The Libyan Academy

School of Applied Science & Engineering

Architecture & Civil Engineering Department
Structure Division

Concrete Mix Design & Admixtures

Prepared by:

MD. SHAHNEWAZ SARKAR (21560013)

MD. SHAIZUDDIN SARKAR (21560011)

Supervised by:

DR. ELSADEG A. ABDALLA

FALL - 2015
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Concrete Mix Design
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Fundamentals of Mix Design ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 W/C Ratio..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Cement Content .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Major Aggregate Properties ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Selection of Concrete Constituents ................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Main Considerations.................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Laboratory Testing of Concrete ................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.3 Field Testing of Concrete ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Methods of Concrete Mix Design ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Trial Method ................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4.2 Absolute Volume Method ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.3 ACI (American Concrete Institute) Method ................................................................................................. 5
1.4.4 British Method ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.4.5 Problems ...................................................................................................................................................... 9

2.0 Admixtures
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Reasons for Using Admixtures .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Important Admixtures ...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Plasticizers (Water Reducers) .................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers) ....................................................................................... 12
2.2.3 Retarders ................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.4 Accelerators ............................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.5 Air-entraining Admixture ........................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.6 Damp-proofing & Waterproofing Admixture ............................................................................................ 15
2.2.7 Damp-proofing & Waterproofing Admixture ............................................................................................ 16
2.3 Mineral additives .............................................................................................................................................. 16
2.4 Why Mineral Additives? ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Types of Mineral Additives ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.5.1 Fly Ash........................................................................................................................................................ 17
2.5.2 Silica Fume ................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.5.3 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) ......................................................................................... 19

REFRENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21

APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
 Chapter 1 Concrete Mix Design

1.1 Introduction
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, coarse and
fine aggregates and admixtures (if required). The
concrete must be workable and cohesive when
plastic, then set and harden to give strong and
durable concrete.
Concrete mix design is the process of selecting
suitable ingredients of concrete and determining
their relative quantities with the purpose of
producing an economical concrete, which has
certain minimum properties; notably workability,
strength and durability.
The mix design must consider the environment
that the concrete will be in, i.e. exposure to sea
water, trucks, cars, forklifts, foot traffic or
extremes of hot and cold.
The proportions of each material in the mixture affect properties of the final hardened concrete.
These proportions are best measured by weight. Measurement by volume is not as accurate, but is
suitable for minor projects.

1.2 Fundamentals of Mix Design

1.2.1 W/C Ratio
Water/cement ratio is the most important
factor influencing various kinds of concrete
properties. As the Water/cement ratio
increases, the strength and durability of
hardened concrete decreases. To increase the
strength and durability of concrete, decrease
the water/cement ratio. Always use as little
water as possible, only enough to make the mix
workable.

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 1.2.2 Cement Content
At a given w/c ratio, increasing the cement content will
increase workability and durability. Therefore, to
increase strength increase the cement content of a mix.
However, the cost and hydration heat will also be
increased. To solve such a problem, part of the cement
can be replaced with fly ash or slag.
1.2.3 Major Aggregate Properties
a) Maximum aggregate size:
The maximum aggregate size influences the paste requirement and optimum grading. The larger
the maximum size, the lower the paste requirement to achieve a given workability. However,
the larger the maximum aggregate size, the lower the strength.
The following considerations should be taken into account when choosing maximum aggregate
size: (i). For reinforced concrete, the maximum size should not exceed one-fifth of the minimum
dimension, or three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing between bars. (ii) For slabs on grade,
the maximum size may not exceed one-third the slab depth.
b) Aggregate grading
The grading of aggregate is important to concrete because a good grading will decrease the
cement content and void in concrete and thus produce economical and better concrete. For
practical purpose it is adequate to follow grading limits specified by various organizations (e.g.
British Standards, ASTM), which are not only broad and therefore economically feasible, but are
also based on practical experience.

1.3 Selection of Concrete Constituents

1.3.1 Main Considerations
All concrete constituents must satisfy the specification requirements. The engineer must select the
most suitable method of mix design based on the following considerations:

 The required mean strength of concrete.

 The upper limit of W/C ratio and lower limit of cement content.
 Conditions and available facilities for concrete production.
 Construction level and uses of structure.
 Superplasticizers can be used to satisfy the required degree of workability.

