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124 Grunig2009 - Paradigms of Public Relations in An Age of Digitalization
124 Grunig2009 - Paradigms of Public Relations in An Age of Digitalization
124 Grunig2009 - Paradigms of Public Relations in An Age of Digitalization
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-line_journ.html
contextual conditions in this special issue). At difficult to apply the generic principles, such
times, these contextual conditions make it as in a country with an individualistic or
masculine culture, an authoritarian political are moving rapidly to adjust to this change in
system, or a low level of activism. media. According to a report from iPressroom,
Nevertheless, I believe that the principles can Trendstream, PRSA, and Korn/Ferry
be practiced incrementally, and carefully, International, as reported in PR News online
almost everywhere. The new digital media, I (2009), 51% of public relations departments in
also believe, are a global force that conform the United States are responsible for digital
well to the generic principles and that make it communication, 49% for blogging, 48% for
possible to overcome the contextual social networking, and 52% for micro blogging
conditions that limit the practice of these (such as text messaging, instant messaging, and
principles. Twittering). In addition, a 2007 study by the
As of June 30, 2009, there were Arthur Page Society, a US association of chief
1,668,870,408 internet users in the world— corporate communication officers, included
24% of the world’s population of nearly 6.8 “Leadership in enabling the enterprise with
billion (Internet World Stats, 2009). The ‘new media’ skill and tools” (p. 7) as one of
percentage of the population that uses the four priorities and skills that will be needed by
internet ranges from 6.7% in Africa to 73.9% chief communication officers (CCOs) in the
in North America. Internet usage is higher in future. (The other three skills, which fit
developed regions of the world (50.1% in squarely into our global theory of public
Europe and 60.1% in Oceania/Australia) than relations, were leadership in defining and
in developing regions (23.7% in the Middle instilling company values, building and
East and 30.0% in the Latin managing multi-stakeholder relationships, and
American/Caribbean region). Although only building and managing trust.)
18.5% of the Asian population uses the Recent books on online public relations,
internet, 42.2% of all internet users in the such as Phillips and Young (2009) and Solis
world are in Asia. In addition, internet use and Breakenridge (2009) have argued that the
worldwide grew 362% from 2000 to 2009, digital media have changed everything for
including 516% in Asia, 1,360% in the public relations: “The Web has changed
Middle East and Africa, and 873% in the everything” (Solis & Breakenridge, 2009, p. 1);
Latin American/Caribbean region. Finally, in “… it is hard to avoid making the claim that
2008, China surpassed the United States as ‘the internet changes everything.’ … for public
having more internet users than any other relations the unavoidable conclusion is that
country in the world (CNN.com, 2009). On nothing will ever be the same again” (Phillips
December 31, 2008, there were 298 million & Young, 2009, p.1). In one sense, I agree with
internet users in China, 22% of the these assertions. For most practitioners, digital
population, with an annual growth rate of media do change everything about the way they
41.9% (China Internet Network Information practice public relations. Other practitioners,
Center, 2009). however, doggedly use the new media in the
The statistical evidence, therefore, is clear. same way that they used traditional media.
A huge proportion of the world’s population From a theoretical perspective, in addition, I do
now has access to and is using digital media, not believe digital media change the public
and usage in developing countries is catching relations theory needed to guide practice,
up to that in developing countries. In addition, especially our generic principles of public
digital media have made most public relations relations. Rather, the new media facilitate the
global and force organisations to think application of the principles and, in the future,
globally about their public relations practice. will make it difficult for practitioners around
Public relations departments of organisations the world not to use the principles.
