11 PP Vert Vel Basics HC PDF

109
Introduction to Velocity and Velocity Analysis
Topics
1 Velocity Analysis Overview
1 Techniques for Velocity Determination
20 Workflows
26 Special Cases
28 Technical Information on Interpolation
53 Technical Information on Anisotropy
58 Treatment of Datum, Static, and Replacement Velocity Information
60 Velocity Data Types and Subtypes
Velocity Analysis Overview

Paradigm provides a wide variety of tools for performing velocity analysis and creating and
extracting velocity data. You can perform velocity analysis and velocity refinement (residual
analysis) in the Velocity Navigator window. The Velocity Navigator window displays all results
simultaneously and contains all the tools you require for control purposes. Vertical velocity
analysis is carried out in the Velocity Navigator window.
Techniques for Velocity Determination

This chapter describes terminology and conventions and presents the techniques used for
velocity determination.
Paradigm® 18 | 109-1 | User Guide

Chapter 109 Introduction to Velocity and Velocity Analysis
Velocity Definitions
Stacking Velocity
The velocity measured by NMO hyperbolas.
RMS Velocity
A theoretical velocity described by Dix’s equation. We often refer to velocities derived from
time migration as RMS velocities.
For a homogeneous medium, the relationship between stacking velocity and RMS velocity is
described by:
V
RMS
Equation 1 V stack = ----------------
cos 
where:  = the dip angle in the S-G direction (azimuth direction).
Therefore, when the structure is horizontal, stacking velocity is equal to RMS velocity. If there is
a dip,
Equation 2 V stack  V RMS
This procedure is currently not applied when transforming between stacking velocity and RMS
velocity using vertical functions or sections. It is only applied when the transformation is
applied to velocity profiles.
Instantaneous Velocity (interval velocity)

The velocity within the layer depth/time
Average Velocity
Depth/Time.
Gradient
The instantaneous slope of the instantaneous velocity function.
Time Depth Pairs

The depth at a given time.
Pseudo-Velocity
The velocity calculated by Depth/Time, where depth is measured in the well and time is
measured from the seismic time (migrated) section.
A comprehensive technical review is presented in “Technical Information on Interpolation” on
page 109-28.

Seismic and Velocity Data Types

The following combinations of seismic and velocity data types are used.
Seismic Domain Velocity Type

Time Stacking Velocity
Time Migrated RMS Velocity and
Instantaneous Velocity
Depth Instantaneous Velocity
Representation of Velocity
Velocity information is represented in several ways:
• Vertical Functions
In the vertical functions mode, velocity is represented as a function that varies with time (or
depth). Vertical functions are defined per ground surface location.
• Velocity Horizons
Velocity horizons (or maps in 3D) represent the lateral velocity variations for a given
horizon. Stacking velocity and RMS velocity are associated with time horizons, and
instantaneous velocity horizons describe the lateral velocity within the layer above this
horizon.
• Velocity Sections
Velocity sections are two dimensional velocity grids. The coordinates of the velocity section
are CMP-time or CMP-depth. The velocity section is the required input for all seismic
migration programs.
• Velocity Volume
Velocity volume is a 3D velocity grid. It is the 3D equivalent of a 2D velocity section.
• Velocity Slices
In 3D, velocity can be represented along time or depth slices (instead of along horizons).
Converting Different Velocity Representations

You can create velocity data in any representation from all other representations. For example,
you can create a velocity section from vertical functions or from velocity profiles along
horizons. In 3D, you can create a velocity volume from slices, profiles, or vertical functions.
Using the Extract option in the Vertical Velocity window, you can also create vertical functions
from a velocity section or volume (see “To select and display vertical functions” on page 125-8).
You can also extract velocity profiles along horizons from the vertical functions, sections, or
volumes (see “Extracting Seismic Attributes” on page 52-290).

In 3D, you can create a velocity map by extracting velocity data from a vertical function along a
horizon map.
Viewing Velocity Data

The different types of velocity data are displayed as follows:
Vertical Functions
Vertical functions are displayed in Vertical Functions window, Velocity Navigator, and
Integrated Canvas > BaseMap.
The location of the vertical functions can be plotted (as a marker line) on the cross-sections, or
as circles in Integrated Canvas > BaseMap.
All displays offer editing tools for picking and editing velocity functions.
• The Vertical Functions window provides multiple interactive displays for vertical functions
in the time and depth domains. Vertical functions data may come from these different
sources:
• Well data
• Extracted from velocity sections or volumes
• Vertical velocity analysis
• Various velocity transformations
The Vertical Functions window also enables transformation and scaling of vertical velocity
functions.
2D Horizon Velocities
2D horizon velocities are displayed in the Velocity Navigator window.
Data in the velocity windows is plotted according to a CMP velocity coordinate system. For
each horizon, a colored line is plotted describing the way in which the velocity varies with CMP.
3D Horizon Velocities and Velocity Slices

3D horizon velocities are displayed in BaseMap, with one map for each horizon or slice, and in
the Geometry View window for 3D perspective. 3D horizon velocity picks are displayed in the
Velocity Navigator window.
Velocity Sections (2D)

Velocity sections are displayed in the 2D Velocity Navigator window as color-coded grids. The
color bar represents velocity values.

Velocity Volumes (3D)

Velocity volumes are displayed in the 3D Velocity Navigator window, as color-coded cross-
sections (inlines or crosslines). The color bar represents velocity values.
Velocity Transformations
You can transform your velocity data from one type of velocity to all other types. The velocity
transformation is Dix-based. You can perform the transformations between Stacking, RMS and
Instantaneous Velocities in 2D and in 3D.
Stacking <–> RMS

Stacking and RMS velocities in vertical functions, velocity sections or velocity volumes are
identical. The transformation is just a copy sent to the other domain.
For velocity profiles (in 2D) and velocity map (in 3D), the velocity transformation is calculated
using:
V RMS
Equation 3 V = ----------------
stack cos 
where:  = the dip angle of the time horizon.
Dip correction depends on the source-receiver azimuth. Fixed source-receiver azimuth values
as defined in Project/Survey Manager are used. The apparent dip (cos  is calculated at every
point on the time map.
Stacking or RMS <–> Instantaneous

Instantaneous velocity functions are calculated from RMS or stacking velocity functions using
Dix transformation:
= V t – V   t – t
2 2 2
Equation 4 V t 
int i  i i i – 1 i – 1 i i – 1
where:
Vinti = instantaneous velocity at sample i
Vi = RMS or stacking velocity at step i
t = ti - ti-1 = time step defined in the Customization dialog box
Note By using ray-based stacking velocity inversion, stacking
velocities can be converted to instantaneous velocities more accurately
than with the Dix approach. The ray-based stacking velocity inversion
process is similar to coherency inversion except that the input is
stacking velocity functions instead of seismic data. See “Horizon
Velocity Transformations” on page 108-1.
This process can also be utilized to convert DMO velocities to
instantaneous velocities. In this case, DMO velocity is the velocity
measured from NMO curves after DMO was applied to the data.

Five types of models are used for the transformations from RMS velocities to interval velocities.
See “Interpolation Methods” on page 109-42.
Instantaneous <–> RMS

RMS velocity functions are calculated from instantaneous velocity functions using the inverse
Dix transformation:
i
 V 2 t 
  int k k
2
Equation 5 V = k-----------------------------------------
=1 -
RMS i i
 t
k
k=1
where:
tk = time sample rate defined in Project/Survey Manager
VRMSi= RMS velocity at sample i
Vintk = instantaneous velocity for layer k
Instantaneous <–> Average

Average velocities are calculated from the instantaneous velocities using the following
equation:
i
 z k
Equation 6 k=1
V AVG = ---------------------------
i i
z k

-------------
V int
k=1 k
where:
zk = depth interval between layer k and layer k-1
VAVGi = average velocity for layer i
Vintk = interval velocity for layer k
Conventions for Defining Instantaneous Interval Vp Velocity

within Layers
The instantaneous interval velocity field for each layer can be represented by a laterally change
with constant vertical velocity gradient.
Sedimentary rocks under millions years of compaction load and high temperature are normally
characterized by a monotonously increasing velocity with depth. For relatively thin layers, this
phenomena can be described with a constant POSITIVE vertical gradient. A feasible range of
vertical gradient values can range from 0 to 1 [1/sec].