1.3.2 Laboratory Testing of Concrete

After the process of mix design, mixes are produced with the same ratios of ingredients; but on a
small scale, and tested to check the workability, density and compressive strength of concrete.

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 1.3.3 Field Testing of Concrete
The concrete mix is produced in the field, three times, with the same materials and size of batch
and under the same conditions. Workability of these mixes is measured and about 6 cubes are
prepared, cured and tested at 7 and 28 days ages.

1.4 Methods of Concrete Mix Design

1.4.1 Trial Method
In this method, the fine and coarse aggregates are gradually added to known weights of cement and
water till obtaining a homogenous mix satisfying a specific consistency. The W/C ratio is selected,
by experience or from tables, based on the compressive strength required.
The method requires known weights of fine and coarse aggregates in saturated surface dry
condition.
Procedure
 Prepare about 2.5 kg cement (5% of the weight of cement sack) and corresponding amount
of water.
 Mix the cement prepared with the water to make a cement paste.
 Add the fine and coarse aggregates to the cement paste gradually in amounts dictated by
judgement, with intermittent mixing, until the batch is brought to the desired consistency.
 Perform the slump test to check the consistency.
 Weigh the remaining aggregates, then determine the quantities of fine and coarse
aggregates used in the mix.
 Calculate the mix proportions required for 1 m3 by weight and by volume.

Example 1:

Suppose that the following quantities satisfied the required properties of the concrete mix.
Trial mix constituents
Mix costituents Cement Fine Agg. Coarse Agg. Water
By weight (kg) 2.5 5.0 8.0 1.45
By ratio 1 2.0 3.2 0.58
 Calculate volume of the trial mix
 Calculate multiplying factor for 1 m3
 Calculate mix constitutents required for 1 m3
If: ρc = Specific weight of cement 3.15
ρs = Specific weight of sand 2.65
ρg = Specific weight of gravel 2.65
ρw = Specific weight of water 1.00

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 Solution:
2.5 5 8 1.45
Volume of trial mix = 3.15 x 1000 + + + = 0.00715 𝑚3
2.65 x 1000 2.65 x 1000 1000

1
Multiplying factor for 1 m3 = 0.00715 = 140

If Unit weight of fine and coarse aggregates = 1700 kg/ m3

Then, mix constituents required for 1 m3
Mix costituents Cement Fine Agg. Coarse Agg. Water
By weight (kg) 350 700 1120 203
350/50 700/1700 1120/1700 203 Liter
By volume
= 7 sacks =0.41 m3 =0.66 m3

1.4.2 Absolute Volume Method

This method depends on the fact that volume of compacted fresh concrete is equal to the absolute
volume of its constituents.
𝐶 𝑆 𝐺 𝑊
+ + + = 1000 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 𝑚3
ρ𝑐 ρ𝑠 ρ𝑔 ρ𝑤
Where:
C = Weight of cement in kg S = Weight of sand in kg
G = Weight of gravel in kg W = Weight of water in kg

Example 2:
It is required to design a concrete mix with the following properties:
- Consistency is plastic
- Compressive strength at 28 days = 28 MPa
3"
- % of aggregate passing through 16 sieve = 40%

Find materials required for 100 m3 concrete.

Solution:
 Cement content
From practical experience weight of cement required for 1 m3 = fcu (kg/cm2) + 50 to 100 kg
Where: fcu is the compressive strength at 28 days age
Note: fcu (kg/cm2) = fcu (MPa) x 10
Then, weight of cement = 280 + 70 = 350 kg/m3

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  Water content
For plastic consistency W/C ratio = 0.45 – 0.55
Take W/C ratio = 0.50, then:
Water content = 0.50 x 350 = 175 kg/m3

 % of Fine and Coarse aggregates in the mix

3"
The aggregate pass through 16 sieve is fine aggregate, then:
- % of fine aggregate in the combined mix = 40% and
- % of coarse aggregate in the combined mix = 60%
Thus, weight of coarse agg. = 60/40 = 1.5 weight of fine agg.