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
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give information to others as publics move communication with publics, and the quality of
from loose aggregations of people facing organisation-public relationships (Yang, 2007;
similar problems to active publics Yang & Grunig, 2005). Therefore, the only way
communicating with each other. in which public relations managers can
Thus, the situational theory shows that ‘manage’ cognitive representations is by
publics create themselves and that they are participating in managing the behaviours of
motivated to do so by the problems they organisations and by managing communication
experience in their life situations. with publics in order to cultivate relationships
Stakeholders, therefore, define their stakes in with them. In their book Online Public
an organisation; organisations cannot do that Relations, Phillips and Young (2009)
for them. Many of the problems that bring maintained that this
publics into existence are caused by the Excellence model developed by James
consequences of an organisation’s behaviours Grunig and various collaborators has
on people both inside and outside the provided the underlying paradigm that
organisation—such as loss of a job, an unsafe has dominated much public relations
product, pollution, interference with theory for over 20 years. The issue now
government decisions, or discrimination. for those trying to understand the
Other problems are simply experienced by changes being brought about by the
members of publics, and they seek help from internet society is to determine whether
organisations to solve those problems, such as the developments outlined in this book
a drug to cure the disease AIDS, are sufficiently dramatic to challenge
unemployment, or excessive traffic. There are the Grunig model. Let’s try. (p. 247)
many people who are not members of active The Excellence model they described can be
publics, whom I have described as passive or found in Grunig (1992) and Grunig, Grunig,
non-publics—even though the organisation and Dozier (2001). It has produced the global
might want them to be publics. Typically, theory of generic principles and specific
public relations people try to create active applications described at the beginning of this
publics by disseminating messages to passive article. The Excellence model actually is much
or non-publics; but those messages have little more than a model. It is a general theory that is
effect because non-publics are not exposed to made up of a number of middle-range theories
them and passive publics hear and remember such as a theory of public relations and
little of the messages. strategic management, the situational theory of
Our research also shows that programmes publics, practitioner roles, the organisation of
of symmetrical communication are more public relations internal
the
function,
successful than asymmetrical communication communication, activism, ethics, and gender
in building relationships between and diversity. Today’s digital world, according
organisations and publics (see, for example, to Phillips and Young (2009), challenges the
Grunig, 2001; Grunig & Huang, 2000; Hon &
Excellence theories because, in their words,
Grunig, 1999)—further undermining the the vector of
Excellence characterizes
persuasion assumption underlying the illusion as between
communication being an
of control. Finally, research shows that its publics, and is
organization and
reputations, images, brands, and other types with the balance—the
of cognitive representations are what concerned
members of different publics think and say to symmetry—of this transaction. The bold
each other, not something that organisations claim that emerges from the arguments
put forward for ‘the new PR’ is that the
can create or manage (Bromley, 1993; Grunig vector of communication
& Hung, 2002). In addition, our research fundamental
that shapes reputation and an
shows that these cognitive representations relationship with its
reflect organisational decisions and organization’s
stakeholders has flipped through 90
behaviours, the extent of active degrees. Now, the truly significant
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
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Figure 1: A new media adaptation of the models of public relations
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-line_journ.html
and measurable reality—enactments whose (1998)—which in turn allows the organisation
meanings can be negotiated through to behave in the way it wants.
communication. In contrast, the behavioural, strategic
According to Hatch, postmodernism “found management, paradigm focuses on the
its way into organization theory through participation of public relations executives in
applications of linguistic, semiotic, and literary strategic decision-making so that they can help
theory via the interest in meaning and manage the behaviour of organisations. Van
interpretation introduced by symbolic- den Bosch and Van Riel, (1998) defined this
interpretive organization theorists” (p. 44). type of public relations as a bridging, rather
Postmodernists reject general theories and than a buffering, function—again using Scott’s
favour fragmentation of theorising. They prefer (1987) terminology. Public relations as a
to ‘deconstruct’ theories to determine whose bridging activity is designed to build
interests are served by the theories and whose relationships with stakeholders, rather than a set
way of thinking has been incorporated into of messaging activities designed to buffer the
them. Thus, challenges to power are a major organisation from them.