When a positive vertical velocity gradient exists, the instantaneous velocity (V) of a point at
depth Z is defined by:
Equation 7 V = V 0 + k  Z – Z 0
where:
V0 = Reference Velocity
Z0 = Reference Depth (the depth where V0 is defined - not necessarily the top interface)
k = gradient
Note Gradient is usually defined in the Formation Table in the
Interpretation Data Manager. If you define gradient when you extract
the velocity, you extract Vo.
You can calculate the velocity gradient from your data. This is
performed in the Vertical Functions window.
Velocities might locally dropped in some layers, like the case of high pore pressure, but this
behavior doesn’t occur in a linear fashion. It is normally characterized by a sharp jump in the
decreasing velocity.
Nevertheless, when specifying negative gradient in Paradigm, the gradient value refers only to
the reference depth assigned to the given layer. In order to avoid non feasible small (or even
negative) velocity values, we use the exponential asymptotically bounded (EAB) formula,
where in this case the bounded value is the minimum velocity allowed in the survey. In this
case the absolute value of the negative gradient is gradually decreased and the velocity will
approach the minimum velocity of the survey at infinite depth.
When a negative vertical velocity gradient exists, the instantaneous velocity function versus
depth is defined as follows:
Equation 8
where:
n is the layer (depth interval between two vertical points) index
is the instantaneous velocity function versus relative depth
Va,n = instantaneous velocity at the top interface of the specified layer
is the relative depth measured from the top interface of the layer
is the instantaneous velocity range defined as the difference between the asymptotic
velocity , and the top-interface velocity Va,n
ka,n = is the velocity gradient at the top interface
The relative depth satisfies the relation

where: is the layer thickness.
Semblance (Coherency) Plots

Many of our velocity analysis applications use semblance plots to display velocity analysis data.
A Semblance plot can best be described within the context of stacking velocity analysis.
Stacking velocity analysis assumes that moveout is hyperbolic. Velocity analysis is performed
by scanning a range of velocities; a moveout curve is created for each velocity. Coherency of
the data along this curve is then measured by calculating semblance. This is repeated for every
scanned velocity and each time sample. The result is plotted in a color-coded format known as
a semblance section where the color represents the semblance value. The darker the color, the
greater the semblance value, meaning that the coherency between the theoretical curve and
the data is higher. You pick the velocity on semblance plots by picking maximum semblance
values. Semblance is defined by:
nt  noffs 
 
  

a ij

j = 0 i = 1 
Equation 9 -------------------------------------
nt  noffs 
 2 
  

a ij

j = 0 i = 1 
where:
aij = data sample from a gather within a small time (or depth) window
i = index of the offset of the trace
j = index of the sample within a window
nt = number of samples in a window
noffs = number of offsets
This is a mathematical method for measuring the coherency of the data within a small time
window. Values of coherency range between 0 and 1, where 1 represents maximum possible
coherency while 0 means no coherency. The figure below shows represents the display of
coherent and non-coherent data in the Semblance window.
semblance
window
Semblance is used in many applications for measuring coherency. For example:

• Stacking velocity analysis

• Residual analysis
• Eta analysis
• Coherency inversion
• Stacking velocity inversion
The application types in the Velocity Navigator window use semblance for measuring
coherency.
The coordinate system of a semblance plot is velocity or residuals, time (or depth) for vertical
velocity analysis, CMP for horizon-based analysis. In the horizon-based mode, the semblance is
calculated only along a small window around the picked horizon as shown below.
Residual Moveout Analysis

Residual moveout analysis is a velocity analysis performed after applying an imperfect initial
velocity model to the data. Residual moveout analysis is used to find the remaining error in the
velocity field. It can be performed for stacking velocity after NMO correction. Residual moveout
analysis identifies the residual moveout required to flatten reflection events. See “Residual
Interpolation Methods” on page 109-44.
Residual moveout analysis can also be performed on CRP gathers after prestack migration. If,
after migration, the gathers are not flat, you can analyze the remaining error in instantaneous
velocity.
The method of performing residual moveout analysis utilizes semblance sections and is similar
to that of standard stacking velocity analysis. The theoretical curves describe error in velocity.
The error in velocity is defined by using time residuals. The time residual concept is illustrated in
Figure 1 on page 109-10 below.

Figure 1
Reference Offset
offset
Residual
Moveout Time Residual at a given
curve Reference Offset
time
Time Residuals are measurements of the moveout that remains on the reflection event after
NMO correction is applied, or after migration. When the velocity used is imperfect, the
corrected reflection event is not flat. This error is measured by the time difference between the
location of the reflection event on the near and far offset traces. A fixed offset value known as
reference offset is used. This is the offset where the residual is measured. The reference offset
value is defined in Project/Survey Manager.
As shown in Figure 2 on page 109-10, a positive residual indicates that the moveout correction
was performed using a velocity that is too high. If the moveout correction was performed using
a velocity that is too low, the residual is negative.
Figure 2
Reference Offset Reference Offset
negative
Residual
2
positive x
Residual t x = – ----------- V R
3
t0 V
Velocity is too high Velocity is too low

The system performs residual analysis by scanning various residuals. For each residual, a
theoretical residual moveout curve is defined. The system computes a semblance value for
every residual and creates a semblance section similar to that of stacking velocity analysis.
Residual moveout analysis always uses the original velocity field, and residual moveout curves
are calculated considering this initial field. The semblance plot of residual analysis has positive
and negative axes. A line in the center defines the No Error Zone (No Residual). A deviation
from this center line indicates an error in velocity.
Residual analysis can be performed in vertical or horizon-based mode, similar to regular
horizon velocity analysis. Residual moveout analysis is available for RMS velocities after
prestack time migration is applied, or for instantaneous velocities analyzing the remaining
moveout after prestack depth migration.

Residual Moveout Analysis Technical Information

Residual moveout analysis is performed along migrated gathers. The main assumption is that
there is a parabolic relation between residual moveouts along the offsets and residual RMS
velocities, as shown in Equation 10 on page 109-11:
2
h
Equation 10 t  h  = ---------3- V R
t0 V
where:
t0 = the zero offset traveltime
h = the varying offset
t = residual time moveout, defined as the time difference between the zero offset and the
times at the varying offsets
V = the RMS velocity used for the migration, and VR = Residual RMS velocity, in case of
depth migration the RMS velocity is obtained by applying the Dix transform from the
original interval velocity
In GeoDepth we are able to pick either directly the residual RMS velocity VR, or alternatively,
pick residual moveout at a given reference offset href. In this case the parabolic residual
moveout at each offset is given by:
t  h  = h
2
Equation 11
where: , the parabolic coefficient is given by:
t  h ref 
Equation 12  = -------------------
2
-
h ref
where: t  h
ref 
is the picked residual moveout at the given reference offset href.
This procedure describes moveout on time gathers and RMS velocities. It is essentially the same
for residual depth moveout analysis. However, a few additional steps are required to convert
depth gathers to the time scale. Thus, for residual depth moveout of depth gathers the
following procedure is followed:
1 Instantaneous velocity in depth, Vi (z), is converted to time scale Vi (t).
2 Depth gathers are converted to time scale (using Vi).
3 Vi (t) is converted to RMS velocity (using Dix’s formula) VRMS (t).
4 Residual Depth Moveouts are scaled to time t.
5 New RMS velocity VcRMS (t) is calculated from t using Equation 10 on page 109-11.
6 New velocity VcRMS (t) is converted to new instantaneous velocity as a function of time
VcINT (t).
7 New instantaneous velocity is converted to depth VcINT (Z).

Velocity Analysis Procedures Available

A broad range of tools is provided for performing velocity analysis and for refining and
updating the velocity model and velocity or depth. In many applications, the semblance plot is
your main tool when picking velocities, or the error in velocity.
Listed below are the various techniques available for velocity analysis.
In the Velocity Navigator Window

• Horizon Based Stacking and RMS Velocity Analysis (HVA) and Vertical Velocity Analysis.
• Horizon Based Instantaneous Velocity Analysis (Coherency Inversion).
• Stacking, RMS, and Instantaneous Velocity Refinement by analyzing residual velocity or
residual moveouts along horizons or in vertical mode.
• 2D Horizon Based Tomography (updates horizon velocity and depth horizons).
In 3D Horizon Based Tomography Applications

• 3D Horizon Based Tomography (updates horizon velocity and depth horizons) and 3D Grid
Tomography (updates velocity section or volume).
In Integrated Canvas > 3D Canvas

• Instantaneous Velocity Analysis based on Stacking Velocity Inversion.
Where is Velocity Analysis Displayed?
Analysis Type Window Result

Vertical Velocity Analysis (VVA) Performed and displayed in the Velocity vertical functions
Navigator window.
Horizon-based Stacking and RMS Performed and displayed in the Velocity velocity picks along horizons
Velocity Analysis (HVA) Navigator window.
Instantaneous Velocity Analysis Performed and displayed in the Velocity velocity picks along horizons
based on Coherency Inversion Navigator window.
Residual Moveout Refinement - Performed and displayed in the Velocity vertical functions
Vertical Mode Navigator window.
Residual Moveout Refinement - Performed and displayed in the Velocity residual picks along horizons
Along Horizons Navigator window.
2D Tomography Performed and displayed in the Velocity Horizon Based: velocity and
Navigator window. depth picks

Analysis Type Window Result

3D Tomography Performed in 3D Horizon Based and Grid horizon-based: velocity and
Tomography applications. depth grids
grid-based: velocity volume
3D Instantaneous Velocity Performed and displayed in Integrated control points of a velocity
Analysis based on Stacking Canvas > 3D Canvas. grid
Velocity Inversion
Where and How is Velocity Data Used?