 Apply absolute volume method

350 𝑆 1.5𝑆 175
+ + + = 1000
3.15 2.65 2.65 1

Then, S = 757 kg/m3 and G = 1.5 x 757 = 1136 kg/m3

 Mix constituents required for 1 m3 concrete

Mix constituents Cement Fine agg. Coarse agg. Water

By weight (kg) 350 757 1136 175
By ratio 1 2.16 3.25 0.5
By volume 7 sacks 0.45 m3 0.67 m3 175 L

 Materials required for 100 m3 concrete

Mix constituents Cement Fine agg. Coarse agg. Water

By weight (ton) 35 75.7 113.6 17.5
By volume (m3) 700 sacks 45 67 17.5

1.4.3 ACI (American Concrete Institute) Method

This method depends primarily on the use of previous results taken from experimental tests. These
results are available in form of tables.

Procedure
1. From Table (A1.3) determine the slump value, which corresponds the type of construction.
2. Determine the NMZ of coarse aggregate as follows:
NMZ = The smallest of:
1/5 minimum dimension of the cross-section
5 mm less than concrete cover
¾ minimum clear spacing between reinforcing bars

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 3. From Table (A1.5) determine the quantity of water required in kg/m3 of concrete and air content
based on the slump value and NMZ of coarse aggregate.
4. Table (A1.2) gives the relation between compressive strength and W/C ratio for both air-
entrained and non air-entrained concrete.
For Severe conditions of exposure (see Table A1.6), the W/C ratio should be kept low even
though strength requirements may be met with a higher value.
5. Use the W/C ratio determined in the previous step to calculate the required cement content. If
the specifications specify minimum limit on cement content, the mixture must be based on
whichever criterion leads to the larger amount of cement.
6. From Table (A1.4) determine the volume of dry coarse aggregate based on NMZ and fineness
modulus of fine aggregate. By knowing the unit weight of coarse aggregate, calculate its weight.
7. Table (A1.7) gives the relation between NMZ and unit weight (kg/m3) of air-entrained and non
air-entrained concrete. Then calculate the weight of fine aggregate.

Example 3:
Design a concrete mix suitable for the following conditions:

- The concrete is used in R.C. foundations

- Compressive strength at 28 days = 28 MPa
- NMZ = 25 mm
- Minimum cement content = 350 kg/m3
- Non air-entrained concrete
- Fineness modulus of fine aggregate = 2.4
- Moisture content and absorption of coarse aggregate = 4% and 1%, respectively
- Moisture content and absorption of fine aggregate = 5% and 0.5%, respectively

Solution:

 Slump = 25 - 75 mm
 NMZ = 25 mm
 Water content = 179 kg/m3, entrapped air = 1.5%
 W/C ratio
30−25 30−28
= 𝑊⁄𝐶−0.54
0.61−0.54
2×0.07
𝑊 ⁄𝐶 = 0.54 + 5
𝑊 ⁄𝐶 = 0.57

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 Cement content = 179/0.57 = 314 kg/m3 < minimum
Recommended value, then:
Cement content = 350 kg/m3, and
Water content = 0.57 × 350 = 200 kg/m3
 Volume of coarse aggregate required for 1m3 = 0.71 m3
Weight of coarse aggregate = 0.71×1700 = 1207 kg/m3
 Mass of fresh aggregate = 2380 kg/m3
Weight of fine aggregate = 2380 – (350 + 200 + 1207) = 623 kg/m3
 Effect of moisture content and absorption of aggregates
𝑚.𝑐−𝑎𝑏𝑠.
Weight of agg. = 𝑊𝑎𝑔𝑔 × (1 + )
100
4−1
Weight of coarse agg. = 1207 × (1 + 100 ) = 1243 𝑘𝑔
5−0.5
Weight of fine agg. = 623 × (1 + ) = 651 𝑘𝑔
100
𝑚.𝑐−𝑎𝑏𝑠. 𝑚.𝑐−𝑎𝑏𝑠.
Weight of water = 𝑊𝑤 − ( × 𝑊𝐺 ) − ( × 𝑊𝑆 )
100 100
4−1 5−0.5
= 200 − ( 100 × 1207) − ( × 623) = 135.76 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
100

 Mix constituents required for 1 m3 concrete

Mix constituents Cement Fine agg. Coarse agg. Water
By weight (kg) 350 651 1243 135.76
By ratio 1 1.86 3.55 0.387
By volume 7 sacks 0.383 m3 0.73 m3 135.76

1.4.4 British Method

Characteristic Strength of Concrete (𝑓𝑐𝑢 )
𝑓𝑐𝑢 is the compressive strength of standard concrete cubes, 150×150×150 mm dimensions, at 28
days age.

