Reproductive System

Reproduction  Internal fertilization- among

terrestrial animals, is a strategy
 Ensures perpetuity of life
used to prevent dehydration of
 2 types
the gametes on land. Enhances
o Asexual reproduction- the fertilization of eggs by a
results in new organisms specific male. Survival rate is
formed by mitotic cell higher
division producing
offspring that are Function of the Male Reproductive
genetically similar to their System
parents
 Production of sperm cells
o Sexual reproduction-
 Sustaining and transfer of the
involves the fusion of
sperm cells to the female
gametes or sex cells from
 Production of male sex hormones
2 parents which are
produced thru meiosis, Functions of the Female
resulting to genetically Reproductive System
unique offspring
 Production of oocytes
Asexual Reproduction  Reception of sperm cells from the
male
 Binary fission e.g. amoeba
 Nurturing the development of and
 Budding e.g. Hydra
providing nourishment for the
 Spore formation
new individual
 Fragmentation
 Production of female sex
 Vegetative reproduction e.g.
hormones
plants thru roots, stem cuttings,
leaves Male Reproductive Structure
 Parthenogenesis
 Testes
Sexual Reproduction  Series of Ducts: Epididymides,
Ductus differentia/Vas deferens,
 External fertilization- usually
Urethra
occurs in aquatic animals where
 Accessory Glands: Seminal
gametes are released from both
vesicles, prostate gland,
the male and female animals,
Bulbourethral glands
and the fusion takes place
 Supporting Parts: Scrotum, Penis
outside the body

Scrotum
 Saclike structure containing the
testes
Urethra
 Composed of skin, connective
tissue, dartos muscle, cremaster
muscle
Testes/Male Gonads
 Oval organs; each about 4-5 cm
long
Penis
 Seminiferous tubules
 Interstitial cells/ cells of Leydig
Epididymis
 Tightly coiled series of threadlike
tubules that form q comma-shape
structure on the posterior side of
the testis
 For maturation of sperms
Seminal Vesicle Secretion
 Sperms develop capacity to swim
and ability to bind to secondary
oocyte
Ductus Deferens/ Vas Deferens
 Male sperm duct
 Forms the spermatic cord
together with testicular artery and
nerve, testicular nerve and
lymphatic vessel
 About 45 cm long
Semen
 Ampulla of the ductus deferens
Seminal Vesicle
 Sac-shaped gland
 Produce viscous, alkaline part of
semen
Series of Reflexes n Male Sexual Act
Ejaculatory Duct
 1 “ duct in the prostate gland that
converge from seminal vesicle &
ampulla of dd
 Ejects spermatozoa into urethra
 3 Divisions: prostatic urethra,
membranous urethra, spongy
urethra
 Passageway for both urine &
male reproductive fluids
 Columns of erectile tissue:
corpora cavernosa (dorsal &
side), corpus spongiosum
(ventral)
 Glans penis
 Prepuce/Foreskin
 External urethral orifice
 Produce 60% of fluid with thick,
mucus-like
 W/ fructose & other nutrients
 w/ proteins for coagulation &
enzymes that destroy abnormal
sperms
 w/ prostaglandins that contract
female tract for transport of
sperms
 Mixture of sperms & seminal
fluids
 2-5 mL normal volume
 100M sperms/mL
 Erection
 Secretion
 Emission
  Ejaculation  Outer muscular layer & inner
 Orgasm mucous membrane
 Resolution  Hymen

Ovaries External Genetalia

 Ovarian follicles- at its outer part,  Also called vulva or pudendum

each contain an oocyte  Vestibule
 Loose connective tissue, blood  Clitoris & prepuce
vessels, nerves – at inner part of  Labia minora & labia majora
ovary  Greater vestibular/Bartholin's
 Where oogenesis begins in a 4 Gland & Lesser
months fetus, each ovary w/ 5M Vestibular/Skene’s Gland
oogania (where oocytes develop)  Mons pubis
Primary Oocyte  Pudendal cleft
 Clinical perineum
 2M- at birth
 300,000-400,000- from birth up to Mammary Glands
puberty  Organs of milk production in the
 400- will complete development mammae/breasts
and be released  Nipple & Areola
Uterine Tubes  Each w/ 15-20 glandular lobes
possessing a single lactiferous
 Fallopian tube or oviduct duct; lobules; alveoli
 Fimbriae- long, thin processes at  Myoephithelial cells- surround the
its opening; w/ cilia that sweeps alveoli & contract to expel milk
oocyte from ovary to UT  Suspensory ligaments- support
 Ampulla- where fertilization occur
Female Sexual Act Reflexes
Uterus
 Erection
 Fundus, body, cervix  Secretion
 Uterine cavity & cervical canal  Orgasm/Climax
 Perimetrium (serous layer),  Resolution
Myometrium (Muscular layer),  Successive orgasms
Endometrium (innermost)
 Round ligament, broad ligament, Control of Pregnancy: Behavioral
skeletal muscle of pelvic floor – Methods
support  Abstinence
Vagina  Coitus interruptus
 Rhythm method
 Female copulatory organ
 Receives penis during coitus
 Allows menstrual flow & childbirth