In Migrations:
• 2D Depth migrations require instantaneous velocity data in section representation.
• 2D Time migrations require RMS and instantaneous velocity data in section representation.
• 3D Depth migrations require instantaneous velocity data in volume representation.
• 3D Time migrations require RMS and instantaneous velocity data in volume representation.
In NMO Stacking:
• You can apply NMO and stack all types of prestack data (time gathers, NMO corrected Time
gathers, Time Migrated gathers, or Depth gathers) using any type of velocity data (vertical
functions, horizons, or sections). Each data type requires its own velocity field. NMO
corrected and migrated gathers use the residual velocity field for moveout correction.
2D Applications Based on Ray Tracing

Table 1 2D Applications Based on Ray Tracing
Process Required Input Velocity Required Input Velocity Data

Information
Horizon Demigration RMS or Stacking Velocity profile or section in 2D.
Time Migrated /Time Velocity maps along horizons in 3D.
Horizon Migration Instantaneous Velocity Velocity profile or section in 2D.
Time /Depth Velocity maps along horizons in 3D.
Velocity volume in 3D.
Velocities defined in Formation Table in 3D.
Horizon Migration Instantaneous Velocity Velocity profile or section in 2D.
Time Migrated /Depth Velocity maps along horizons in 3D.
Velocity volume in 3D.
Velocities defined in Formation Table in 3D.

Process Required Input Velocity Required Input Velocity Data

Information
Horizon Migration RMS Velocity Velocity profile or section in 2D.
Time ‘Time Migrated Velocity maps along horizons in 3D.
Horizon Modeling Instantaneous Velocity Velocity profile or section in 2D.
Depth ‘Time Velocity maps along horizons in 3D.
Horizon Modeling Instantaneous Velocity Velocity profile or section in 2D.
Depth ‘Time Migrated Velocity maps along horizons in 3D.
Table 2 Velocity Estimation Applications
Velocity Application Window

Stacking (Vstk) • Vertical Velocity Analysis • Vertical Functions
• Automatic transformation • Velocity Navigator (2D or 3D)
• 2D Horizon-Based Velocity • Integrated Canvas > BaseMap or
Analysis and Velocity 3D Canvas
Transformation • Integrated Canvas3D Canvas
• Map-Based Velocity • Velocity Navigator
Transformation
• Solid-Based Velocity
Transformation
• Velocity Section Transformation
RMS (Vrms) • Vertical Velocity Analysis • Vertical Functions
• Automatic transformation • Velocity Navigator (2D/3D)
• 2D Velocity Transformation • Integrated Canvas > BaseMap or
• Map-Based Velocity 3D Canvas
Transformation • Integrated Canvas > 3D Canvas
• Solid-Based Velocity • Velocity Navigator
Transformation

Velocity Application Window

Instantaneous (Vint) • Automatic transformation • Vertical Functions
• 2D Velocity Transformation • Velocity Navigator (2D/3D)
• 2D Ray-Based Velocity Analysis • Velocity Navigator (2D/3D)
• Map-Based Velocity • Integrated Canvas > BaseMap/3D
Transformations Canvas
• 3D Stacking Velocity Inversion • Integrated Canvas > 3D Canvas
• Solid-Based Velocity • Integrated Canvas > 3D Canvas
Transformation • Velocity Navigator
• ZO Tomography
• Velocity Navigator
• 2D/3D Tomography
Vertical gradient • Formation Table • Integrated Canvas > BaseMap
• Vertical Gradient Analysis • Velocity Navigator
• Velocity Model Extraction and
Gradient from Velocity Section
Average (Vavg) • Automatic transformation • Vertical Functions
• Map-Based Velocity • Integrated Canvas > BaseMap
Transformation • Integrated Canvas > 3D Canvas
• Solid-Based Velocity
Transformation
Pseudo instantaneous • Well markers • Integrated Canvas > BaseMap
Vertical Function Types and Names Created in Velocity Navigator

Velocity Navigator is an application that enable you to create and edit vertical functions. This
application create vertical function interpretation and models. The table below lists the vertical
function default names and types created. When you manually pick vertical functions they are
given a default name. When you perform automatic picking, or when you save vertical function
models, you can specify a user-defined name.
Table 3 VF Names and Types Saved in Vel. Nav.
VF Name Data Set Data Type Domain Description Saved In

Vertical Functions - Interpretation
Stacking Velocity Interpretation Velocity Time Stacking Velocity Vel. Nav.
vs. Time Interpretation
Interpretation


Res. Stacking Interpretation Res. Velocity Time Res. Stacking Velocity Vel. Nav.
Velocity vs. Time interpretation
Res. Time Moveout Interpretation Res. Moveout Time Res. Time Moveout Vel. Nav.
vs. Time interpretation
Interpretation
RMS Velocity vs. Interpretation Velocity Time Mig. RMS Velocity Vel. Nav.
Time Mig. interpretation
Interpretation
Res. Time Mig. Interpretation Res. Moveout Time Mig. Res. Time Mig. Vel. Nav.
Moveout vs. Time Moveout
Mig. Interpretation interpretation
Res. RMS Velocity Interpretation Res. Velocity Time Mig. Res. RMS Velocity Vel. Nav.
vs. Time Mig. interpretation
Res. Interval Interpretation Res. Velocity Time Mig. Res. Interval Velocity Vel. Nav.
Velocity vs. Time interpretation in Time
Mig. Mig.
Residual Depth Interpretation Res. Moveout Depth Res. Depth Moveout Vel. Nav.
Moveout vs. Depth interpretation
Interpretation
Res. RMS Velocity Interpretation Res. Velocity Depth Res. RMS Velocity in Vel. Nav.
vs. Depth Depth
Res. Interval Interpretation Res. Velocity Depth Res. Interval Velocity Vel. Nav.
Velocity vs. Depth Interpretation in
Depth
ETA Effective vs. Interpretation Anisotropy Time ETA interpretation Vel. Nav.
Time
Interpretation
Delta Interval Res. Interpretation Res. Time Mig. Res. Interval Delta Vel. Nav.
vs. Time Mig. Anisotropy Interpretation
Epsilon Interval Interpretation Res. Time Mig. Res. Interval Epsilon Vel. Nav.
Res. vs. Time Mig. Anisotropy Interpretation
ETA Effective vs. Interpretation Anisotropy Time Mig. ETA interpretation Vel. Nav.
Time Mig.
Interpretation
Delta Interval Res. Interpretation Res. Depth Res. Interval Delta Vel. Nav.
vs. Depth Anisotropy interpretation
Epsilon Interval Interpretation Res. Depth Res. Interval Epsilon Vel. Nav.
Res. vs. Depth Anisotropy interpretation
ETA Effective vs. Interpretation Anisotropy Depth ETA interpretation Vel. Nav.
Depth
Interpretation


Vertical Functions - Models
Res. Stacking Model Res. Velocity Time Res. Stacking Velocity Vel. Nav.
Velocity vs. Time model, created when
Model you select to save
vertical function
model of Res. Stacking
Velocity.
Stacking Velocity Model Velocity Time Updated Stacking Vel. Nav
vs. Time Updated Velocity model,
by Res. created from Stacking
velocity vertical
function models
extracted on the fly
from the Active
Stacking Velocity
volume + Res. Stacking
Velocity vertical
function model
Res. Time Moveout Model Res. Moveout Time Res. Time Moveout Vel. Nav.
vs. Time Model model
Stacking Velocity Not applicable Not Not Updated Stacking Vel. Nav.
vs Time Updated applicable applicable Velocity model,
created from Stacking
Velocity vertical
function model
from the Active
Stacking Velocity
volume or section +
Res. Moveout vertical
function model
Res. RMS Velocity Model Res. Velocity Time Mig. Res. RMS Velocity Vel. Nav.
vs. Time Mig. model created when
Model you select to save
vertical function
models of Res. RMS
Velocity.


