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The Celtic Religion of Gaul During the Iron Age

Bailey Pope

UCO Undergraduate

October 31, 2019

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Though the religion of the Celtic people existed across the continent of Europe it was far

from being unified during the Iron Age. Like most ancient religious systems it was based on

local cults rather than a universal doctrine, still, there are similarities that present clear

connections to a single underlying structure. Being that the ancient Celts neglected to document

their rituals and beliefs it is up to other disciplinary means to bring this religion back to life.

The written material concerning the religion of Gaul is dominated by ancient Graeco-

Roman literature and thereby subject to bias. Studying additional methods like archaeology,

linguistics, insular Celtic literature, and place-name references can further unveil their beliefs,

yet what is known still remains minimal at best. By compiling these various sources this paper

seeks to offer a brief insight into the Gaulish religion during the Iron Age, roughly spanning from

the ninth century to the end of the first century B.C. In an effort to understand the religion of

these people it seems best to examine their beliefs, deities, and aspects of worship.

1. Beliefs

Although there is not a recorded origin myth for the ancient Celts it is Julius Caesar who

provided an insight worthy of note—he stated that the Gauls claimed to be descended from the

god of the underworld.1 This implies that the Celts worshipped their distant ancestors as deities,

being that they were descended rather than created. Examining insular literature such as The

Book of the Invasions, (Irish, Lebor Gabála Érenn), further confirms that the Celtic tradition was

1Julius Caesar, The Gallic War, trans. Carolyn Hammond (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996),
128.

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to consider their gods as their ancestors.2 This could explain why many of the Gaulish deities are

depicted as humans, typically with animalistic features, during the Iron Age.

The Gauls entrusted much of their religious beliefs to the Druids. It is Caesar again who

first mentioned them, though it is likely his source came from a Greek named Poseidonios who

lived in the second century B.C.3 Caesar noted, “The druids are involved in matters of religion.

They manage public and private sacrifices and interpret religious customs and ceremonies.”4 The

Druids were involved in all religious affairs, however, they did not exclusively perform priestly

functions. There is literary implication that other classes partook in religious practices, such as

the gutuatri, (speakers to the gods), and the Vates, whom Pliny said were interpreters of

sacrifice.5 It is certainly possible that all these distinct groups mentioned by classical sources

could simply be sub-divisions of the Druidic class. Principally speaking, the Druids were the

predominant authority within the Gaulish ideology/religion.

Classical literature towards the end of the Iron Age indicates the Celts of Gaul held the

belief that the soul was immortal. The Graeco-Roman writers also made it known that this was

the doctrine taught by the Druids in Gaul.6 Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer who lived during the

first century B.C, commented: “We are told, at the funerals of their dead some cast letters upon

the pyre which they have written to their deceased kinsman, as if the dead would be able to read

2Phillip Freeman, Celtic Mythology: Tales of Gods, Goddesses, and Heroes (New York:Oxford
University Press, 2017), 14-28.
3 Peter Berresford Ellis, A Brief History of the Druids (United States: Robinson, 2002), 50, 56.
4 Caesar, 128.
5Peter Berresford Ellis, A Brief History of the Celts (Great Britain: Robinson, 2003), 48-49; Ellis, The
Druids, 50-51.
6 Caesar, Pliny, Lucan, Polyhistor, as well as other Graeco-Roman sources documented this notion.

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these letters.”7 Again, this belief remained persistent in later insular literature, particularly

throughout the recorded Irish myths.8

In addition to the belief in an immortal soul, there is strong evidence that the Celts

considered the soul to reside in the head. There are multiple passages by classical writers,

notably Diodorus and Livy, which illustrate Celtic warriors decapitating heads of their slain

enemies so that they may “retain and control” their power.9 Once more there is indication in later

Celtic literature reaffirming this concept, once such case being the Welsh myth Mabinogi.10

Collections of skulls have been found in rivers considered sacred to the Celtic people in various

locations, presumably as votive offerings.11 Their belief of the soul lying in the head could

explain why human skulls were presumably venerated with such a high degree and at times used

as religious offerings.