Safety Margin (M)

M=K.S

Where:
K = 1.64
S = Standard deviation of compressive strength test results of previous concrete mixes
produced with the same materials and under the same conditions. If these data are
not available, the value of M is taken from the following table.

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 Statistical data M
available from
previous tests 𝑓𝑐𝑢 < 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ 𝑓𝑐𝑢 ≤ 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ 𝑓𝑐𝑢 ≤ 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎
≥ 40 results are
1.64 𝑆 ≥ 4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 1.64 𝑆 ≥ 6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 1.64 𝑆 ≥ 7.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
available
≥ 40 results are
≥ 0.60 𝑓𝑐𝑢 ≥ 12 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≥ 15 𝑀𝑃𝑎
not available
One test result is the average of three standard cubes.

Mean Strength of Concrete (𝑓𝑚 )

𝑓𝑚 is the value of concrete compressive strength, which is taken into consideration during the mix
design phase.

𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐𝑢 + 𝑀

Procedure

1. From Table (B2) determine the approximate compressive strength of concrete mix made with a
free W/C ratio of 0.50
2. In Fig. (B1) determine the point of intersection between the approximate value of compressive
strength and W/C ratio of 0.50, then draw a new curve parallel to the nearest one. From the
new curve, determine the W/C ratio required to satisfy the mean compressive strength.
3. From Table (B - 3), determine the approximate value of water content based on NMZ, type of
coarse aggregate and slump value. Then, calculate cement content.
4. From Fig. (B - 2), determine the wet density of concrete based on the free water content and
type of coarse aggregate used. Then, calculate the total weight of aggregate used in the mix.
5. From Fig. (B - 3), determine the fine aggregate as a percentage of total aggregate by knowing
W/C ratio, slump value and % of fine aggregate passing through 600 𝜇𝑚 sieve. Then, calculate
the weights of coarse and fine aggregates.

Example 4:

Design a concrete mix suitable for the following conditions:

- Compressive strength at 28 days = 28 MPa

- Slump = 30 - 60 mm
- NMZ = 20 mm
- Coarse aggregate is uncrushed
- Cement type is rapid hardening cement
- Minimum cement content = 350 kg/m3
- % of fine aggregate passing through 600 𝜇𝑚 sieve is 60%

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 Solution:

 𝑓𝑚 = 28 + 12 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
 𝑓𝑐 corresponding to 0.5 W/C ratio = 48 MPa
 W/C ratio corresponding to 𝑓𝑚 = 0.565
Water content = 180 kg/m3
Cement content = 180/0.565 = 319 kg/m3 < minimum
Recommended value, then:
Cement content = 350 kg/m3, and
Water content = 0.565 × 350 = 198 kg/m3
 Wet density of concrete = 2350 kg/m3
Total weight of aggregate = 2350 – (350 + 198)
= 1820 kg/m3
 % of fine aggregate = 34 % of the total aggregate
Fine aggregate content = 0.34 × 1802 = 613 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate content = 0.66 × 1802 = 1189 kg/m3

 Mix constituents required for 1 m3 concrete

Mix constit. Cement Fine agg. Coarse agg. Water

By weight (kg) 350 613 1189 198
By ratio 1 1.75 3.40 0.565
By volume 7 sacks 0.36 m3 0.70 m3 198

1.4.5 Problems
Solve the problems using the following data:

Specific weight of cement 3.15

Specific weight of water 1.00
Specific weight of fine and coarse aggregate 2.65
Unit weight of fine and coarse aggregates 1700 kg/m3

Problem 1

It is required to design a concrete mix with the following properties:

- The slump is wet
- The compressive strength at 28 days = 24 MPa
- The percentage combination of sand to gravel is 33 : 67 % by weight

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 Problem 2

Calculate the quantities of materials (by weight and by volume) required to make 300 m 3 of fresh
concrete satisfying the following requirements:
- Weight of concrete = 2350 kg/m3
- Cement content = 300 kg/m3 of concrete
- Water content = 25 lit/sack of cement
- Sand ratio = 40% of the total weight of combined aggregate

Problem 3

Calculate the proportions of materials required for a concrete mix with the following conditions:
- NMZ = 20 mm
- Cement content = 350 kg/m3
- W/C ratio = 0.40
- Grading of combined aggregate is:
Sieve Opening (mm) 40 20 10 5 2.5 1.25 0.6 0.3 0.15
% Passing 100 95 55 25 18 10 5 3 0
Also, determine the quantities of materials required to make 1000 m3 concrete by weight & by volume.