RMS Velocity vs. Model Velocity Time Mig. Updated RMS Velocity Vel. Nav.
Time Mig. Updated model, created from
by Res. RMS velocity vertical
function model
from the Active RMS
velocity volume or
section + Res. RMS
vertical function
model.
Res. Time Mig. Model Res. Moveout Time Mig. Res. Time Mig. Vel. Nav.
Moveout vs. Time Moveout model
Mig. Model
RMS Velocity vs. Model Velocity Time Mig. Updated RMS Velocity Vel. Nav.
Time Mig. Updated model, created from
RMS velocity vertical
function model
from the Active RMS
Velocity volume or
section + Res. Time
Mig vertical function
model
Interval Velocity vs. Model Velocity Time Mig. Interval Velocity model Vel. Nav.
Time Mig. Model in Time Mig. domain
created when you
select to save vertical
function models of
Stacking Velocity or
RMS Velocity vertical
function interpretation
(Velocity Navigator,
Vertical Functions
Window)
Res. Depth Model Res. Moveout Depth Res. Depth Moveout Vel. Nav.
Moveout vs. Depth Model
Model


Interval Velocity vs. Model Velocity Depth Updated Interval Vel. Nav.
Depth Updated by Velocity model,
Res. created from Interval
Velocity
vertical function
model extracted on
the fly from the Active
Interval Res. Velocity
volume or section +
Res. RMS Velocity in
Depth vertical function
model
Res. RMS Velocity Model Res. Velocity Depth Res. RMS Velocity in Vel. Nav
vs. Depth Model Depth model created
when you select to
save vertical function
model of RMS Velocity
in Depth.
Interval Velocity vs. Model Velocity Depth Updated Interval Vel. Nav
Depth Updated by Velocity model,
Res. created from Interval
Velocity
vertical function
model extracted on
the fly from the active
Interval Velocity
volume or section +
Res. Depth Moveout
vertical function
model

Workflows
Vertical Velocity Analysis (VVA) Workflow
Vertical Stacking or RMS Velocity Analysis
Stacking Velocity Interpretation
NMO Correction
Dix Transformation to Interval Velocities
Depth Imaging
Residual Depth Moveout Analysis
Horizon Velocity Analysis (HVA) Workflow
Option 1
This option should be used for simple models.

Horizon-Based Stacking
Velocity Analysis
Stacking Velocity
Interpretation
Dix Transformation to
Interval Velocities
Ray Migration to Obtain

Depth Interfaces
Option 2
This option uses the layer-stripping approach and can be used with 2D and 3D data with
raypath bending, dip and sideswipe.
Ray-Based Time Gather

Instantaneous Velocity Analysis
Ray Migration to Obtain

Depth Interfaces
Residual Moveout Analysis Workflows

Residual moveout analysis is an iterative procedure. You first define your initial velocity model
and then perform the analysis. If it is a stacking velocity model, you apply NMO; if it is an RMS or
instantaneous velocity model you apply prestack migration (time or depth respectively). The
second step is residual moveout analysis, updating your initial velocity model and applying the
new model (NMO or prestack migration). This process can be repeated as long as the gathers
are not flat.
Three residual moveout analysis workflows are presented below. See “Residual Velocity
Analysis Workflow #1” on page 109-22, “Residual Velocity Workflow #2” on page 109-23, and
“Residual Analysis Workflow #3” on page 109-24.

Residual Velocity Analysis Workflow #1
Stacking Velocity Analysis
NMO
yes
Flat Gathers END
no
Residual Time
Moveout Analysis
Residual NMO
yes
Flat Gathers END
no
Update Stacking
Velocity Model

Residual Velocity Workflow #2
Create Initial RMS

Velocity Model
Prestack Time
Migration
Flat Gathers yes

END
no
Residual Time Migrated

Moveout Analysis
Update RMS
Velocity Model

Residual Analysis Workflow #3
Create Initial Instantaneous Velocity Model

(Using Dix or Coherency Inversion)
Prestack Depth
Migration
yes
Flat
FlatGathers
Gathers END
no
Residual Depth
Moveout Analysis
Update Interval
Velocity Model
What Can You Do with Residual Information?

Residual data defines the residual moveout, that is, the moveout correction. This moveout
correction can be used to flatten gathers. You can flatten gathers in two ways:
• You use residual moveout to define the error in the velocity model and update the velocity
model. You then rerun the migration using the corrected model to flatten gathers and
improve your image.
• Apply the residual moveout to restack the gathers you created from the initial velocity
section.
Using this procedure acknowledges that the initial velocity model was wrong. However, we
can obtain a better stack image by flattening the gathers without actually updating the
velocity model.
The workflow for this approach is:

Initial RMS or Instantaneous Velocity Model
Prestack
Migration
Residual Moveout
Analysis
Residual Moveout
Correction
Stack
Migrated Image
Coherency Inversion and Stacking Velocity Inversion

Coherency inversion, a velocity analysis method, is provided for analyzing instantaneous
velocities. Coherency inversion is a method for directly defining the instantaneous velocity
within the layer without using the Dix transformation.
Stacking velocity inversion is a similar method for deriving instantaneous velocities. It uses as
input to the stacking velocity field.
For a detailed technical description of coherency inversion in the Velocity Navigator window,
see “Depth Domain Interval Velocity Analysis (Coherency Inversion)” on page 112-59.
Tomography
Tomography is a method for updating the initial instantaneous velocity model. It updates both
the instantaneous velocity and depth models. For a detailed description of Tomography in the
Velocity Navigator window, see “Depth Domain Interval Velocity Refinement” on page 112-80.

Special Cases
This section describes velocity analysis for multi-valued depth and time migrated horizons, and
for time horizons resulting from time demigration.
Salt Domes with Multi-Valued Depth and Time Horizons

Figure 3
formation 1
SR01
SR01
SR02
formation 2
SR02
multi-valued depth or time demigrated horizons

time migrated horizon
segments of SR01 defining

formation 2
In Figure 3 on page 109-26, segments of surface SR01 define the base of formation 2. Segment
numbers for the salt dome example are given in the following table.
Table 4 Formation Codes for Salt Dome Example
Segment Formation Surface

1 1 SR01
2 2 SR01
3 2 SR02
When you perform velocity estimation or residual analysis for a multi-valued horizon, the
system takes the segments with the minimum time or depth values by default.
In the salt dome example, when performing instantaneous velocity estimation for formation 2
(where there are multiple values), the system by default uses segments number 2 from surface
SR01 and segments from surface SR02 as shown in Figure 4 on page 109-27.

Figure 4
segments used for velocity

estimation for formation 2
SR01
SR02
time demigrated horizons
The semblance section for a formation is thus created from different surfaces. The system
assigns the velocity for a given CMP to all picked points for that CMP in that formation. You can
control which segments the system uses by turning off formation codes in the Formation
Codes dialog box. For example, if you decide that you wish to use only SR02 segments
(formation code 3) to estimate velocities for formation 2 you can turn off the number 2
segments in the Formation Codes dialog box.
Note When performing velocity estimation for complex structures you
can only use multi-valued time picks resulting from demigration as
model building for interpreted time picks only assigns one horizon to
each formation. To edit demigrated picks, see “Editing Demigrated
Picks” on page 129-60.
Similarly, when performing velocity analysis or residual analysis using time migrated or depth
picks as input, the segments used by default for formation 2 in the salt dome example are
shown in Figure 5 on page 109-27.
Figure 5
formation 1
segments used for velocity