Barrier Methods
 Condom
 Vaginal or Female Condom
 Diaphragm
 Cervical cap
 Spermicidal agents & douches
 Lactation
Chemical Methods
 Oral contraceptives
 Patch
 Vaginal contraceptive ring
 RU486 or Mifepristone drug
 Morning-after pills
Surgical Methods
 Vasectomy
 Tubal ligation
 Abortion
 Prevention of implantation:
Intrauterine device (IUD)
1. Many sperm cells attach to the
cumulus cells of a secondary
oocyte
2. One sperm cell attaches to the
zona pellucida, and enzymes in
the acrosome digest through the
zona pellucid
3. The head of one sperm cell
penetrates the zona pellucida
and oocyte cell membrane to
enter the oocyte cytoplasm.
Changes in the zona pellucida
(moving away from the oocyte)
form a space that prevents
additional sperm cells from
entering the oocyte
4. In response to the entry of the
sperm head into the oocyte, the
oocyte nucleus moves to one
side of the oocyte where it
completes the second meiotic
division and gives off a second
polar body
5. The sperm head enlarges and
gives rise to the sperm cell
nucleus
6. The two nuclei fuse to form a
single nucleus. Fertilization is
complete and a zygote results
Stages of Animal Development
 Gametogenesis- production of
gametes
 Fertilization- formation of
unicellular zygote
 Cleavage- a zygote will undergo
rapid, multiple rounds of cell
division to form a blastula (>100
cells)
 Gastrulation- the stage of embryo
development at which a gastrula
is formed from the blastula by the
inward migration of cells
 Organogenesis- development of
organs
 Differentiation & Growth-
development of multicellular
embryo
3 Germs Layers of the Blastula
 Ectoderm- gives rise to nervous
system, epidermis (forms the
exoskeleton)
 Mesoderm- gives rise to muscle
cells & connective tissue in the
body (develops into organs)
 Endoderm- gives rise to columnar KEY TERMS
cells found in the digestive
 Ovulation
system and other internal organs
 Fertilization
(forms the inner lining of organs)
 Implantation
 Gestation
1. 28 days after fertilization  Zona pellucid
 The face develops from  Acrosome
five processes: frontnasal,  Blastula
two maxillary, and two  Blastocyte
mandibular  Inner cell mass
2. 33 days after fertilization  Gastrulation
 Nasal placodes appear in  Trophoblast
the frontnasal process  Morula
3. 40 days after fertilization  Gastrula
 Maxillary processes  Embryo
extend toward the midline.  Fetus
The nasal placodes also
move toward the midline
and fuse with the maxillary
processes to form the jaw
and lip
4. 48 days after fertilization
 Continued growth brings
structure more toward the
midline
5. 14 weeks after fertilization
 Color shows the
contributions of each
process to the adult face

1. First Stage. The cervix begins to

dilate
2. First Stage. Further dilation of
the cervix and rupture of the
amniotic sac occur
3. Second Stage. The fetus is
expelled from the uterus
4. Third Stage. The Placenta is
then expelled
5.