Problem 4

Use the ACI method to design a concrete mix. Consider the following:
- The construction is caisson
- Mechanical vibrators are used
- NMZ = 37.5 mm
- Air-entrained concrete
- The exposure is moderate
- Compressive strength at 28 days = 35 MPa
- Fineness modulus of sand = 2.6
- Moisture content and absorption of coarse aggregate = 5% and 2%, respectively
- Moisture content and absorption of fine aggregate = 6% and 1.5%, respectively

Problem 5

Based on the following requirements, use the British method to design a concrete mix.
- Compressive strength at 28 days = 40 MPa
- Type of cement is ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
- Slump = 10 – 30 mm
- NMZ = 20 mm
- Coarse aggregate is crushed
- % of fine aggregate passing through 600 µm sieve = 70%

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 Chapter 2 Admixtures

2.1 Introduction
Admixture is defined as a material, other than cement, water and aggregates, that is used as an
ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch immediately before or during mixing. Additive is a
material which is added at the time of grinding cement clinker at the cement factory.

Admixtures have been used successfully world-wide since the early 1930s. Admixtures are generally
water based liquids, but can also be powders. By the definition adopted in Europe, the dosage is not
more than 5% by weight of cement. Admixtures may modify the properties of either fresh, plastic
or hardened concrete.

2.2 Reasons for Using Admixtures

The major reasons for using admixtures are:
 To reduce the cost of concrete construction.
 To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means.
 To maintain the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing, and
curing in adverse weather conditions.
 To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations.

2.2 Important Admixtures

The most important types of admixtures are:
 Plasticizers
 Superplasticizers
 Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers
 Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers
 Air-entraining Admixtures
 Damp-proffing and Waterproofing Admixtures
 Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures

2.2.1 Plasticizers (Water Reducers)

The organic substances or combinations of organic and inorganic substances, which allow a
reduction in water content for the given workability, or give a higher workability at the same water
content, are termed as plasticizing admixtures. The advantages are considerable in both cases: in
the former, concretes are stronger, and in the latter they are more workable.

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 The basic products constituting plasticizers are as follows:
i. Anionic surfactants such as lignosulphonates and their modifications and derivatives, salts
of sulphonates hydrocarbons.
ii. Non ionic surfactants, such as polyglycol esters, acid of hydroxylated carboxylic acids and
their modifications and derivatives.
iii. Other products, such as carbohydrates etc.

Amount Used
Plasticizers are used in the amount of 0.1% to 0.4% by weight of cement.

Limitations
A good plasticizer is one which does not cause air-entrainment in concrete more than 1 or 2%.
Results
 At constant workability –
The reduction in mixing water is expected to be of the order of 5% to 15%.
Naturally increases the strength.
 At constant w/c ratio –
Increased workability.
Slump of 30mm to 150 mm.
Uses
 Thin walls of water retaining structures with high percentage of steel reinforcement
 Deep beams, column and beam junctions
 Tremie concreting
 Pumping of concrete
 Hot weather concreting
 Concrete to be conveyed for considerable distance and in ready mixed concrete industries.
constant

2.2.2 Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers)

Superplasticizers constitute a relatively new category and improved version of plasticizer, the use
of which was developed in Japan and Germany during 1960 and 1970 respectively. They are
chemically different from normal plasticizers. Use of superplasticizers permit the reduction of water
to the extent up to 30 per cent without reducing workability in contrast to the possible reduction
up to 15 per cent in case of plasticizers.
Classification of Superplasticizers
Following are a few polymers which are commonly used as base for superplasticizers:
 Sulphonated malanie-formaldehyde condensates (SMF)
 Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
 Modified lignosulphonates (MLS)
 Other types