estimation for formation 2
SR01
formation 2
SR02

Technical Information on Interpolation
Overview
The GeoDepth system uses two velocity models to transform instantaneous velocity into
effective models, and vice versa. Linear Instantaneous Velocity is conventional and widely used.
The Exponential asymptotically bounded model is original (Ravve and Koren, 2004). Both of
them represent the effect of gradually increasing velocities with depth in compacted sediment
layers.
The velocity-depth model is represented by a set of formations which are separated by
interfaces. Within each formation the velocity is defined by a single-valued velocity function of
the form of Equation 13 on page 109-28.
The system can use several methods for interpolating between stacking (RMS) velocity nodes
with specific traveltimes. These stacking velocity nodes can be either arbitrary points vertically
picked during the vertical velocity analysis, or extracted values along time maps which
represent the base of actual geological formations.
In the vertical mode, the vertical velocity profile is composed by a set of points indicating layer
interfaces. The velocity function at each layer is defined by the proposed model. In the case of
extracted values along maps, additional information, such as the vertical velocity gradient and
the reference depth level for instantaneous velocities, can be used.
For brief explanations about each of the interpolation methods offered in the GeoDepth
system, see “Interpolation Methods” on page 109-42.
For the linear model, at each given layer, the parameters are the velocity and its vertical
gradient at the top interface. The other nonlinear model, the Exponential model, requires an
additional parameter which is an asymptotic instantaneous velocity at large depth.
In the sediment basins, the velocity gradually increases with depth due to the effect of
compaction. The rate of change is stronger at the upper layer and gradually decreases with
depth. Several velocity models have been suggested to describe the velocity profile in
compacted sediment layers. The simplest one is the piecewise-constant model with a number
of horizontal layers of different constant velocities (Dix, 1955; Hubral and Krey, 1980). More
complex models assume that the velocity varies in a systematic continuous manner. One case
of considerable importance is the linear increase of velocity with depth. It is generally accepted
and often confirmed b in the work by Slotnick (1959).
The classical instantaneous linear velocity model,
Equation 13 v  x, y, z  = V  x, y  + g  x, y   z – z  x, y  
0 0
where:
x, y = horizontal coordinates
z = depth
V0(x,y) = instantaneous velocity at the reference depth level z0(x,y)

g(x,y) = vertical velocity gradient

(Slotnick, 1936), is limited because it tends towards unbounded velocity with increasing layer
thickness. V0(x,y) is the top interface instantaneous velocity, and g(x,y) is a constant vertical
gradient in the linear model. For large thicknesses, this models does not represent the actual
physical compaction effect which occurs in sediment layers.
The main advantage of the Exponential model is a controlled, monotonously increasing
instantaneous velocity which asymptotically approaches a finite limit V at large depth. This
maximum velocity is usually assumed known a priori from geological information on fully
compacted sediments. Thus, only two independent parameters: the top interface
instantaneous velocity V0(x,y) and its vertical gradient g(x,y) at the same point are normally
required to accurately describe the nonlinear increasing velocity with depth. These are the
same two parameters used in the classical models mentioned above. Moreover, in cases where
the layer thickness is relatively small, or when the bounded velocity value is very high, the
exponential velocity model is reduced to the classical linear model. The asymptotically
bounded nature of the exponential function allows obtaining stable and geologically
constrained velocity models when applying the inverse Dix transforms, which are known to be
very sensitive to small variations in the effective model parameters. The fewer number of layers
(intervals) required to describe the velocity profile makes this type of velocity function very
useful in any velocity analysis, inversion, or time-to-depth conversion schemes.
In addition to the effect of compaction, several other factors influence seismic velocity, such as
pore shape, pore pressure, pore fluid saturation, confining pressure, and temperature. These
factors may cause local anomalies over the general trend of increased velocity with depth. In
addition, high velocity rocks, such as salts or carbonates, may also cause velocity anomalies. In
these cases, we apply a special treatment to identify the discontinuities and to establish the
parameters of the velocity distribution.
Velocity Definitions
Generally, we distinguish between three velocity functions: The instantaneous velocity V0,n, the
average velocity V1,n, and the RMS velocity V2,n. We assume a layered medium, with n the
index of the current layer. In the analysis of the anisotropy induced by the layered structure, we
consider also the fourth-order average velocity V4. Within the interval, each of the above
velocities may be a function of depth or time. These functions accept definite values at the
interfaces of the interval. The instantaneous velocity is defined as:
dz t 
Equation 14 V0,n t   and V0,n z   V0,n t  z 
dt
We introduce the relative depth ẑ and the relative interval traveltime  measured from the
top interface of the given layer:
zˆ  z  z n 1 0  zˆ  z n z n  z n  z n 1
Equation 15
  t  t n 1 0    t n t n  t n  t n 1

In this document all traveltimes are one way. The interfaces are enumerated starting from zero,
and the intervals are enumerated starting from one. The top interface of the interval n has
number n  1 , and the bottom interface of this interval has number n . We use also notations
Va,n and Vb ,n for the instantaneous velocities at the top and bottom interfaces of interval n ,
respectively.
The average velocity is the ratio of the full depth to the full traveltime. The depth and the
traveltime include all previous layers and partially or completely the current layer:
z t 
V1 t   V1  z  
z
Equation 16
t t z 
The RMS velocity squared is defined as:
t t
V22 t     V02 ~
t  d~
t    V0 ~
z  d~
1 1
Equation 17 z
t 0 t 0
The fourth-order average velocity:
t t
V44 t     V04 ~
t  d~
t    V03 ~
z  d~
1 1
Equation 18 z
t 0 t 0
The velocities may be related to both intervals and their interfaces. Velocity related to the n -th
interval is a function of depth or time: Vk ,n  zˆ  or Vk ,n  
where:
k  0,1, 2, 4 is the order of velocity
n is the number of the interval. Velocity related to the interface is not a function (it is just a
number)
Vk,n-1 and Vk,n are velocities of order k at the top and bottom interfaces of interval n .
In case of a discontinuous distribution, the instantaneous velocity V0 may have jumps at the
interfaces, i.e., there may be two values of the instantaneous velocity at the same point: a limit
from above and a limit from below. Velocities of higher (non-zero) order are always continuous,
but in case of discontinuous instantaneous velocity their derivatives in depth or time become
discontinuous.
The instantaneous velocity VINT,n is the local average velocity over the interval. Unlike the
global average velocityV1,n , the instantaneous velocity does not account for the previous
intervals and accounts for the current interval completely:
t n
Equation 19 z  V   d
0,n
VINT,n  n  0
t n t n

The instantaneous velocity is not a function, it is a number which can be estimated for each
interval.
By analogy, we introduce the local RMS velocity on the interval:
t n
Equation 20
RMS
VINT , n  Wn / t n where Wn   V02,n   d  V22,n  t n  V22,n 1  t n 1
0
where: Wn is a hyperbolic parameter.
VINT  VINT
RMS
In all cases the inequality holds:
where the equality takes place only in case of a constant instantaneous velocity on the interval.
Piecewise-constant instantaneous velocity on the interval is assumed in the conventional Dix
inversion. In this algorithm (Dix, 1955), the local RMS velocity on each interval is calculated by
Equation 20 on page 109-31, but it is usually called “the instantaneous velocity”, because for
the constant instantaneous velocity these two values coincide.
The vertical gradient k,n is defined as the derivative of the instantaneous velocity with respect
to depth, and it may be a function of either depth or traveltime:
dV0,n  z 
Equation 21 k n z   and k n t   k n z t 
dz
In case of the linear velocity distribution in depth, the gradient is constant over the interval. For
the nonlinear distributions, ko,n is the vertical gradient of the instantaneous velocity at the top
interface of interval n .
Linear Velocity Model

There may be two cases of piecewise linear velocity:
• Continuous linear distribution, when the instantaneous velocity at the bottom interface of
the previous depth interval is equal to the instantaneous velocity at the top interface of the
next interval.
• Discontinuous distribution with constant gradient inside the interval and finite “jumps” of
the instantaneous velocity on the interval interfaces.
In either case, the distribution of the instantaneous velocity in depth can be specified by just
two parameters: its values at the top and bottom interfaces of the interval, Va,n and Vb,n ,
respectively. Alternatively, these parameters may be: The instantaneous velocity at the top
interface of the interval and the vertical gradient of the instantaneous velocity k,n . For a
continuous distribution, Vn-1,b =Vn,a. Assume the instantaneous velocity is specified by its
values at the interfaces, Va,n and Vb,n . For any interval, 0  zˆ  z n and z n  z n  z n 1 .
The instantaneous velocity interpolation reads:
Equation 22 V0,n  zˆ   Va ,n  Vb ,n  Va ,n  zˆ / z n

Let us introduce the velocity gradient
Vb ,n  Va ,n
Equation 23 kn 
z n
Actually, this is the average value of the gradient in case when the velocity distribution is not
exactly linear. The traveltime vs. thickness for the -th interval:
z n
dzˆ z n V 1 V
Equation 24 t n   V zˆ   V
0 0,n b , n  Va , n
 ln b ,n
Va ,n
or t n 
kn
 ln b ,n
Va ,n
This formula should not be used when the gradient becomes too small, and the velocities at
the top and bottom interfaces are very close. In this case, the traveltime is expanded into the
 
