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Fluid Mechanics - I 25

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Dimensionless Groups
➢Dimensional analysis can be used to identify
dimensionless groups (pi terms) governing a
system.
➢Some common dimensionless groups in fluid
mechanics are:
➢Reynolds number (Re)
➢Froude number (Fr)
➢Weber number (We)
➢Mach number (Ma)

Fluid Mechanics - I 27

Reynolds Number (Re)

3-Jan-18

➢The Reynolds number (Re = ρVL/μ) is the most common

dimensionless parameter used in fluid mechanics.
➢The L term is different for each flow type. For example,
➢ For a pipe, L is the diameter of the pipe.
➢ For open channel flow, L is the hydraulic radius, Rh.
➢Physically, Re represents the ratio of the inertial force to the
viscous force.
➢ A small Reynolds number implies that the viscous effects are important,
➢ A large Reynolds number implies that the inertial effects are dominant.
➢The Reynolds number is commonly used to characterize if a
flow in a pipe is laminar or turbulent.
➢ Flow is laminar when Re < 2,100,
➢ Flow is in transition when 2,100 < Re < 4,000
➢ Flow is turbulent when Re > 4,000.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 29

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Froude Number (Fr)
➢It appears in the study of open-channel flow, and is
given by Fr = V / (gL)0.5
➢V is the average velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration
and L is the characteristic length associated with the depth
(hydraulic depth for open channel flow).
➢ For rectangular cross sections, the hydraulic depth is the
water depth.
➢Physically, the Froude number represents the ratio
of inertial forces to gravitational forces.
➢Open-channel flow can be classified according to
the Froude number in the following manner:
➢ Fr < 1: subcritical (slow/tranquil) flow
➢ Fr = 1: critical flow
➢ Fr > 1: supercritical (rapid) flow

Fluid Mechanics - I 31

Mach Number (Ma):

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➢For high speed flows in some fluids, density is highly dependent on

the pressure, and the compressibility effects become important.
➢The Mach number is used to indicate if a flow is incompressible or
compressible, and it is given by: Ma = V/c
➢ where c is the speed of sound (343 m/s at 20oC) and V is the fluid velocity.
➢Physically the Mach number represents the ratio of inertia forces to
compressibility forces.
➢Flow can be characterized using the Mach number as follows:
➢ Ma ≤ 0.3: incompressible
➢ 0.3< Ma < 1.0: compressible subsonic flow
➢ Ma ≥ 1.0: compressible supersonic flow
➢The Mach number is also used to classify the top speed of
aircrafts.
➢Compressible flow is discussed in an advanced fluid mechanics
courses.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 33

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Weber Number (We)
➢It is associated with surface tension effects
and is defined as, We = ρV2L/σ
➢where σ is the surface tension.
➢Physically, the Weber number denotes the
ratio of the inertial forces to surface tension
forces.
➢The Weber number is an important parameter
when dealing with applications involving two
fluid interfaces such as the flow of thin films of
liquid and bubble formation.

Fluid Mechanics - I 34
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NON DIMENSIONALIZATION OF
EQUATIONS

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Fluid Mechanics - I 35

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Dimensional Homogeneity
➢Law of dimensional homogeneity (DH): every additive
term in an equation must have the same dimensions
➢Example: Bernoulli equation

➢ [p]= [force/area]=[mass x length/time x 1/length2] = [m/(t2L)]

➢ [1/2V2] = [mass/length3 x (length/time)2] = [m/(t2L)]
➢ [gz] = [mass/length3 x length/time2 x length] =[m/(t2L)]

Fluid Mechanics - I 36

Nondimensionalization of Equations
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➢Given the law of DH, if we divide each term in

the equation by a collection of variables and
constants that have the same dimensions, the
equation is rendered nondimensional
➢In the process of nondimensionalizing an
equation, nondimensional parameters often
appear, e.g., Reynolds number and Froude
number

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Fluid Mechanics - I 37

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Nondimensionalization of Equations
➢To nondimensionalize, for example, the Bernoulli
equation, the first step is to list primary
dimensions of all dimensional variables and
constants

[p] = [m/(t2L)], [] = [m/L3], [V] = [L/t], [g] = [L/t2] & [z] = [L]

➢Next,we need to select Scaling Parameters. For this

example, select L, U0, 0

Fluid Mechanics - I 38

Nondimensionalization of Equations
3-Jan-18

NOTE:
Only variables are ➢By inspection, nondimensionalize all variables
dimensionalized with scaling parameters
So if the flow was
incompressible then
density would be
treated as a constant
so WE WON'T
DIMENSIONALISE IT!!

➢Back-substitute p, , V, g, z into dimensional

equation

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Fluid Mechanics - I 39

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Nondimensionalization of Equations
➢Divide by 0U02 and set * = 1 (incompressible
flow)

➢We defined g* as g* = (gL)/Uo2 = 1/Fr2, Since

Fluid Mechanics - I 40

Nondimensionalization of Equations
3-Jan-18

➢Note that convention often dictates many of the

nondimensional parameters, e.g., 1/20U02 is typically
used to nondimensionalize pressure.