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 Amount Used
Based on various types of superplasticizers different amount is used:
 Lignosulphonates – not more than 0.25%
 Carboxylic acids – 0.1%
 Sulphonated malanie-formaldehyde condensates (SMF) – 0.5 to 3%
 Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF) – 0.5 to 3%
Results
 Permits reduction of water content about 30% without reducing the workability
 It is possible to use w/c ratio as low as 0.25 or even lower and yet to make flowing concrete
to obtain strength of order 120 MPa or more.
Uses
 Production of flowing, self levelling, self-compacting concrete
 Production of high strength and high performance concrete.
2.2.3 Retarders
A retarder is an admixture that slows down the chemical process of hydration so that concrete
remains plastic and workable for a longer time than concrete without the retarder. Retarders are
used to overcome the accelerating effect of high temperature on setting properties of concrete in
hot weather concreting. It is very useful when concrete has to be place in very difficult conditions
and delay may occur in transporting and placing.
Gypsum and Calcium Sulphate are well known retarders. Other examples are: starches, cellulose
products, sugars, acids or salts of acids.
Amount Used & Effects
These days admixtures are manufactured to combine set retarding and water reducing properties.
Both the setting time and the rate of strength build up are affected by these materials. This is shown
in the following table.

Limitations
 Retarders should be used in proper amount. Access amount will cause indefinite setting time.
 At normal temperatures addition of sugar 0.05 to 0.10 per cent have little effect on the rate
of hydration, but if the quantity is increased to 0.2 percent, hydration can be retarded to
such an extent that final set may not take place for 72 hours or more.

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 Uses
 Casting and consolidating large number of pours without the formation of cold joints.
 Grouting oil wells, where temperature is about 200 °C, at a depth of 6000 meters.

2.2.4 Accelerators
Accelerating admixtures are added to concrete to increase the rate of early strength development.

Why accelerators?
 Permit earlier removal of formwork
 Reduce the required period of curing
 Advance the time that a structure can be placed in service
 Partially compensate for the retarding effect of low temperature during cold weather
concreting
 In the emergency repair work.

Commonly used materials as an accelerator

 Calcium chloride (Not used now)
 Some of the soluble carbonates
 Silicates fluosilicates (Expensive)
 Some of the organic compounds such as triethenolamine (Expensive)

Benefits of Accelerators
 Accelerators are so powerful that it is possible to make the cement set into stone hard in a
matter of five minutes are less.
 With the availability of such powerful accelerator, the underwater concreting has become
easy.
 Similarly, the repair work that would be carried out to the waterfront structures in the region
of tidal variations has become easy.
 The use of such powerful accelerators have facilitated, the basement waterproofing
operations.
2.2.5 Air-entraining Admixture
Perhaps one of the important advancements made in concrete technology was the discovery of air
entrained concrete. Since 1930 there has been an ever increasing use of air entrained concrete all
over the world especially, in the United States and Canada. Due to the recognition of the merits of
air entrained concrete, about 85% of concrete manufactured in America contains one or the other
type of air entraining agent.
Air entrained concrete is made by mixing a small quantity of air entraining agent or by using air
entraining cement. Entrained air is intentionally incorporated, minute spherical bubbles of size
ranging from 5 microns to 80 microns distributed evenly in the entire mass of concrete. These air
entraining agent incorporated millions of non-coalescing air bubbles, which will act as flexible ball
bearings and will modify the properties of plastic concrete regarding workability, segregation,

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 bleeding and finishing quality of concrete. It also modifies the properties of hardened concrete
regarding its resistance to frost action and permeability.
Air Entraining Agents
The following types of air entraining agents are used for making air entrained concrete.
 Natural wood resins
 Animal and vegetable fats and oils, such as tallow, olive oil and their fatty acids such as
stearic and oleic acids.
 Various wetting agents such as alkali salts or sulphated and sulphonated organic compounds.
 Water soluble soaps of resin acids, and animal and vegetable fatty acids.
 Miscellaneous materials such as the sodium salts of petroleum sulphonic acids, hydrogen
peroxide and aluminium powder, etc.