Taylor series in the proximity of the average value Va , n  Vb , n / 2 . The interval thickness vs.
traveltime is given by:
expkn tn   1 Vb ,n  Va ,n
zn  Va ,n  or z n   t n
ln Vb ,n / Va ,n 
Equation 25
kn
The bottom interface instantaneous velocity:
Equation 26 Vb ,n  Va ,n  expk n t n 
Linear variation of the instantaneous velocity in depth means linear variation of its logarithm in
time. The instantaneous velocity is defined as a local average velocity through the interval:
z n Vb ,n  Va ,n
Equation 27 VInt ,n  
t n ln Vb ,n  ln Va ,n
It follows from the Arithmetic-Logarithmic-Geometric Mean Inequality that
Va ,n  Vb.n
Equation 28 Va ,n  Vb.n  VInt ,n 
2
For the linear distribution of the instantaneous velocity in depth, the instantaneous velocity is
more than geometric average and less than arithmetic average of the two instantaneous
interface velocities Va,n and Vb,n.
The instantaneous velocity in terms of the interval depth is given by:
z n k n  z n
VInt ,n z n   
t n z n  ln 1  k n z n / Va ,n 
Equation 29
The instantaneous velocity in terms of the traveltime:
z n t n  expk n   1
Equation 30 VInt ,n t n    Va ,n 
t n k n  t n
In order to calculate the RMS velocity, we introduce a hyperbolic parameter Wn :

t
n
 k z 
Equation 31 Wn z n    V02,n   d  Va ,n  n n   z n
0  2 
The layer thickness z n can be eliminated from this equation:
Vb2,n  Va2,n Vb2,n  Va2,n

Wn Va ,n ,Vb ,n   Wn   t n
2 ln Vb ,n / Va ,n 
Equation 32
2 kn
Parameter vs. interval traveltime:
exp2 k n t n   1
Equation 33 Wn t n   Va2,n 
2 kn
The general formulae for the bottom interface average and RMS velocity (valid for any
distribution):
Equation 34
V1,n 1  t n 1  z n t n  V1,n 1  t n 1  z n
V1,n t n   V1,n z n  
t n 1  t n t n 1  t n z n 
Equation 35
V22,n 1  t n 1  Wn t n  V22,n 1  t n 1  Wn z n 
V 2
tn   V 2
zn  
t n 1  t n t n 1  t n z n 
2,n 2,n
To obtain the average and RMS velocity at the internal points of the interval, we just replace
t n by  and z n by ẑ .
The fourth-order average velocity depends on the fourth-order parameter Hn :
H n  V
t n
4
  d 
V a ,n  
 Vb ,n  Va2,n  Vb2,n  z n
Equation 36 0,n
0
4
or alternatively,
Vb4,n  Va4,n Vb4,n  Va4,n

Hn   t n 
4 ln Vb ,n / Va ,n 
Equation 37
4 kn
The general formulae (independent of the specific velocity model) for the fourth-order average
velocity at the bottom interface vs. thickness or traveltime are:
V44,n 1  t n 1  H n z n  V44,n 1  t n 1  H n t n 

V 4
zn   V 4
tn  
t n 1  t n z n 
Equation 38
t n 1  t n
4,n 4,n
Parameter Hn depends on the bottom interface instantaneous velocity, which, in turn, can be
expressed through the thickness or traveltime. The fourth order average velocity is needed to
establish the effective anelipticity parameter  , defined by:

V44,n  V24,n
Equation 39  n 
8V24,n
Equation 39 on page 109-34 is valid for any velocity model.
In the inversion problem, we first consider a general case where one of the two parameters –
top interface velocity and its gradient – is specified and the other one is unknown. The
formulations may also differ by the input data: given RMS velocity vs. depth or time or depth vs.
time (average velocity). The goal is to define the missing parameter at the upper interface of
the linear interval. For RMS velocity vs. depth, the resolving equation is
 k z   k z 
Equation 40 V 2
2,n 
 V22,n 1  t n 1 
V22,n
kn
 ln1  n n   Va ,n  n n   z n
Va ,n   2 

and we solve it either for the top interface velocity Va,n, or for the constant gradient kn, given
the top interface traveltime tn-1, the width of the interval Zn, and the RMS velocities at the
upper and lower interfaces, V2,n-1 and V2,n, respectively.
If the data is the RMS velocity vs. traveltime, we first establish the hyperbolic parameter Wn:
Equation 41 Wn  V22,n  t n 1  t n   V22,n 1  t n 1

The resolving equation is:
2 exp  2k n t n  – 1
Equation 42 W n  t n  = V a n  ----------------------------------------
2k n
If the unknown value is the top interface velocity the top interface, then:
2 Wn k n
Va ,n 
exp2k n t n   1
Equation 43
If the unknown is the gradient, we solve the equation numerically.

The width of the interval Zn:
2 Wn k t
Equation 44 z n   tanh n n
kn 2
The equations in this section hold for both positive and negative gradient kn. If the depth is
given vs. traveltime, we can find Va,n by:
k n z n
Va ,n 
expk n t n   1
Equation 45
or one can solve this equation numerically for a known value Va,n and unknown gradient kn.
In addition to a general Dix transform, we consider a special Dix inversion for the linear
distribution of the instantaneous velocity in depth. Both parameters of the distribution – the

instantaneous velocity at the top interface and the vertical gradient of the velocity – are
unknown. However, the RMS or average velocity is specified vs. depth not only at the top and
bottom interfaces, but also at an arbitrary internal point of the interval. The intermediate point
is not an interface: the linear distribution is continuous at this point, and the gradient of the
velocity is constant between the top and bottom interfaces. The input data may be of the same
three types: RMS velocity vs. depth or time, or average velocity. In this case, we solve a set of
two nonlinear equations to get both Va,n and kn.
In rare cases, the RMS velocity may be known vs. both interval thickness and traveltime, but on
the two interfaces only, and with both parameters of the linear distribution unknown. Then the
resolving equation is
k n t n k n z n2
Equation 46 tanh 
2 2Wn
The non-vertical traveltime is approximated by (Alkhalifah and Tsvankin, 1995):
x2 2 n x 4
tn2  t02, n  
Equation 47

V22,n V22,n V22,nt02, n  1  2 n  x 2 
Here t0, n t0,n is the two-way vertical time and x is the full offset. The non-hyperbolic term is
caused by the vertically varying velocity and a possible inner anisotropy of the seismic medium.
In the presence of the inner anisotropy, we assume that the anisotropic parameters Int , n and
 Int , n are constant over the layer (interval between two points), describing the inner
anisotropy by averaged interval values. To account for the inner anisotropy, parameters Wn
Wn and Hn should be factored:
Wn  fW  Wn , fW  1  2 Int ,n
f H  fW2  1  8 Int ,n 
Equation 48
Hn  fH  Hn ,
Exponential Asymptotically Bounded Velocity Model

The proposed velocity model is given by:
  k zˆ 
Equation 49 V0, n  zˆ   Va , n  Vn  1  exp  o , n  , V , n  Va , n  Vn
  Vn 
where:
n is the layer index
V0,n  zˆ  is the instantaneous velocity function vs. relative depth
Va,n is the instantaneous velocity at the top interface of the given layer

Vn is the instantaneous velocity range, defined as a the difference between the
asymptotic velocity V ,n and the top interface velocity
Va,n .ko,n is the velocity gradient at the top interface
0  zˆ  zn is the relative depth measured from the top interface
zn is the layer thickness

The velocity gradient decreases with depth and vanishes at infinite depth.
The proposed EAB model within a single layer (interval) is defined by the three parameters: Va,n
, ko,n and V , n . However, the last parameter V , n is assumed to be a priori known.
We define a thin layer as the case where zn  Vn / ko , n . By expanding the exponent into the
Taylor series, it becomes evident that in the case of a thin layer, the exponent is reduced to the
linear distribution. This makes the EAB model very attractive, especially due to the fact that the
linear model is commonly used in a variety of seismic processing applications.
The forward velocity transforms provide the effective model parameters, assuming the three
parameters of the exponential distribution (EAB) are known. These transforms provide the
average velocity V1 , RMS velocity V2 and the fourth order average V4. These are used for solving
the problems of time-depth conversion and for estimating the parameters for hyperbolic and
non-hyperbolic moveouts.
We derived the dependencies for the instantaneous velocity and its vertical gradient vs. depth
and traveltime, and also for time vs. depth and depth vs. time. These formulae follow from the
definition of the EAB model given in Equation 49 on page 109-35.
The instantaneous velocity at the bottom interface vs. layer thickness and interval traveltime:
Equation 50 V0, n zn   Va , n  Vn  1  exp ko , n zn / Vn 
Va , n V , n
V0, n tn  
Va , n  Vn  exp ko , n tn  V , n / Vn 
Equation 51
The vertical gradient of the instantaneous velocity at the bottom interface vs. layer thickness
and interval traveltime are:
Equation 52 k n z n   ko ,n  exp ko ,n zn / Vn 
ko ,n V ,n
k n t n  
Va ,n  expko ,n V ,n tn / Vn   Vn
Equation 53
Note that the vertical velocity gradient is gradually decreased with increasing depth or time.
Interval traveltime vs. layer thickness:

Vn V expk o ,n z n / Vn   Vn

Equation 54 t n z n    ln  ,n
ko ,n V ,n Va ,n
Layer thickness vs. interval traveltime:
Vn V expk o ,n t n V ,n / Vn   Vn

Equation 55 z n t n    ln a ,n
ko,n V ,n
The ratio VInt , n  zn / tn is the instantaneous velocity, the local average through the
exponential interval, and can be also expressed either through the layer thickness, or through
the interval traveltime:
V , n ko , n zn
VInt , n zn   
Equation 56 Vn V , n  expko , n zn / Vn   Vn
ln
Va , n
Vn V expko ,n t n V ,n / Vn   Vn

Equation 57 VInt ,n t n    ln a ,n
k o ,n  t n V ,n
The hyperbolic parameter Wn of the given interval in the absence of inner anisotropy is defined
vs. thickness or traveltime:
Vn2   k z  
Equation 58 Wn zn   V , n zn    1  exp  o, n n  
ko , n   Vn  
Vn V ,n Va ,n  expko ,n t n  V ,n / Vn   Vn

Wn t n    ln
ko ,n V ,n
expk o ,n t n  V ,n / Vn   1
Equation 59
Va ,n Vn2
 
k o ,n Va ,n  expko ,n t n  V ,n / Vn   Vn
Thus, the RMS velocity at the bottom interface can be obtained both as a function of layer
thickness and as a function of traveltime.
The non-hyperbolic parameter Hn of the given interval in the absence of inner anisotropy is:
Hn Vb , n  Va , n
 V3, n  
zn ln V , n  Va , n   ln V , n  Vb , n 
Va2,n  Va , n Vb , n  Vb2,n V , n Va , n  Vb , n  2V , n 
Equation 60
  
 3 2 
For the inversion we again distinguish three problems, according to the different types of input
data. The RMS velocity may be specified at the interfaces vs. the thickness of the layer. The
resolving equation is:

V22,n Vn V expko ,n z n / Vn   Vn Vn2

 ln  ,n  
ko ,nV ,n V ,n  Vn k o ,n
Equation 61
Vn2
k o ,n
 
exp ko ,n z n / Vn   V ,n zn  V22,n  V22,n1 t n1
The equation is to be solved either for an unknown gradient at the top interface ko,n , or for an
unknown instantaneous velocity range Vn  V , n  Va , n . In case when the RMS velocity is
specified vs. the interval traveltime, the resolving equation is:
Vn  V , n V  expko , n tn  V , n / Vn   Vn

 ln a , n 
ko , n V , n
expko , n tn  V , n / Vn   1
Equation 62
Va , n Vn2
  Wn
ko , n Va , n  expko , n tn  V , n / Vn   Vn
Finally, in case when the average velocity is specified vs. layer thickness or traveltime, or,
alternatively, layer thickness is specified vs. traveltime, the resolving equation is Equation 55 on
page 109-37.
Continuity Rules
Inverse Dix transforms are extensively used in seismic processing. Average velocities or time-
depth pairs are generally the input for the time-depth conversion process. RMS velocity
functions are the common input data in velocity analysis. It is well known that the conventional
Dix inversion is very sensitive to small perturbations in the RMS velocities, leading to strong
velocity variations and non-plausible geological models. Any inversion procedure should
therefore be constrained to meet the local geological rules.
According to the above-mentioned geological constraints and some continuity rules which are
given below, we distinguish between three types of velocity inversions:
Steps 1 Continuous instantaneous velocity along the interface points. The top interface velocity
Va,n = Vb,n-1 is known from the analysis of the upper interval, and only the top interface
gradient ko,n has to be established.
2 Discontinuous distribution, where the vertical gradient is a priori known (e.g., measured
from sonic logs). The points where the gradient is specified are assumed interfaces, and
only the instantaneous velocity should be defined at these points.
3 Discontinuous distribution, where the two parameters, Va,n and ko,n should be found. This
case corresponds to the discontinuity at the sea bottom and discontinuities along velocity
anomaly points.
The first two cases are described by a nonlinear equation with a single unknown variable, and
require input data (the effective velocities) at two successive points (interface points). The third
case is described by a set of two nonlinear equations. The data comprises the effective
velocities given at three successive points (top interface, intermediate level and bottom

interface). In the case where both parameters, the top interface velocity and its gradient, need
to be found, we solve a set of two equations using three successive points. In this case we
consider two intervals. The first interval is between the top interface and the intermediate level,
while the second one is between the top and the bottom interfaces. Thus, the upper interface
for both intervals is the same, and therefore the two intervals can be described by the same
parameters Va,n and ko,n , related to the upper interface.
Numerical Example
Consider a numerical example. Given a vertical function of RMS velocities vs. time, we find the
instantaneous velocities at the interfaces and compute the instantaneous velocities on a fine
vertical time grid. We assume here that the interfaces between the layers are six nodes of the
input vertical function. These nodes are shown in Figure 6 on page 109-40 and Figure 7 on
page 109-41 by the cross signs.
The inversion of the same data is performed using one of the following methods:
1 Standard Dix formula with piecewise constant interval velocity:
V22,n  t n  V22,n 1  t n 1
Equation 63 VINT,n 
t n  t n 1
2 Inversion with the linear velocity model.
3 Inversion with the Exponential asymptotically bounded model with the asymptotic
velocity V  5400 m/s .
After the inversion was done, the instantaneous and the RMS velocities vs. time were
calculated. The instantaneous velocities are shown by solid lines, while the RMS velocities – by
dotted lines (which pass exactly through the cross signs) the first layer is the water with the
constant instantaneous velocity. There is a discontinuity of the instantaneous velocity at the
sea bottom. Thus, for the second interval we do not know neither the top interface velocity Va,2
, nor the top gradient ko,2 (except for the case of standard Dix, where the gradient always
vanishes). For all the three models, we apply the three-point two-parameter inversion to get
these two parameters. The results for the ground velocity at the sea bottom, obtained by the
three methods are very close, but essentially differ from the standard Dix result. For the other
intervals, the standard inversion was applied. The instantaneous velocity was assumed
continuous. The top interface instantaneous velocity was considered known and coinciding
with the bottom interface velocity of the previous interval. For all the three velocity models, the
nonlinear equations were solved to establish the top interface gradient of velocity on each
interval. The last point of the input vertical function was ignored, except for the standard Dix
inversion. In the linear schemes, the velocity was clipped after node 5 at Vo = 5840 m/s and Vo =
5500 m/s, respectively, to avoid large and unrealistic values. In the exponential model, the
velocity never exceeds the pre-defined asymptotic value, and this is an essential advantage of
the exponential asymptotically bounded model.