theme in postmodern thinking. The strategic management paradigm
I believe that these three approaches to emphasises two-way communication of many
organisational theory can be found in two kinds to provide publics a voice in management
competing approaches to public relations: the decisions and to facilitate dialogue between
symbolic, interpretive, paradigm and the management and publics both before and after
strategic management, behavioural, paradigm. decisions are made. The strategic management
The strategic management paradigm contains paradigm does not exclude traditional public
elements of both modernism and relations activities such as media relations and
postmodernism. Thus, I would call it a semi- the dissemination of information. Rather, it
postmodern approach to the role of public broadens the number and types of media and
relations in strategic management. communication activities and fits them into a
Scholars and practitioners who embrace the framework of research and listening. As a
symbolic paradigm in their thinking generally result, messages reflect the information needs
assume that public relations strives to influence of publics as well as the advocacy needs of
how publics interpret the organisation. These organisations.
cognitive interpretations are embodied in such Critical scholars such as Weaver, Motion,
concepts as image, reputation, brand, and Roper (2006) tend to view the interpretive
impressions, and identity. The interpretive paradigm as the way public relations actually is
paradigm can be found in the concepts of practiced and the strategic management
reputation management in business schools, paradigm as “an unlikely rarity and even
integrated marketing communication in something of a fantastical ideal” (p. 15). I see
advertising programmes, and critical and these two approaches differently. I believe the
rhetorical theory in communication interpretive paradigm reflects the hopes of
departments. Practitioners who follow the many of the clients and employers of public
interpretive paradigm emphasise messages, relations practitioners who prefer to make
publicity, media relations, and media effects. decisions in isolation from publics. It also
Although this paradigm largely relegates represents the wishful thinking of many
public relations to a tactical role, the use of practitioners who seem to believe that messages
these tactics does reflect an underlying theory. alone can protect organisations from publics
Communication tactics, this theory maintains, and who promise clients and employers what
create an impression in the minds of publics they want to hear.
that allow the organisation to buffer itself from Evaluation research (e.g., as reviewed by
its environment—to use the words of Scott Dozier and Ehling, 1992), however, generally
(1987) and Van den Bosch and Van Riel, shows this interpretive paradigm to be
ineffective because it does not deliver the
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
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effects its advocates promise. Most importantly, same time, public relations benefits
the interpretive approach does not provide a organisations by helping them make decisions,
normative model for how public relations develop policies, provide services, and behave
should be practised—a model that can be in ways that are accepted by and sought out by
taught to aspiring public relations professionals their stakeholder publics—thus increasing the
or used as a template for constructing a public organisation’s revenue, reducing its costs, and
relations function. The strategic management reducing its risk (a semi-modernist
paradigm, I believe, provides such a normative perspective).
model for an ethical, effective, and both Thus, the strategic management theory of
organisationally and socially valued approach public relations contains elements of both
to public relations practice. modernism and postmodernism, although I do
There has been a great deal of discussion not adhere rigorously to the assumptions of
among public relations scholars about whether either approach. For example, although
the strategic management approach to public postmodernists dismiss general theories as
relations represents a modern or postmodern metanarratives or “grand narratives” (Hatch,
approach to management as described by Hatch 1997, p. 44), I believe in the importance of
(1997). Critical scholars such as L’Etang and integrating and enlarging theories. I also
Pieczka (1996) and Leitch and Neilson (2001) embrace the centrality of subjectivity in both
and postmodern scholars such as Holtzhausen theorising and communicating—the central
and Voto (2002) have claimed that the strategic assumption of the symbolic-interpretive
management theory is modernist—that it only approach (see Grunig, 1993). However, I
helps organisations control their environment believe the symbolic-interpretive paradigm
rather than provide publics in that environment devotes excessive attention to the role of
a bridge to the organisation and a voice in communication and public relations in
management decisions. They claim that public negotiating meaning and not enough attention
relations serves only the interests of to their role in negotiating the behaviour of
management or organisations and not the both organisations and publics.
