nature and sources of data for ethno botanical study.

11. Describe emic and etic approaches of ethno botanic study.

12. Write scientific and local name of any five medicinal plants used by Tharu tribe of Nepal.
How does tribal people knowledge help in plant conservation?

13. Write scientific and local name of any five medicinal plants of Nepal. Discuss possibility
of medicinal herb farming in Nepal.

14. Write scientific and local name of religious plants. How does religious and spiritual value
of plants help in forest and plant protection?