Effect of Air Entrainment on the Properties of Concrete

 Increased resistance to freezing and thawing.
 Improvement in workability.
 Reduction in strength.
 Reduces the tendencies of segregation.
 Reduces the bleeding and laitance.
 Decreases the permeability.
 Increases the resistance to chemical attack.
 Permits reduction in sand content.
 Improves place ability, and early finishing.
 Reduces the cement content, cost, and heat of hydration.
 Reduces the unit weight.
 Permits reduction in water content.
 Reduces the alkali-aggregate reaction.
 Reduces the modulus of elasticity.

2.2.6 Damp-proofing & Waterproofing Admixture

In practice one of the most important requirements of concrete is that it must be impervious to
water under two conditions: Firstly, when subjected to pressure of water on one side. Secondly, to
the absorption of surface water by capillary action.
Waterproofing admixtures are available in powder, paste or liquid form and may consist of pore
filling or water repellent materials. Chemically active pore filling materials: silicate of soda,
aluminium/zinc sulphates and aluminium/calcium chloride. Chemically inactive filling material:
chalk, fullers earth and talc.

Amount Used
Depends upon various damp-proofing and water proofing admixtures.

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 Limitations
 Use of admixture should in no case be considered as a substitute for bad materials, bad
design or workmanship.
 In no case can an admixture be expected to compensate for cracks or large voids in concrete
causing permeability.

Results
 Chemically active pore fillers accelerate the setting of concrete and thus render the concrete
more impervious at early age.
 Chemically inactive pore fillers improve the workability and to facilitate the reduction of
water for given workability and to make dense concrete which is basically impervious.
 Water repelling materials like soda, potash soaps, calcium soaps, waxes, fats, vegetable oils
repel water and make the concrete impervious
2.2.7 Damp-proofing & Waterproofing Admixture
Certain materials may either be ground into the cement or added as admixtures to impart fungicidal,
germicidal or insecticidal properties to hardened cement pastes, mortars or concretes. Such
materials are:
 Polyhalogenated phenols
 Dieldren emulsion
 Copper compounds

2.3 Mineral additives

Mineral additives are also known as POZZOLANIC materials. Pozzolanic materials are siliceous or
siliceous-aluminous materials, which in themselves possesses little or no cementitious value. They
are in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide
liberated on hydration, at ordinary temperature, to form compounds, possessing cementitious
properties.

2.4 Why Mineral Additives?

Best pozzolans in optimum proportions mixed with Portland cement improves many qualities of
concrete, such as:
 Lower the heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage;
 Increase the water tightness;
 Reduce the alkali-aggregate reaction;
 Improve resistance to attack by sulphate soils and sea water;
 Improve extensibility;
 Lower susceptibility to dissolution and leaching;
 Improve workability;
 Lower costs.

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 2.5 Types of Mineral Additives
Pozzolanic materials can be divided into two groups: natural pozzolans and artificial pozzolans.
Natural Pozzolans
 Clay and Shales
 Opalinc Cherts
 Diatomaceous Earth
 Volcanic Tuffs and Pumicites
Artificial Pozzolans
 Fly Ash
 Silica Fume
 Blast Furnace Slag
 Rice Husk Ash
 Metakaoline
 Surkhi

2.5.1 Fly Ash

Fly ash is finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of powdered coal and transported by
the flue gases and collected by electrostatic precipitator. Fly ash is the most widely used pozzolanic
material all over the world.
ASTM broadly classify fly ash into two classes:
Class F : Fly ash normally produced by burning anthracite or bituminous coal, usually has less than
5% CaO. Class F fly ash has pozzolanic properties only.
Class C : Fly ash normally produced by burning lignite or sub-bituminous coal. Some class C fly ash
may have CaO content in excess of 10%. In addition to pozzolanic properties, class C fly ash also
possesses cementitious properties.
Amount Used
Up to 35% by mass of cement & minimum shall
not be less than 15%.
Results
 Reduction of water demand for desired
slump. With the reduction of unit water
content, bleeding and drying shrinkage
will also be reduced.
 Fly ash is not highly reactive, the heat of
hydration can be reduced through
replacement of part of the cement with
fly ash.

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 Effects of Fly Ash on Hardened Concrete
 Contributes to the strength of concrete due to its pozzolanic reactivity.
 Continued pozzolanic reactivity concrete develops greater strength at later age not at initial
stage.
 Contributes to making the texture of concrete dense, resulting in decrease of water
permeability and gas permeability.
Uses
 Many high-rise buildings
 Industrial structures
 Water front structures
 Concrete roads
 Roller compacted concrete dams.

