IT2011

STATISTICS
Statistics is a science that involves the efficient use of numerical data relating to groups of individuals. It is
related to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, including data collection design in the form of
surveys and experiments. As widely known, statistics is defined as the science of collecting, organizing,
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data to help in the process of making decisions efficiently.
Statistics has wide contributions in different fields like marketing, accounting, quality control, sports,
education, politics, medicines, and others that require analyses, interpretations, and decision making.

Branches of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics – describes the information collected through numerical measurements,
charts, graphs, and tables. The main purpose of descriptive statistics is to provide an overview of
the information gathered.
2. Inferential Statistics – uses methods that take results obtained from a sample, extend them to the
population, and measures the reliability of the results.

Population and Sample

A population usually refers to a large amount of data or the set of all possible values of the
variables where making a census or a complete enumeration of it would be impractical or impossible.
Hence, a sample that is a subset of the population is usually used. Samples are collected, and statistics
are calculated from the samples to make conclusions about the population.

Qualitative variables
Qualitative variables are often considered as the opposite of quantitative variables as it describes
certain types of information. For instance, qualitative variables provide items in a variety of qualities or
categories that may be ‘informal’ or even using features that are relatively obscure, such as warmth and
taste. Some examples of qualitative variables are; name, gender, address, religion, name of a school,
subject, and program.

Quantitative variables
A quantitative variable measures or identifies population or sample based on a numerical scale.
This type of variable can be analyzed using statistical methods; that is, the values obtained can be illustrated
using diagrams such as tables, graphs, and histograms. For example, a researcher will pose questions to
the respondents in the form of frequency, number, or percentage. The answers to these questions will be
in the form of numbers. Hence, researchers will then analyze the collected quantitative data to produce
relevant statistics.
Quantitative variables can be classified as either discrete or continuous. A discrete variable is a
variable that can assume finite, or, at most, countably infinite number of values, usually measured by
counting or enumeration. For example, the number of children in a family, the number of students in a class,
the maximum number of adults that can fit into a car, etc. typically, discrete variables results from counting.
A continuous variable is a variable that can assume infinitely many values corresponding to a line interval.
For example, time, temperature, weight, height, speed, etc. in other words, continuous variables result from
measuring something.

Levels of Measurements
The levels of measurement, also known as scales of measurement, refer to ways in which
variables/ quantities are defined or categorized. Each level of measurement has certain properties, which
in turn determines the appropriateness for the use of certain statistical analyses. There are four levels of
measurements: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
1. Nominal: This is a figurative labeling scheme in which the numbers serve only as labels or tags
for identifying and classifying objects. For example, the number assigned to the runner in a race
is nominal. Here each number is assigned to only one (1) runner, and the numbers are unique.
Another example is the Social Security Number. The numbers on a nominal scale do not reflect
the amount of the characteristic possessed by the object. For example, a person with a higher
SSN is not superior to those with lower value SSN. The only mathematical operation we can do is
counting on a nominal scale.

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2. Ordinal: An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers(ranks) are assigned to objects to
indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristics. It indicates the
relative position, but it doesn’t indicate the magnitude of the difference between the objects.
Along with counting, we can calculate percentile, quartile, median, rank-order correlation, or other
summary statistics from ordinal data.
3. Interval: In an interval scale, the scale represents an equal distance between the values in the
characteristic being measured. The most important point is that on an interval scale, the location
of the zero point is not fixed. The difference between any two scale values is identical to the
difference between any other two adjacent values.
4. Ratio: Ratio scale possesses all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval scale and, in
addition, an absolute zero point. Common examples of ratio scale are height, weight, distance,
and age. All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio scale

Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
There are two (2) sources of data, primary data, and secondary data. Primary data is the specific
information collected by the person who is doing the research. The researchers collect the data through
surveys, interviews, direct observations, and experiments. An example of primary data is the Census of
Population and Housing conducted by the Philippines Statistics Authority or market research projects
conducted by the private sector. Secondary data is any material that has been collected from published
records, such as newspapers, journals, research papers, and so on. Examples are details of imports and
exports that were compiled by the Philippines Statistics Authority and the Bureau of Customs for
declarations made by importers and exporters.

Method of Collecting Primary Data

1. Direct Personal Interviews. The researcher has direct contact with the interviewee. The
researcher gathers information by asking questions to the interviewee. It is suitable when there is
a need to collect in-depth information on people’s opinions, thoughts, experiences, and feelings. It
is also useful for topics related to issues that require complex questioning.
Advantages
• In-depth information can be collected.
• Non-response and response biased can be detected.
*Note: Response bias is a situation where a respondent gives an inaccurate or
false answer.
Non-response bias occurs when people are unwilling or unable to respond to a
survey due to factors that makes them differ greatly from people who respond.
• The samples can be controlled.
Disadvantages
• It is more time consuming
• It is expensive
• The interviewer may be biased.
2. Indirect/ Questionnaire Method. This method of data collection involves sourcing and accessing
existing data that were originally collected for the purpose of the study. It is useful when there is a
large number of respondents.
Key Design Principles of a Good Questionnaire
✓ Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
✓ Decide on the type of questionnaire
✓ Write the questions properly
✓ Order the questions appropriately
✓ Write an introductory letter or an introduction
✓ Write special instructions for interviewers or respondents
✓ Translate the questions if necessary
✓ Pretest the questionnaire