interests of publics or society. Although placing most public relations
In contrast, I believe that public relations thinking into two categories is always an
departments that are empowered as a strategic oversimplification, I do believe that identifying
management function rather than only as an these two ways of thinking helps us to
interpretive function represent more of a understand controversies in the discipline and
postmodern approach to management than a to understand why much public relations
modern approach. Knights and Morgan (1991) practice is not adjusting to the opportunities
and Knights (1992) have described postmodern presented by the digital media. To a large
strategic management as a subjective process in extent, I believe that the interpretive paradigm
which the participants from different has been institutionalised in the way most
management disciplines (such as marketing, journalists and people in general think about
finance, law, human resources, or public public relations. To a lesser extent, this
relations) assert their disciplinary identities. paradigm also describes how a large portion of
Public relations has value in this perspective the managers for whom public relations people
because it brings a different set of problems and work and a large portion of practitioners
possible solutions into the strategic themselves think about public relations. Thus, I
management arena. In particular, it brings the believe it will be necessary to reinstitutionalise
problems of publics as well as the problems of public relations as a strategic management
management into decision-making. discipline before it can reach its full potential as
I believe that public relations provides a profession that serves the interests of society
organisations a way to give voice to and as well as organisations. And, I believe the
empower publics in organisational decision- digital media will not be used to their full
making (a postmodern perspective). At the potential without this reinstitutionalisation.
Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2): 10
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-line_journ.html
It is important, then, to look at how conducted formative research to identify
digital media can be used in a strategic potential issues and define objectives for
management approach to public relations. programmes to communicate with the
stakeholders, they specified measurable
Digital media in the strategic management of objectives for the communication programmes,
public relations and they used both formal and informal
In the Excellence study (Grunig, Grunig, & methods to evaluate whether the objectives had
Dozier, 2002), we found that the most effective been accomplished. Less excellent departments
public relations departments participated in, or conducted no formative or evaluative research
were consulted in, the making of overall and generally had only vague objectives that
strategic decisions in organisations. Less were difficult to measure.
effective departments generally had the less Figure 2 (below) depicts this role of an
central role of disseminating messages about excellent public relations department in the
strategic decisions made by others in the overall strategic management process of an
organisation. By participating in organisational organisation and the nature of strategic
decisions, excellent public relations management of public relations programmes.
departments were in a position to identify the Figure 2 is useful in understanding how digital
stakeholders who would be affected by media can be used in all phases of this public
organisational decisions or who would affect relations process. The central concepts in
those decisions. Once they had identified Figure 2 are management decisions at the top,
stakeholders, excellent public relations stakeholders and publics on the right, and
departments strategically developed relationship outcomes on the left. Connecting
programmes to communicate with them. They management and publics are the consequences
Management
No Consequences Decisions
Consequences
Consequences
Organizational Reputation
Relationship Stakeholders
Communication Programs
Outcomes (Relationship Cultivation P1 P2 Pi
Strategies)
Publics
Achievement of
Organizational Goals
Crisis
Management Behavior of Publics
Creates
Issues
Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-line_journ.html
11
that the behaviour of each has on the other—the positively to try to secure a behaviour from an
interdependence between an organisation and organisation that has useful consequences for
its environment that creates the need for public
relations. The double arrows between
management decisions and stakeholders at the
upper right of Figure 2 show that strategic
decision-makers of an organisation should
interact with stakeholders through the public
relations function because their decisions have
consequences on publics or because the
organisation needs supportive relationships with
stakeholders in order to implement decisions
and achieve organisational goals. Stakeholders
also might seek a relationship with an
organisation in order to attain a consequence
from the organisation to solve a problem it
recognises—such as an environmental group
that seeks a reduction in pollution from a
chemical plant or nuclear laboratory. Thus the
consequences of organisational decisions (and
behaviours resulting from those decisions)
define the stakeholders of an organisation and,
therefore, the stakeholders with whom the
organisation needs a relationship.
I define stakeholders as broad categories of
people who might be affected by management
decisions or who might affect those decisions—
such as employees or community residents.
When a strategic public relations manager scans
the environment, therefore, his or her first step
should be to think broadly in terms of
stakeholder categories. Then he or she should
use a theory of publics—e.g., Grunig’s (1997)
situational theory of publics—to identify and
segment active, passive, and latent publics from
the non-publics that might also be present in the
stakeholder category.