It seems evident that the Gauls, as well as the Celts at large, held the belief in life after

death. When commenting on the Gaulish afterlife classical sources often refer to what is called

the ‘Otherworld’—the world of the dead.12 The rhetoric seems to imply that when death occurred

in one world, birth took place in the other. This makes sense of Caesar stating that Gallic funerals

were “full of pomp and splendor,” because an exchange of souls between both worlds was being

celebrated.13 It is interesting to note that insular Celtic literature maintained the existence of the

7 Miranda J. Green, The World of the Druids (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 51.
8 Freeman, Celtic Mythology, 137.
9 Barry Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 308-309.
10 Freeman, Celtic Mythology, 179.
11 Ellis, A Brief History of the Druids, 121-122.
12 Ibid, 176-177; Lucan & Valerius Maximus particularly.
13 Caesar, 129.

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Otherworld. It is traditionally depicted as a mirror-image of this world, though with pleasing

exceptions like lack of sickness and aging.14 Iron Age Celtic graves in Gaul contained stockpiles

of worldly goods which were seemingly used in the Otherworld. A burial site at Vix in west-

central France contained a heap of funerary goods for a Celtic woman who lived during the early

fifth century B.C. In the grave was a large bronze vessel, gold neck ring, bronze bowls, and

many other precious items which make it tempting to recognize a belief in life after death.15

Balance is an essential doctrine of the Celts. Caesar observes, “For they believe that

unless one human life is offered for another the power and presence of the immortal gods cannot

be propitiated.”16 This theme of balance is further justified in their belief of an Otherworld, in

juxtaposition to this world. The sun and the moon potentially served as another cosmological

example backing this ideology. It seems that the Celtic people believed in a mirror-like universe

in almost every aspect, which produced divine balance.

2. Deities

Through classical scholars, place-names references, and Iron Age religious inscriptions it

is without doubt that the Iron Age Celts of Gaul were polytheistic. There are over 300 names of

Celtic deities mentioned throughout the continent alone, the overwhelming majority being

mentioned only once.17 This probably means that the Celtic pantheon was filled with local gods

14 Green, The World of the Druids, 68.

15T. Douglas Price, Europe Before Rome: A Site-By-Site Tour of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages
(U.S: Oxford University Press, 2013), 311-315.
16 Caesar, 128.
17 J. A. MacCulloch, The Religion of the Ancient Celts (New York: Kegan Paul, 2005), 23-24.

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and goddesses specific to each tribe. However, it is also apparent that certain deities were

universally worshipped throughout Gaul.

Often times the deities of the Celtic pantheon were represented accompanied by animals

in their religious art. From inscriptions, it is commonly known that their divinities could also be

identified with places or features—mountains, streams, rivers, lakes, and tribes. From their Iron

Age symbols and images in art, it can be determined that animals were sacred, but not

necessarily deities. This is potential evidence that their religion had roots in animism, hence the

sanctity of nature and semi-zoomorphic depictions.18

The deity which appears to have been the most renowned in Gaul was the god called

Lugus, Lugh in later Irish myths. Caesar mentioned that the Gauls mostly worshipped the Roman

god Mercury, who was thought to have been Lugus by several contemporary scholars.19 Caesar

described him as being the inventor of all the arts, he additionally was the director of paths and

journeys.20 In Irish mythology, he proclaimed himself a smith, warrior, poet, physician, and a

sorcerer, (fundamentally, the perfect guy). He certainly was seen as being connected with the

arts; amid a great feast he played the harp so eloquently everyone suddenly began to weep.21

Inscriptions, as well as monuments dedicated to Lugus during the Iron Age, are more abundant

than any other Celtic deity. Numerous place-names also indicate the importance that this god

18Miranda Aldhouse-Green, Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art (London: Routledge, 1992),
131-132.
19Barry Cunliffe, Peter Ellis, and Helen Litton have written about this connection, of course there are
others who dispute this claim.
20 Caesar, 128.
21 Freeman, 21-22.