2.5.2 Silica Fume

Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, is another material that is used
as an artificial pozzolanic admixture. It is a product resulting from reduction of high purity quartz
with coal in an electric arc furnace in the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy.
Some details about silica fume or microsilica:
 Micro silica is initially produced as an ultrafine undensified powder
 At least 85% SiO2 content
 Mean particle size between 0.1 and 0.2 micron
 Minimum specific surface area is 15,000 m2/kg
 Spherical particle shape

Available Forms
Microsilica is available in the following forms:
 Undensified forms with bulk density of 200–300 kg/m3
 Densified forms with bulk density of 500–600 kg/m3
 Micro-pelletised forms with bulk density of 600–800 kg/m3
 Slurry forms with density 1400 kg/m3
 Admixtures and Construction Chemicals.
 Slurry is produced by mixing undensified micro silica powder and water in equal proportions
by weight. Slurry is the easiest and most practical way to introduce micro silica into the
concrete mix.
 Surface area 15–20 m2/g.
 Standard grade slurry pH value 4.7, specific gravity 1.3 to 1.4, dry content of micro silica 48
to 52%.

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 Effect on Fresh Concrete
 The increase in water demand of concrete containing microsilica will be about 1% for every
1% of cement substituted.
 Lead to lower slump but more cohesive mix.
 Make the fresh concrete sticky in nature and hard to handle.
 Large reduction in bleeding and concrete with microsilica could be handled and transported
without segregation.
 To plastic shrinkage cracking and, therefore, sheet or mat curing should be considered.
 Produces more heat of hydration at the initial stage of hydration.
 The total generation of heat will be less than that of reference concrete.

Effect on Hardened Concrete

 Modulus of elasticity of microsilica concrete is less.
 Improvement in durability of concrete.
 Resistance against frost damage.
 Addition of silica fume in small quantities actually increases the expansion.
Uses
 Conserve cement
 Produce ultra high strength concrete of the order of 70 to 120 MPa.
 Increase early strength of fly concrete.
 Control alkali-aggregate reaction.
 Reduce sulfate attack & chloride associated corrosion.

2.5.3 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)

Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is a nonmetallic product consisting essentially of silicates and
aluminates of calcium and other bases. The molten slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in water to
form a glassy sand like granulated material. The granulated material when further ground to less
than 45 microns will have specific surface of about 400 to 600 m2/ kg (Blaine).
Effect on Fresh Concrete
 Reduces the unit water content necessary to obtain the same slump.
 Water used for mixing is not immediately lost, as the surface hydration of slag is slightly
slower than that of cement.
 Reduction of bleeding.
 The total generation of heat will be less than that of reference concrete.

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 Effect on Hardened Concrete
 Reduced heat of hydration
 Refinement of pore structures
 Reduced permeabilities to the external agencies
 Increased resistance to chemical attack.

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REFERENCES
[1] “Concrete Basics A Guide to Concrete Practice”, 6th ed., Cement Concrete & Aggregates, Australia, 2004.
[2] Sabry A. Ahmed, Concrete Technology Lecture Notes, Sirte University.
[3] B.J.M. Farid, Building Material Lecture Notes, Sirte University.
[4] ACI 211.1-91, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete.
[5] D. C. Teychenne, R. E. Franklin and H. C. Erntroy, Design of Normal Concrete Mixes, 2nd ed., BRE, UK, 1997.
[6] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology Theory and Practice, 6th ed., S. Chand & Company Ltd, India, 2005.

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 Appendix
ACI Mix Design Tables

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 British Mix Design Tables & Graphs

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 Degrees of Consistency

Degree of Consistency W/C Ratio Suitable use of concrete

Dry < 0.40 Precast concrete, mechanical compaction
Structures with low reinforcement, mechanical
Stiff 0.40 – 0.45
compaction
Plastic 0.45 – 0.55 Most structures, mechanical or hand compaction
Structures with congested reinforcement, light
Wet 0.55 – 0.65
compaction
Sloppy > 0.60 Pumping concrete, light compaction

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