It is important to segment active publics,
because active publics typically make issues out
of the consequences of organisational decisions.
This behaviour may be individual or it may be
collective—when members of publics organise
into activist groups. Sometimes publics react
negatively to harmful consequences of an
organisation’s
behaviours—such as pollution or
discrimination. At other times, they act
them—such as a community public that wants illustrates, however, is that communication with
cleaner rivers and streams. At still other times, publics before decisions are made is most
publics collaborate with organisations to secure effective in resolving issues and crises because
consequences of benefit to both. Figure 2 then it helps managers to make decisions that are
shows that publics that cannot stop the less likely to produce consequences that publics
consequences that harm them or secure the make into issues and crises. If a public relations
consequences that benefit them generally make staff does not communicate with publics until
issues out of the consequences. Issues, in turn, an issue or crisis occurs, the chance of
can become crises if they are not handled well. resolving the conflict is slim.
When issues or potential issues are discussed The centre oval in Figure 2 depicts the
and negotiated with publics, the result is strategic management of public relations
improved relationships with publics. programmes themselves—as opposed to the
At the centre of the strategic processes participation of public relations in the overall
described in Figure 2 is an oval representing strategic management of the organisation.
communication programmes—programmes to These programmes are developed from
cultivate relationships with publics and to strategies to cultivate relationships with
manage conflict with them. Communication publics, a new concept we have used to replace
with potential publics is needed before the models of public relations and to integrate
decisions are made by strategic decision- the concepts of direction (one-way or two-
makers, when publics have formed but have not way), purpose (symmetrical or asymmetrical),
created issues or crises, and during the issue mediated or interpersonal, and ethical or
and crisis phases. Communication programmes unethical (see Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2001;
at the latter two stages are generally termed Hung, 2007). Communication programmes
issues management and crisis communication should begin with formative research, then
by public relations practitioners. What Figure 2 develop achievable and measurable objectives,
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-line_journ.html
implement the programme, and end with organisation has no consequences. Such people
evaluation of whether the objectives have been can be defined as audiences because they are
met. not truly publics. These audiences have little
The final path in Figure 2 can be found in importance to an organisation. As soon as an
the dotted lines from management decisions to organisation or public has consequences on the
organisational reputation to relationship other, it begins to develop an involving
outcomes—a path labelled no consequences. behavioural relationship rather than a low-
This path depicts the approach taken by public involvement reputational relationship. It is at
relations practitioners who are guided by the that point that a group of people becomes an
interpretive paradigm and believe that positive active and strategic public rather than a passive
messages about management decisions— audience.
mostly disseminated through the mass media— Figure 2 provides a theoretical overview of
can by themselves create a positive how public relations executives should
organisational reputation. Such a path might participate in the strategic decision-making
also produce a reputational relationship—a processes of the organisations they serve.
relationship based only on secondary sources Nevertheless, these executives need additional
and not based on an actual relationship between and more specific theoretical and applied tools
the organisation and a public (Grunig & Hung, to help them in this process. The digital media,
2002). I believe that publicity about I believe, provide such tools.
management decisions can create such a
reputational relationship between an Digital tools for public relations and
organisation and the audience exposed to the strategy Communication programmes
messages, but only to a limited extent and in
certain situations. Therefore, I have labelled the
dotted line no consequences because I believe
that organisations have reputational
relationships only with people for whom the
Most public relations practitioners think organisations now are developing two-way,
immediately about the centre oval in Figure 2 interactive, and dialogical communication
when they contemplate using digital media in programmes through digital media, especially
their work, and these media already are used using blogs and microblogs such as Twitter.
extensively for such programmes. For example, Rebecca Harris (2009) of General Motors and
a study by the IABC Research Foundation and Brandy King (2009) of Southwest Airlines
Buck Consultants (2009) showed widespread described two such programmes at the 2009
use of digital media for employee Summit on Measurement of the U. S. Institute
communication programmes, including social for Public Relations. Southwest Airlines has a
media (used frequently or occasionally by 80% blog for its employees and customers called
of survey participants), emails (75%), intranet Nuts About Southwest
(88%), websites (76%), virtual meetings (55%), (http://www.blogsouthwest.com). Southwest
and podcasts (20%). Digital media also are also uses Twitter to interact with customers
being used extensively for media relations, about real-time problems they might be
customer relations, financial relations, experiencing with a flight or reservation.