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once had throughout Gaul: Lyons, Léon, Loudan, and Laon are all cities which are

etymologically connected to this deity.22

Another well-known deity of the Gaulish pantheon was Cernunnos, “the horned one.” He

was typically represented as having deer antlers with a ram-headed serpent at his side, giving

him the title “Lord of the Animals.”23 Some scholars equate this deity with The Dagda of Irish

mythology, though this remains only a theory. His figure is portrayed on the Gundestrup

Cauldron, dating back to the second century B.C.24 The manner in which Cernunnos is sitting on

the cauldron, similar to that of the Buddha, is thought to represent how the people of Gaul

typically sat during this period.25 Ultimately, the zoomorphic association of Cernunnos

demonstrates that animals and nature played a pivotal role in the Gaulish religion, that much is

understood.

Epona, whose name means “divine horse”, was the Gaulish horse goddess. She was seen

as both a fertility goddess as well as a war goddess, depending on the type of invocation.26 Like

Cernunnos, this goddess was often given zoomorphic characteristics.27 There are inscriptions in

Latin which date back to the first century B.C referring to animal sacrifices conducted in her

22 Ellis, The Druids, 124-125.

23 Ibid, 123.
24 Cunliffe, 260.
25 MacCulloch, 33-34.
26Helen Litton, The Celts: An Illustrated History (Dublin: Wolfhound Press Ltd, 1997), 37; Ellis, The
Celts, 69.
27 Aldhouse-Green, Celtic Religious Art, 131.

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honor. Epona’s influence even reached into the Italian peninsula at one point. Gaul’s superior

cavalry eventually enticed Rome to adopt Epona into their pantheon.28

The whole of Gaul had various deities that could be identified with each other or

performed similar functions. This is evident in recognizing divinities commonly associated with

the sun. It seems that the people of Gaul linked the sun with the capacity to heal, this is evident

in the names Grannos, Belenos, and Maponos. Grannos, a name that denotes the sun, was seen

as the deity connected with thermal springs in both Britain and the continent. Belenos, whose

name comes to mean “the shining one”, was a god of health, healing springs, and possibly fire.29

Both Belenos and Grannos were often names served as epithets with the Roman Apollo, god of

the sun and healing, meaning the Romans saw direct resemblance between these deities.30 Lastly,

the god Maponos, whose name denotes “youth”, was worshipped in Gaul, Britain, and even

Dacia.31 Youth correlated with strength to the ancient Gauls, indirectly connecting it to health

and thus the sun.

Deities that were commonly associated with war have shown to be more tribal than

universal. Several examples are found throughout Gaul, including Teutates and Camulos. It was

the Roman poet Lucan who first mentioned Teutates around the first century A.D. The root wood

of the name, teuta, denoted a tribe or people.32 This is why he was thought to have been a war-

god, or rather, the defender of the tribe/people. His name was also used with the Roman Mars,

28 Ellis, The Celts, 19, 69.

29 MacCulloch, 26; Cunliffe, 281.
30 Alexander Macbain, Celtic Mythology and Religion (Glastonbury, England: The Lost Library, 1917),
66-67.
31 MacCulloch, 27.
32 Ibid, 28.

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god of war, in later epithets.33 Another epithet used with Mars by the Romans was Camulos. This

deity was well-known, his name is found in votive inscriptions and place-names across the

sphere of the Celts. In later Irish mythology, he was thought to have been Cumal, whose name

meant “warrior” or “champion”, hence supporting the likelihood of him being a war-divinity.34

The Iron Age deities affiliated with rivers and springs were female for the most part. Two

such river goddesses celebrated by the Gauls were Sequana and Matrona. The river Seine in

northern France derives its name from the ancient goddess Sequana. Graves and votive offerings

found at the source of the river date back to as early as the sixth century B.C.35 The river goddess

Matrona is thought to have been the ancient protector of the Marne River in eastern France.36