➢This results in a slightly different form of the

nondimensional equation

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Fluid Mechanics - I 41

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Nondimensionalization of Equations
➢Advantages of nondimensionalization
➢Increasesinsight about key parameters
➢Decreases number of parameters in the problem
>Easier communication
>Fewer experiments
>Fewer simulations
➢Extrapolation of results to untested conditions

Fluid Mechanics - I 42

Problem
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➢Nondimensionalize the NS Equation

 u 
  u  u    p    (   u)  S M
 t 
➢The terms can be adimensionalized as.
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝒖 𝑝 𝑡
𝑥 ∗ = , 𝑦 ∗ = , 𝑧 ∗ = , 𝒖∗ = , 𝑝 ∗ = and 𝑡 ∗ = ,
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝑉 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿Τ𝑉

➢This results in:

u*
t
 
 u*   u*   p* 
1 2 *
Re
 u

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Fluid Mechanics - I 43

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SIMILITUDE

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Similitude - Introduction
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➢Nondimensionalization of an equation is useful

only when the equation is known!
➢In many real-world flows, the equations are either
unknown or too difficult to solve.
➢Experimentation is the only method of obtaining reliable
information
➢In most experiments, geometrically-scaled models are
used (time and money).
➢Experimental conditions and results must be properly
scaled so that results are meaningful for the full-scale
prototype.
➢Dimensional Analysis

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Fluid Mechanics - I 45

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Dimensional Analysis & Similitude
➢In Dimensional Analysis, methods to identify
dimensionless parameters governing a
particular model were presented.
➢Primary purposes of dimensional analysis
➢To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the
design of experiments (physical and/or numerical) and
in reporting of results
➢To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance
can be predicted from model performance.
➢To predict trends in the relationship between
parameters.

Fluid Mechanics - I

Dimensional Analysis & Similitude

➢We now focus on how to relate a model to an
actual prototype (i.e., the real full scale
structure).
➢In fluid mechanics, models are often used for
testing purposes in labs before a full scale
prototype is built.
➢We need to find out under what conditions will
testing or experiments be done on a model to
accurately represent or predict the actual
phenomena.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 47

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Dimensional Analysis & Similitude
➢Models can be either
➢ smaller than the prototype (e.g., design of dam, airplane and
automobiles)
➢ larger than the prototype (e.g., study of interaction between
red blood cells and the vessel wall).
➢Example.
➢ In aircraft industry it is a common to design and develop an
aircraft by testing the model in a wind tunnel.
➢ This way, the expenses of product development will be
reduced considerably compared to conducting the design and
development process on a full scale aircraft.
➢So, under what conditions will the model accurately
portray the actual full scale prototype ?
➢ In order to yield useful information from the model being
tested, the model and prototype should fulfill the requirement
of geometric, kinematic and dynamic similitude.

Fluid Mechanics - I

Dimensional Analysis & Similitude

➢Geometric Similarity
➢It concerned with proportions of shapes.

➢Kinematic Similarity
➢It concerned with proportions of velocities and
accelerations.

➢Dynamic Similarity
➢It concerned with proportions of forces.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 49

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Geometric Similitude
➢The first requirement is for the model and
prototype to be geometrically similar.
➢The model and prototype should have the
same shape, and their dimensions should be
scaled proportionally.
➢In addition, their orientation and surface
roughness should also have the same scale.

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Kinematic Similitude
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➢In order to satisfy this condition, the flow

conditions should be the same.
➢The velocities and accelerations at
corresponding points should have the same
directions and scaled magnitudes.
➢Note: Model and prototype that are
cinematically similar are also geometrically
similar.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 51

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Dynamic Similitude
➢In order to achieve dynamic similitude, all
forces (e.g., pressure, shear, viscous, and
surface tension forces) at corresponding
points of the model and prototype should have
the same directions and scaled magnitudes.
➢Model and prototype that are dynamically
similar are both geometrically and
kinematically similar.

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Similitude Example
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➢Consider flow past a sphere. A prototype and

model satisfying geometric similitude are:

➢The diameters of the spheres are proportional.

➢Based on dimensional analysis, the drag force
(D) is, D/(d2ρV2) = function (Re)

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Fluid Mechanics - I 53

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Similitude Example
➢For kinematic similitude, the velocity and
acceleration should be the same at corresponding
points for model and prototype.

➢For dynamics similitude the Reynolds number and

dimensionless drag for the model and prototype
should be the same:
➢ Rem = Rep and
➢ Dm/(dm2 ρmVm2) = Dp/(dp2 ρpVp2)

Fluid Mechanics - I 54

Similitude Example
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➢For a better illustration consider fluid flow in a

circular pipe.

➢From dimensional analysis we know that:

Δp/ρV2 = function(l/D, ε/D, μ/ρDV)
➢Here we have two linear dimensions, l and D.
➢The ratio between them ‘l/D’ must be same for
both the model and the prototype in-order for
us to have geometric similarity.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 55

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Similitude Example
➢In order to have dynamic similitude, Reynolds
number and Δp/ρV2 for the model and prototype
should be same.
➢Thus for the model and prototype to fulfill the
requirement of similitude, all the corresponding
pi terms should be equal.

Fluid Mechanics - I 56

Incomplete Similarity
3-Jan-18

➢ Flows with free surfaces present Wanapum Dam on Columbia River

unique challenges in achieving
complete dynamic similarity.
➢ For hydraulics applications, depth is
very small in comparison to
horizontal dimensions. If geometric
similarity is used, the model depth
would be so small that other issues
would arise
➢ Surface tension effects (Weber Physical Model at Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research
number) would become important.
➢ Data collection becomes difficult.
➢ Distorted models are therefore
employed, which requires empirical
corrections and/or correlations to
extrapolate model data to full scale.

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Fluid Mechanics - I 57

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Incomplete Similarity
➢For ship hydrodynamics, Fr DDG-51 Destroyer

similarity is maintained while

Re is allowed to be different.
➢Why? Look at complete
similarity:

1/20th scale model

➢To match both Re and Fr,

viscosity in the model test is a
function of scale ratio! This is
not feasible.

Fluid Mechanics - I 58
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