community relations, member relations for non- General Motors used its GM Fastlane blog
profits, donor relations, alumni relations for (http://gmfastlane.com) to make its executives
colleges and universities, public affairs and available for interactive discussions about the
political public relations, and many other company’s 2009 bankruptcy, new products, and
programmes designed to cultivate relationships other concerns. A recent post, for example,
with publics. addressed a number of rumours about the
As Phillips (2009) pointed out (see Figure privacy of General Motors Onstar navigation
1), digital media still are used extensively for system, such as rumours that Onstar operators
communication programmes that are one-way could listen in on people in their cars or track
and asymmetrical. However, many speeds to give to law enforcement authorities
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
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(http://fastlane.gmblogs.com/archives/2009/11/ organisation, or entering key words related to
web_chat_onstar_debunks_privacy_misconcept decisions or behaviours the management team
ions.html). might be contemplating but hasn’t yet
implemented. Media monitoring tools now are
Environmental scanning available widely for use in cyberspace. I
The main point conveyed by Figure 2, however, believe that media monitoring actually is much
is that the public relations process actually more valuable when used for digital media than
begins with management decision processes for traditional media. Digital media monitoring
and not with communication programmes. can be used for environmental scanning
When public relations participates in or has whereas monitoring of traditional media
access to decision-making, its contribution is to typically is done mostly to evaluate media
identify consequences, stakeholders, publics, relations programmes. Although there is still
and issues that result from decisions or require much debate over whether digital media should
management attention in decision making. The be monitored using automated machine coding
public relations process then ends with or human coding (Research, 2009), the
communication programmes, rather than researchers debating the issue agree that both
beginning with them as is so often the case methods can be used in different circumstances
when practitioners use new media to implement and that both have unique advantages.
old programmes.
The digital media are ideal for Segmenting stakeholders and publics
environmental scanning research, and there are Although most writers about public relations
many tools available for scanning cyberspace tend to use the terms ‘stakeholders’ and
for problems, publics, and issues. These tools ‘publics’ interchangeably, I distinguish
can be as easy to do as setting up Google alerts between
using the name of the organisation as a key
word, by entering key words that describe
potential problems and issues that relate to an
the two. I use the term stakeholder to define a (e.g., Grunig, 1997; Kim & Grunig, in press).
broad group of people with similar stakes in the This theory segments publics using the
organisation, such as employees, customers, or concepts of problem recognition, constraint
community members. Stakeholders can be recognition, and involvement recognition.
defined as anyone who has a similar risk Phillips and Young (2009) also suggested
resulting from a relationship with an segmenting publics by values and concepts. In
organisation (Post, Preston, & Sachs, 2002). addition to values and concepts, I would add
Not every member of a stakeholder group is a ideology as a segmentation concept. However, I
member of the same public, however; and, as would integrate these concepts into the
Figure 2 illustrates, several different kinds of situational theory of publics because I believe
publics can be found within each stakeholder values, concepts, and ideologies influence the
category. These publics can range from activist problems people recognise and how they define
to active, passive, and non-publics. them.
As Phillips and Young (2009) have noted, it I believe that public relations researchers can
is important to segment stakeholders and segment stakeholders and publics using the
publics to understand their differing content of digital media as a database.