Caesar, in his campaigns against the Gauls during the first century B.C, even refered to this river

as being called the Matrona.37 It is indicative from images found depicting these goddesses that

they were connected to fertility, probably because these rivers helped to ensure survival for the

people of Gaul.38

Deities related to fertility were also predominantly female and in many instances

worshipped in triune form. Gaulish fertility goddesses known as the Matres, meaning “Divine

Mothers”, were associated with the Earth.39 They were seen as protectors of women, houses,

regions, or anything else in general. Images of the Matres were frequently depicted as a triad,

33 Ellis, The Druids, 127.

34 Ellis, The Celts, 165.
35 Ellis, The Druids, 129; Ellis, The Celts, 35.
36 Freeman, 11.
37 Caesar, 3.
38 MacCulloch, 42.
39 Cunliffe, 275.

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carrying symbols of fertility such as flowers or an infant.40 They appear later in recorded insular

mythology in altered forms, including the Three Fairies and the Three White Ladies.41 The

number three was an undeniably sacred number to the Celts all over Europe.

There are, of course, many other notable deities recognized in Gaul which do not fit into

these groupings. Ogmios, later Ogma in Ireland, may have been connected to speech and/or

language during the Iron Age.42 Sucellos, whose name likely denotes “he who strikes with

power”, was a deity often depicted with a hammer in his hand.43 Taranis, meaning “thunderer”,

was equated with the Roman Jupiter and therefore a Celtic god of the sky/thunder.44 Finally, a

goddess found in Gaul who was equated with Roman Minerva was Belisama, who was at times

syndicated with healing springs.45

In terms of inscriptions, linguistics, insular Celtic literature, and place-name references it

can be determined that there was a bountiful amount of local deities, while only a few had a

wider geographical reach. The vast amount reflected aspects of their environment, which

suggests that their daily lives revolved around the natural world. The Gaulish pantheon is

convoluted to follow, especially since there is no written mythology to accompany what is there

nor explain what is missing. Later Irish and Welsh literature briefly reveals how multi-faceted the

Gaulish Mythology had to have been. It is quite unfortunate that the bulk of it is gone forever.

40 MacCulloch, 44-45.
41 Macbain, 68.
42 MacCulloch, 25; Ellis, The Druids, 126; Macbain, 66.
43 Ellis, The Druids, 129; A bas-relief near Metz, France presents this portrayal of Sucellos.
44 Ibid, 127.
45 Macbain, 68.

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3. Aspects of Worship

—Places of Worship

The availability of classical sources and archaeology suggest that bodies of water, groves,

and temples served as religious sanctuaries for the Iron Age Celts of Gaul. Bodies of water

typically included lakes, wells, springs, and rivers, while groves presumably entailed tall trees.

Classical sources hardly admitted that the Celts were capable of constructing temples, yet recent

excavations in France prove they were not only capable but quite proficient.

Lakes, wells, springs, and rivers were believed by the Celts to have healing powers,

hence why they became sites of worship. Strabo’s comments regarding extensive treasures found

in sacred lakes of the Celts are substantiated by archaeology. Excavations have uncovered

masses of votive material which the Gauls placed in these bodies of water as sacrifice. One

example involves Lake Neuchâtel, where over 3,000 metal objects have been uncovered dating

between the third and first centuries.46 Another example is the source of the Seine River in

eastern France, where the goddess Sequana was given an abundance of offerings during the latter

half of the Iron Age.47 These votive offerings found at various bodies of water indicate that

rituals were performed by a religious official, perhaps even a Druid.

Pliny, Lucan, and Tacitus all made reference to oak-groves being places of worship for

the Celts.48 The Gaulish place-name Nemeton denoted the site of a sacred grove, as is evident in

46 Green, The World of the Druids, 109.

47 Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts, 292-293. Sequana was the goddess of the Seine river.
48Miranda Aldhouse-Green, Caesar’s Druids: Story of an Ancient Priesthood (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2010), 125. Note that these are the later Roman authors, not belonging to the
Poseidonios tradition, who are known to be more critical of the Celts.