Excretory System
Functions of the Urinary System
 Excretion
 Regulation of blood volume and
pressure
 Regulation of the concentration of
solute in the blood
 Regulation of extracellular fluid
pH
 Regulation of RBC synthesis
 Vitamin D synthesis
Excretion
 Kidneys- major excretory organs
of the body by removing waste
products, mostly toxic
 Waste products- metabolic by
-products of cells & substances
absorbed from the intestine
Regulation of blood volume and
pressure
 Kidneys control the extracellular
fluid volume in the body by
producing either a large volume
of dilute urine or small volume of
concentrated urine
Regulation of the concentration of
solutes in the body
 Kidneys help regulate the
concentration of the major
molecules and ions, such as
glucose, sodium, chlorine,
potassium, calcium, bicarbonate,
hydrogen phosphate
Regulation of extracellular fluid pH
 Kidneys excrete variable
amounts of H to help regulate
extracellular fluid pH
Regulation of red blood cell
synthesis
 Kidneys secrete a hormone,
erythropoietin, which regulates
the synthesis of RBC in bone
marrow
Regulation of Vitamin D Synthesis
 Kidneys play an important role in
controlling blood levels of calcium
by regulating the synthesis of
vitamin D
 Kidneys are located in the abdominal
cavity, with the R kidney just below
the liver & L kidney below the spleen
 Kidneys are bean-shaped organs,
each about the size of clenched fist
 They lie behind the peritoneum, thus
are retroperitoneal
 Renal capsule- connective tissue
surrounding each kidney
 Hilum- medial side where renal
artery & nerves enter & where renal
vein, ureter, lymphatic vessels exit
 Renal Sinus- cavity where hilum
opens into & contains blood vessels,
part of the system for collecting urine
& adipose tissue
 Outer cortex & Inner medulla-
surround the renal sinus
 Renal Pyramids- cone- shaped &
located at boundary between cortex
&medulla
 Calyx- funnel-shaped that surrounds  Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)-
the tip of each renal pyramid secreted by posterior pituitary gland
 Renal Pelvis- large funnel formed o Regulates the amount of
from calyces water reabsorbed by the distal
 Ureter- a small tube formed from the tubules and collecting ducts
narrowing of renal pelvis that exits  Micturition reflex- activated by
the kidney & connects to urinary stretch of the urinary bladder wall;
bladder made possible by the external
 Nephron- functional unit of a kidney urinary sphincter
o Composed of : Renal  100 mL urine- bladder capacity
Corpuscle (Bowman’s capsule
& Glomerulus), Proximal
Convoluted Tubule, Loop of
Henle, Distal Convoluted
Tubule
Urine Production
1. Filtration- the movement of
water, ions, and small molecules
through the filtration membrane
into Bowman’s Capsule; the
portion of the plasma entering the
nephron is the filtrate
2. Tubular reabsorption- the
movement of substances from
the filtrate across the wall of the
nephron back into the blood of
the peritibular capillaries; about
99 % of filtrate is reabsorbed,
only 1% of filtrate becomes urine
3. Tubular secretion- the transport
of substances, usually waste
products, from the intestinal fluid
across the wall of the nephron
into the filtrate

 Urine- consists of substances (95%

water, urea, uric acid, electrolytes)
that are filtered and secreted from
the peritubular capillaries into the
nephron, minus those substances
that are reabsorbed

Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
 Sensory input
 Integration
 Homeostasis
 Mental activity
 Control of muscle and glands
Divisions of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
o Brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Nerves and ganglia
Two Subdivisions of PNS
 Sensory or afferent division-
conducts action potentials from
sensory receptors to CNS via
sensory neurons
 Motor or Efferent division-
conducts action potentials from
the CNS to effector organs like
muscle and glands via motor
neurons
Subdivisions of the Motor or Efferent
Division
 Somatic Motor Nervous
System- transmits action
potentials from CNS to skeletal
muscles
 Autonomic Nervous System-
transmits action potentials from
CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle and glands
a. Sympathetic Division
b. Parasympathetic
Division
c. Enteric Nervous System
(ENS)- associated with
digestive tract
Neuron or Nerve Cell
1. Cell body- mononucleated;
rough ER, Golgi Apparatus,
mitochondria, neurofilaments,
microtubules, Nissl bodies (rough
ER concentrated areas)
2. Dendrites- short, branching
cytoplasmic extensions; receive
information from other neurons &
transmit info toward the cell body
3. Axon- a long cell process;
conducts action potentials away
from CNS if in motor neuron;
conducts action potentials toward
the CNS if in a sensory neuron
a. Axon hillock- part of the
cell body where axon
leaves; without Nissl
bodies
b. Schwann cells- neuroglia
surrounding an axon w/c
forms a highly insulating
layer called myelin
sheath
Five Types of Neuroglia
1. Astrocytes- major supporting
tissue of CNS; form a layer
around blood vessels, contribute
to blood-brain barrier
2. Ependymal- line ventricles of
brain, produce & circulate CSF
 3. Microglia- help remove bacteria  Ganglion- group of cell bodies
& cell debris from CNS  Nerves- bundles of axons and
4. Oligodendrocytes- form myelin their connective tissue sheaths
sheaths around axons, or
enclose unmyelinated axons in
the CNS  Synapse
5. Schwann cells/
Neurolemmocytes/Neurolemm
a cells- form myelin sheaths
around axons, or enclose
unmyelinated axons in the PNS
Unmyelinated Axon
 Rests in indentations of the
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and
the Schwann cells in the PNS
Myelinated Axon
 With specialized sheaths called
myelin sheaths wrapped around it
and is an excellent insulator that
prevents almost all electric
current flow thru cell membrane
 Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the
myelin sheath where current
flows easily bet. Extracellular fluid
& axon
CNS
 Gray Matter- group of cell bodies
w/ their dendrites
o Cortex- gray matter on
brain surface
o Nuclei- gray matter deep
within the brain
 White Matter- bundles of parallel
axons w/ myelin sheaths
o Conduction pathways &
Nerve Tracts- formed by
wm
PNS