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Open-ended and Closed-ended Questionnaires

An open-ended questionnaire allows the respondents to answer in an open text format
such that they can answer based on their complete knowledge, feeling, and understanding.
This means that response to these questions is not limited to the set of options.
Advantages
• More detailed answers
• Could reveal additional insights
Disadvantages
• Difficult to encode, tabulate, and Analyze
• Low response rate
• Respondent has to be articulate
• Respondent could feel threatened
A closed-ended questionnaire is a type of questionnaire wherein the respondents are
asked to choose from a distinct set of pre-defined responses such as “yes” or “no” or among
a set of multiple-choice questions. It is usually used to gather quantitative data from
respondents.
Advantages
• Easy to encode and tabulate
• Easy to understand
• Enables inter-study Comparisons
• Saves time and money
• High response rate
Disadvantages
• Could frustrate respondents
• Potentially biased response sets
• Difficult or impossible to detect if the respondent truly understood the question
3. A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve people who share similar
characteristics or common interests. A facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set
of topics. It is slightly similar to the interview method, but it requires interactions and discussions
within the group rather than question and answer.
Advantages
• It is less costly compared to interviews.
• It takes lesser time.
Disadvantages
• Response bias is a problem in this case because a participant might be subjective
to what people will think about sharing a sincere opinion.
4. Group thinking does not clearly mirror individual opinions. An experiment is a method of collecting
data where there is a direct human intervention on the conditions that may affect the values of the
variable of interest. This method is a structured study where the researchers attempt to understand
the cause, effect, and processes involved in a particular process. This is usually controlled by the
researcher, who determines which subject is used, how they are grouped, and the treatment they
receive.
Advantages
• It is usually objective since the data recorded are results of the process.
• Non- response bias can be eliminated.
Disadvantages
• Incorrect data may be recorded due to human error.
• It is expensive
5. Observation is a method of collecting data on the phenomenon of interest by recording the
observations made about the phenomenon as it actually happens. It is mostly used in studies
related to behavioral science. It is usually systematically planned and subjected to checks and
controls.
Advantages
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• The data is objective.

• Data is not affected by past or future events.
Disadvantages
• The information is limited.
• It is expensive.

Secondary Data
Secondary data is data that has already been collected and is available from other sources. This data is
less costly and is easier to obtain than primary data. It may also be available if primary data cannot be
obtained for some reason.
Advantages of Secondary Data
• It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.
• It is time-saving
• It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher.
• It generates new insights from previous analyses of the primary data
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
• The accuracy of the data can be questionable.
• Data from secondary sources may not be appropriate to the needs of the user.
• Not all secondary data is readily available or inexpensive.

Sources of Secondary Data

1. Published report on newspaper and periodicals: Information from published reports on
newspapers and periodicals are usually very reliable. The authenticity of the data from these
sources depend majorly on the writer and the publishing company. Data from these sources are
usually more political, economic, and educational.
2. Financial data reported in annual reports: Annual report is an in-depth or comprehensive
overview of a business’ achievement and key metrics for a specific year. Financial reports are
mostly used for the company’s employees, costumer, suppliers, investors, and community at large.
This source of data can be used as a marketing tool. Investors and financial analysts rely on
financial data to analyze the performance of a company and make predictions about its future
direction. It is also used to evaluate the company’s financial health and earnings potential.
3. Records maintained by the institution: Institutional records are created to document anything
that is part of an institution. Information is managed to support the institution’s present and future
regulatory, legal, environmental, and operational requirements. Records provide evidence of
institutional activities and function. These include minutes, maps and plans, policy and briefing
papers, research, information in business systems, reports, letters, etc.
4. Internal reports of the government departments: Government reports are a very important and
authentic source of secondary data. These contain information useful in marketing, management,
humanities, and social sciences. Some of these include census data, health records, education
institute records, etc. These are collected to aid proper planning, allocation of funds, and prioritizing
of projects.

Consequences from Improperly Collected Data

✓ Inability to answer research questions accurately
✓ Inability to repeat and validate the study
✓ Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
✓ Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation
✓ Compromising decisions for public policy
✓ Causing harm to human participants and animal subjects

References:
Adhikari, S. (2018). Scales of measurements [Web log post]. Retrieved from
https://www.publichealthnotes.com/scales-of-measurement/
Adi Bhat. (2020). Data collection: Definition, methods, examples and design. Retrieved from Question Pro:
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-collection/
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Adi Bhat. (2020). Open-ended questions: Definition, characteristics, examples and advantages. Retrieved
from Question Pro: https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-are-open-ended-
questions/#Open_Ended_Questions_Definition
Formplus Blog. (2020). Primary vs. secondary data: 15 Key differences and similarities. Retrieved from:
https://www.formpl.us/blog/primary-secondary-data
Punzalan, J. (2018). Statistics and probability. Malaysia: Oxford Publishing.

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