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words like Drunemeton (Oak Grove).49 Lucan described the groves of Gaul as possessing tree

trunks which were carved to form the images of their gods, which meant that groves were

potentially occupied by certain deities.50 Caesar noted during his conquest of Gaul, “At a certain

time of the year they (the druids) sit in judgment in a sacred spot in the territory of the Carnutes,

in an area right in the middle of Gaul.”51 There are theories that this religious hub of Gaul may

have been located in a sacred grove, though it remains a supposition.

Pre-Roman Celtic temples were discovered to exist in Gaul during the latter half of the

twentieth century. Two such sites, Gournay-sur-Aronde and Ribemont-sur-Ancre, date back to

the third century B.C. Both contained inner sanctuaries as well as scores of war trophies like

helmets, shields, spears, and even human skulls.52 The two sites additionally presented evidence

of ritualistic animal sacrifice. Presumably, these sacrifices were offerings for the tribal god of

war, being that the shrines were within an Iron Age fort (oppidum). Caesar’s observation

regarding the Gallic practice of pledging all spoils of battle to the war-god in one location attests

to this thinking.53 Other Gallic temples are found in Mirebeau and Acy-Romace, further

confirming that the Celts worshipped in enclosed sanctuaries during this period.54

49Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick, A History of Pagan Europe (New York: Routledge, 1995), 81.
Drunemeton was the hub of the Galatian tribes in Asia Minor.
50 Sir Edward Ridley, trans. The Pharsalia of Lucan (Australia: The University Of Adelaide, 1896), Book
3, lines 456-484. https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/l/lucan/pharsalia/complete.html
51 Caesar, 126-127.
52 Price, Europe Before Rome, 329-331.
53 Caesar, 128.
54 Aldhouse-Green, Caesar’s Druids, 135-136.

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—Religious Ceremonies

Caesar made it known that Druids were given authority over the religious ceremonies for

the people of Gaul. 55 Pliny’s comment concerning a ceremony conducted in Gaul supports this:

The Druids - that is what they call their magicians - hold nothing more sacred than
mistletoe and a tree on which it is growing, provided it is Valonia Oak….Mistletoe is rare
and when found, it is gathered with great ceremony, and particularly on the sixth day of
the moon….Hailing the moon in a native word that means “healing all things”, they
prepare a ritual sacrifice and banquet beneath a tree and bring up two white bulls, whose
horns are bound for the first time on this occasion. A priest arrayed in white vestments
climbs the tree and with a golden sickle cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a
white cloak.56

Here Pliny exhibited the importance of the lunar cycle to the Gauls. Caesar, too, touched on this

aspect, saying the night came first and was followed by the day rather than the reverse.57

The importance of religious ceremonies and the lunar cycle was also found in the Coligny

Calendar, found in eastern France. Though dated towards the end of the Iron Age, astronomers

have calculated that the calendar must have originally been computed around 1100 B.C. The

Gaulish inscription on the bronze tablet covered a duration of five lunar years, which included

cosmological elements as well as periods appropriate for certain rituals and events.58 These

religious ceremonies had to be accurate so that they may appease the gods, since matters like the

harvest likely depended on it. This explains the precision of the lunar calculations found

throughout the calendar.59

55 Caesar, 126.
56 Green, The World of the Druids, 18. The excerpt is from Pliny’s Natural History XVI, 95.
57 Caesar, 128.
58Ellis, The Celts, 116-117; Green, The World of the Druids, 89. Dr. Garrett Olmsted, both a Celtic
scholar and a well-known astronomer, is known for this astronomical calculus.
59 Aldhouse-Green, Caesar’s Druids, 116.