relationships with an organisation and to be Although I have not yet done so, I believe that
able to communicate with them about their content analytic techniques can be used with
problems and interests using the new media. I online materials to identify and code concepts
segment stakeholders by identifying the impact such as problems, constraints, and types of
of consequences or potential consequences of involvements, using the situational theory, as
management decisions on groups such as well as values, concepts, and ideologies. Once
employees, customers, or shareholders. I then identified, the problems recognised by these
further segment publics from these stakeholder publics can be communicated to management
groups using my situational theory of publics as it makes decisions; and the categories of
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Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
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publics derived from these concepts can be used
as formative research to plan communication Measuring relationships and reputation
programmes. The outcomes of the strategic public relations
process, as depicted in Figure 2, are
Anticipating and dealing with issues and crises relationships and reputation. Organisations that
The next two phases of Figure 2 relate to issues segment their stakeholders and publics,
and crises. Figure 2 also suggests that most anticipate and deal with issues and crises, and
issues result from the actions of publics (publics actively communicate with publics at all stages
make issues out of problems) and that most, but of the process, should be more likely to develop
not all, crises result from poor management relationships with their publics that make it
responses to issues. Thus, analysis of online possible to achieve organisational objectives,
media can continue beyond segmenting develop a positive reputation, and reduce the
stakeholders and publics to search for and consequences of poor relationships on the
categorise the issues publics might raise and the implementation of management decisions.
crises that might result from these issues. As with other phases of this process, I
believe it is possible to use cyberspace as a
Digital media such as websites and blogs database for measuring the type and quality of
also can be used for issues and crisis relationships developed with publics using the
communication programmes (Coombs, 2008). concepts of trust, mutuality of control,
General Motors, for example, used several satisfaction, and commitment developed by
blogs and web pages at the time of its 2009 Grunig and Huang (2000), Grunig (2002), and
bankruptcy crisis (Harris, 2009). Organisations Hon and Grunig (1999). Measuring
also are developing dark web sites that are relationships in this way would require a
ready to go when a crisis occurs, such as a
natural disaster or accident, that could be
anticipated in their industry or environment
(Coombs, 2007).
content analytic scheme that reflects the types and quality of relationships. In many
relationship concept. In addition to measuring cases, these measures can be applied directly to
relationships from online content directly, online content. In other cases, additional survey
additional survey research can be done to or experimental research will be required.
evaluate the outcomes of communication
programmes implemented through social media Conclusion
(Paine, 2007a). Finally, reputation could be In some ways, public relations has not been
measured using Bromley’s (1993) and Grunig changed by the revolution in digital media.
and Hung’s (2002) definition of reputation as Many public relations practitioners long have
what people think and say about you. This can had the illusion that they could choose their
be done by measuring themes that reflect the publics, control the messages received by their
most common behaviours and attributes of an publics, control the cognitive interpretations
organisation discussed in cyberspace. As publics form about organisations, and persuade
Phillips and Young (2009) have said, “your publics to change their attitudes and
reputation … will increasingly depend on what behaviours. In reality, however, our descriptive
comes up when you are Googled” (p. 157). theories have shown for many years that
publics create themselves and control the
Evaluation of communication programmes messages to which they are exposed. In
A number of analytical schemes have been addition, publics form their own cognitive
developed to evaluate the effects of digital representations and choose their own
media programmes (see Jeffries-Fox, 2004; behaviours. Using a normative prescriptive
Paine 2007a, 2007b; Phillips & Young, 2009). theory, my colleagues, students, and I have
These range from simple measures of hits on a long provided evidence that public relations has
website to measures of cognitions, attitudes, greater value both for organisations and society
and behaviours, as well as indicators of the when it is strategic, managerial, symmetrical,
15
Grunig, J. E. (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2):
http://praxis.massey.ac.nz/prism_on-line_journ.html
integrated but not sublimated, diverse, and
ethical—as captured by our generic global
principles. Public relations, when practiced
according to this global theory, helps
organisations to achieve their goals, cultivate
relationships in societies and globally, and
reduce conflict.
To reach this state as a profession, however,
public relations practitioners and scholars must
minimise the extent to which the symbolic,
interpretive paradigm of public relations affects
their thinking and institutionalise public
relations as a strategic management,
behavioural paradigm. The digital media
provide tools that facilitate this paradigm shift.
Thus, these media have the potential to truly
revolutionalise public relations—but only if a
paradigm shift in the thinking of many
practitioners and scholars takes place.