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The Coligny Calendar additionally refers to bi-annual ceremonies that marked the end of

summer and the end of winter. “Samon” is inscribed on the tablet to mean the end of summer and

effectively the beginning of the year. There is strong evidence that this is the same seasonal

festival as the Irish “Samhain”, indicating it may have been celebrated throughout the Celtic

world. Both ceremonies were held at the start of November and show signs of being

interconnected with the Otherworld.60 The end of winter was given the name “Giamon”, and

presumably a ceremony heralding the onset of spring was administered for this occasion.61

The Gaulish Calendar also indicates a festival occurring at the beginning of August,

potentially being associated with the harvest. During this period the Council of the Gauls were

said to congregate at a certain location. The Roman Emperor Augustus relocated this site to

Lyons in 12 B.C, then proceeded to declared himself as the god Lugus. This attempt by Augustus

to unify Gaul and Rome signified that the August festival was traditionally presided over by

Lugus during the Iron Age.62 This aggregate celebration was later sustained in Ireland and was

also coupled with the god Lugh.63

—Offerings

Caesar understood that the Gallic people were well-versed in religious practice.64 One

practice they occasionally carried out was the dedication of offerings to the gods, essentially the

60Cathy Swift, “Celts, Romans and the Coligny Calendar,” Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal,
(2001): 89.
61 Aldhouse-Green, Caesar’s Druids, 115.
62 Cunliffe, 281.
63 Jones, 91.
64 Caesar, 127.

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sacrifice of wealth. A Gaulish torc found in northeastern France bears an inscription stating it

was a gift to the gods. Another privately dedicated offering found in western Gaul comprised a

gold torc alongside more than 500 Celtic coins.65 Individual acts of worship vindicate that the

Gauls likely were religious people, as Caesar insinuated.

The Gauls typically dedicated their spoils from war as offerings to the gods. Caesar

remarks, “When they have decided to engage in battle it is to Mars that they will dedicate most

of what they may take in the fight.”66 This statement is supported by the pre-Roman sanctuaries

discussed earlier, which housed the scores of war and gifts committed to divinities. Additionally,

part of the war trophies found at Gournay were human skulls, which were probably nailed to the

entry gate.67 Skulls have been found belonging to other Gaulish sanctuaries, a few being

Roquepartuse, Nages, and Entremont. This does not necessarily stipulate that they were “head-

hunters”, as classical sources sometimes postulated. More-likely they decapitated the head from

the body after death then put it to use as a votive offering.68

The deposition of material goods in bodies of water was probably the most common

form of offering to the ancient Gauls. Lakes, rivers, wells, and springs throughout Gaul contain a

plethora of offerings dating to the Iron Age. These votive offerings typically comprised of carved

wood, but plaques of metal are also found at times. The Gauls held the belief that water had

65Green, The World of the Druids, 65. The second offering was found in Tayac, France. The gold torc was
intentionally broken into three pieces, a significant number to the Celts.
66 Caesar, 128.
67 Price, 330.
68 Ellis, The Celts, 167-168.

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curative powers. Therefore, it seems reasonable to conclude these offerings were given in the

hopes that a physical or emotional sickness may be cured.69

—Sacrifices

The religion of pre-Roman Gaul irrefutably included sacrifice in its tenets. Animal

sacrifice was repeatedly practiced all over religious sites of Gaul, as is attested by classical

literature as well as archaeological finds. Human sacrifice is a different story, however. Classical

authors, notably Caesar and Strabo, directly painted the Celts as practitioners of human sacrifice,

yet archaeology is less resolute in endorsing this viewpoint. There is an ongoing debate between

scholars whether human religious sacrifice persisted in Gaul.70 At the heart of the dialogue are

bodies recovered from bogs in northern Europe during the Iron Age, or rather the interpretation

of these bodies.71

Animal sacrifice was a familiar occurrence all over Gaul during the Iron Age. Caesar

referenced this, saying they would vow to sacrifice animals captured during war-time.72 As

previously discussed, animal remains were found in ditches at the Celtic temple in Gournay,

France, which contained slash marks from metal weaponry. Animals commonly sacrificed

included cows, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, and oxen—virtually all domesticated species.73 These

69 Cunliffe, 292-293.
70Dr. Miranda Aldhouse-Green and Sir Barry Cunliffe both believe there is direct evidence to make this
conclusion, while Mrs. Chadwick, Jean Louis Brunaux, and Peter Ellis are against this assumption.
71Patrick Duerr, “Sacrifice Among the Ancient Celts: Controversies and Conclusions,” Academia,
accessed October 15, 2019.
72 Caesar, 128.
73 Green, The World of Druids, 85-86.

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ceremonial sacrifices look to be ritual rather than habitual, occurring primarily during times

involving trouble.

Classical authors tended to associate the practice of human sacrifice with the identity of

the Gauls, (and the Celts in general). Caesar and Strabo, both likely using Poseidonios as their

source, wrote that immolation was a form of sacrifice for both animals and humans in Gaul.

Lucan, too, described the Gauls lighting humans on fire to please the god Taranis.74 However, if

this practice of human sacrifice did exist in Gaul, it is likely it died out by the end of the Iron

Age. Pomponius Mela, a Roman Geographer of the 1st century A.D, stated that this tradition had

long ended before his time.75 Moreover, there was no mention of human sacrifice in the later

Celtic literature of Ireland.76

Conclusion

By employing various sources like classical literature archaeology, linguistics, place-

name references, and insular Celtic myths it is my goal that I further unveiled their beliefs,

deities, and aspects of worship. The ancient Gauls were practical, possessing beliefs like

universal balance in addition to the soul being located in the skull. Their pantheon suggests

environmental importance in daily life, worshipping deities associated with animals, rivers, and

the sky. Their means of worship provide insight into their ethics and morals, as well as how they

dealt with issues. The religion of Iron Age Gaul reflects many aspects of insular literature

recorded centuries later, indicating it may have been a sort of prelude in the Celtic religious

74 Cunliffe, 283.
75 Ellis, The Druids, 150.
76 Ellis, The Celts, 178.

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evolution. Altogether, the large number of similarities found across Gaul denotes that a single

underlying religious structure existed during the Iron Age.

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Bibliography

Printed Books

Aldhouse-Green, Miranda. Caesar’s Druids: Story of an Ancient Priesthood. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2010.

——. Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art. London: Routledge, 1992.

Caesar, Julius. The Gallic War. Translated by Carolyn Hammond. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1996.

Cunliffe, Barry. The Ancient Celts, 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Ellis, Peter Berresford. A Brief History of the Celts. Great Britain: Robinson, 2003

——. A Brief History of the Druids. United States: Robinson, 2002.

Freeman, Phillip. Celtic Mythology: Tales of Gods, Goddesses, and Heroes. New York:Oxford
University Press, 2017.

Jones, Prudence and Nigel Pennick. A History of Pagan Europe. New York: Routledge, 1995.

Litton, Helen. The Celts: An Illustrated History. Dublin: Wolfhound Press Ltd, 1997.

Macbain, Alexander. Celtic Mythology and Religion. Glastonbury, England: The Lost Library,
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MacCulloch, J.A. The Religion of the Ancient Celts. New York: Kegan Paul, 2005.

Price, T. Price. Europe Before Rome: A Site-By-Site Tour of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages.
U.S: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Ridley, Sir Edward. Translator. The Pharsalia of Lucan. Australia: The University Of Adelaide,
1896. https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/l/lucan/pharsalia/complete.html

Electronic Books

Aldhouse-Green, Miranda. Caesar’s Druids: Story of an Ancient Priesthood. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2010. ebookcentral-proquest-com.vortex3.uco.edu/lib/ucok-ebooks/
reader.action?docID=3420946

Ridley, Sir Edward. Translator. The Pharsalia of Lucan. Australia: The University Of Adelaide,
1896. https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/l/lucan/pharsalia/complete.html

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Websites

Swift, Cathy. “Celts, Romans and the Coligny Calendar.” Theoretical Roman Archaeology
Journal, (2001): 83-95. traj.openlibhums.org/articles/abstract/10.16995/
TRAC2001_83_95/

Duerr, Patrick. “Sacrifice Among the Ancient Celts: Controversies and Conclusions.” Academia.
Accessed October 15, 2019. https://www.academia.edu/25640412/
Human_Sacrifice_Among_the_Ancient_Celtic_Tribes

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