Figure 6 RMS Velocity Transformed to Interval Velocity (using standard Dix formula/using
linear instantaneous velocity model)

Figure 7 RMS Velocity Transformed to Interval Velocity (using exponential asymptotically

bounded model)
References
Tariq Alkhalifah and Ilya Tsvankin, 1995, Velocity analysis for transversely isotropic media:
Geophysics, 60 (5), 1550-1566.
C. Hewitt Dix, 1955, Seismic velocities from surface measurements: Geophysics, 20 (1), 68-86.
Peter Hubral and Theodor Krey, 1980, Interval Velocities from Seismic Reflection Time
Measurements: Society of Exploration Geophysicists. Edited by Kenneth Larner, Western
Geophysical Company, Houston, Texas.
I. Ravve and Z. Koren, 2004. Exponential asymptotically bounded velocity model. SEG
International Exposition and 74-th Annual Meeting, VA2-6.
M.M. Slotnick, 1936, On seismic computations, with applications: Part I, Geophysics, 1 (1), 9-22
and Part II, Geophysics, 1 (3), 1936, 299-305.
M.M. Slotnick, 1959, Lessons in Seismic Computing: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
Edited by R. Geyer. Oklahoma.
Vertical Velocity Interpolations

The system supports the following interpolation methods:

Velocity Interpolations
• Linear Instantaneous Velocity
• Constant Interval Velocity
• Linear Input Function
• Formation Based
• Exponential Instantaneous Velocity
For an explanation of each type of interpolation, see “Interpolation Methods” on page 109-42.
Residual and Eta Interpolations

• Continuous Linear Interval Velocity
• Constant Residual Interval Velocity
• Linear Interpolation of Eta/Residuals
For an explanation of each type of interpolation, see “Residual Interpolation Methods” on
page 109-44.
These methods are available in the following applications and windows:
• Velocity Section Creation (see “Smoothing Velocity and Residual Sections” on page 107-46)
• Velocity Volume Creation (see “Creating Velocity Volumes” on page 117-4)
• Horizon Map and Slice Map Creation (see “Velocity Slice Transformations” on page 108-8)
• Velocity Transformation
• Vertical Functions Window
• Velocity Navigator Window
• Residual Section Creation
Interpolation Methods
Linear Instantaneous Velocity

This interpolation method assumes continuous instantaneous velocity within a set of
compacted sediment layers. The vertical velocity gradient in depth between the picked points
is assumed constant (piecewise linear velocity). In cases where the vertical gradient exceeds a
predefined range (normally set between -2 to 2 1/s), the system assumes a discontinuity in the
velocity profile (associated with non sediment layer, such as salt, basalt or a gas pocket with
low velocity anomaly). In such cases the velocity below the velocity discontinuity is assumed
constant. For more details see “Technical Information on Interpolation” on page 109-28.
Constant Interval Velocity

This type of velocity representation is appropriate for describing velocity profiles of non
sediment rocks. The velocity model is described by a set of homogeneous layers with sharp

discontinuities between the layers. This type of models is very common in the North Sea. The
Dix formula for local RMS velocity describes the velocity function and the transformation for
effective parameters like RMS velocity.
Linear Input Function

This interpolation uses a straightforward linear interpolation between the picked points.
When the input is RMS velocity vs. time, the RMS velocity square is linearly interpolated. This is
done in order to maintain consistent forward and inverse velocity transforms.
Exponential Instantaneous Velocity

This interpolation method is an extension of the Linear Instantaneous velocity model. An
additional asymptotically bounded value for the sediment layers is specified. In this case the
vertical velocity gradient is defined for the top interval and is gradually decreased, until
vanishing at the infinity. The system supports all types of forward and inverse velocity
transforms in a consistent manner (see Appendix). The main advantage of this type of model is
that the actual increasing velocity with depth in compacted sediment layers can be accurately
approximated by fewer points (thicker intervals) than the number of points required by using
the linear instantaneous velocity method. The velocity approaches a maximum value in a
smooth manner without sharp clipping.
Continuous Linear Interval Velocity

This interpolation method is based on two steps. In the first step a Constant Interval Velocity
interpolation is performed. In the next step, the mid values of the velocity jumps are connected
with straight lines. Although this interpolation does not maintain consistent forward and
inverse velocity transforms, it is very robust and is recommended to use for getting initial
background velocity models.
Formation Based
This method is used when working in Horizon mode where the velocity along time or depth
horizons is defined.
The velocity, vertical gradient and reference depth can be defined in the Formation Table in the
Interpretation Data Manager, or using model maps (3D), or picks (2D).
If no gradient is defined, a constant vertical velocity is assumed within each layer. If a gradient is
defined for a layer, the velocity is assumed to be the velocity at Reference Depth (V0). See
Equation 13 on page 109-28.

Residual Interpolation Methods
Constant Residual Instantaneous Velocity Interpolation

The constant residual instantaneous velocity interpolation method maintains a constant
residual instantaneous velocity between two picked residual moveout points. Figure 8 on
page 109-44 illustrates Constant Residual Instantaneous Velocity interpolation between two
picked residual moveout points. This method applies to all types of residual moveout analysis,
i.e., residual time moveout analysis, residual time migrated moveout analysis and residual
depth moveout analysis.
The interpolation procedure consists of two sequential steps:
Steps 1 A hypothetical residual instantaneous velocity (Vi) is calculated by transforming the RMS
velocity function to instantaneous velocity, calculating residual RMS velocities at the
picked points from the residual moveouts, and then solving the following quadratic Dix
based equation for the constant unknown Vi.
t1
2 2 2
Equation 64  V R + V R  t 2 –  V R + V R  t 1 =
2 2 1 1   Vi  t  + Vi  dt
t
2 An updated instantaneous velocity function is then calculated by adding the Vi. We then
transform the instantaneous velocity back to an updated RMS velocity. We transform the
residual RMS velocities to a residual moveout function using the hyperbolic form:
2  1 1  2
Equation 65   t  = t +  -------------------------------- – -------   x ref – t
  V + V  2 V 2 
R R R
where:
  t  = residual moveout function
x2ref = reference offset
Figure 8 Constant Residual Instantaneous Velocity interpolation
Residual Moveout1(R1)
. Vint1
. updated instantaneous velocity
between 2 adjacent picks is constant
.
interpolated residual
moveout
Residual Moveout 2 (R2)

. Vint2

Linear Interpolation of Residuals

Linear interpolation of residuals is an interpolation method that fits a straight line between two
adjacent residual moveout points as illustrated in Figure 9 on page 109-45.
Figure 9 Linear interpolation
Residual Moveout1
.. . Update Velocity 1
The resulting interpolated velocity

Interpolated residual is not linear between picks.
moveout
.. .
Residual Moveout 2 Update Velocity2
When you use this interpolation method, the resulting interpolated velocity is not linear,
because the relationship between residual moveout and velocity is not linear. (See “Residual
Moveout Analysis Technical Information” on page 109-11.)
In fact, since a linear interpolation between residual moveout does not have a very strong
geophysical justification, the resulting updated instantaneous velocity may not be realistic. Its
main use is for cases where you want to use residual moveout information just to apply residual
moveout and restack the data.
See Figure 10 on page 109-46.

Figure 10 Comparison of Linear Interpolation of Residuals and Constant Residual

Instantaneous Velocity Interpolation
Redatuming Vertical Velocity Functions

RMS and average velocity values, as well as time/depth pairs, are strongly influenced by the
overburden structure. This means that the lateral variability of RMS velocities is determined not
only by lateral velocity variations but also by the lateral variation of the overburden structure.
One reason for redatuming when editing, interpolating and smoothing velocity functions, is
that it can be useful to view the vertical velocity functions as if they were measured from some
datum. Anomalies become more visible after redatuming and can be edited or removed. When
editing is completed, the redatuming can be removed. Redatuming also makes it easier to find
a representative function for building a background velocity model. For example, you can
redatum the RMS vertical functions to the first surface, removing the influence of the water
layer (in marine surveys) or the weathering horizon (in land surveys).
Redatuming can be performed on RMS and average velocity functions, and time/depth pairs.
the system employs a sophisticated algorithm to ensure that either the instantaneous velocity
or time/depth functions in the Vertical Functions window maintain their original values when
redatuming is removed. The user chooses which type of function to preserve.
Redatuming of velocity functions can be used for:
• Editing vertical functions. For details see, “Editing Vertical Functions” on page 125-89.
Although redatumed functions are displayed and can be edited, they are not saved in the
database. After redatuming is removed, however, the edited functions can be saved.

• Creating velocity volumes

Velocity volumes can be created in the following ways using redatumed velocity functions:
• Creating a representative velocity function from redatumed functions then creating
the velocity volume from the representative function. For details see, “Creating Velocity
Volumes” on page 117-4.
• Creating a velocity slice from redatumed velocity functions, then creating a velocity
volumes from the slices. For details see, “Creating Velocity and Residual Slice Sets” on
page 52-143 and “Creating Velocity Volumes” on page 117-4.
When creating velocity volumes, the system automatically inserts the velocity defined in
the Formation Table for the first horizon.
Input for Redatuming

When you perform redatuming, you should select datum and velocity sources that are
consistent with your vertical functions. This will ensure that the original values are restored to
the vertical functions when the redatuming is removed. If you are working in a 2D survey, you
can choose 2D model picks or 3D model maps as horizon data. For a 3D survey, you must use
3D model maps. You define this information in the Redatuming dialog box. the system stores
this information with the redatumed data so that it can be used for removing the redatuming.
Datum sources can be:
• Time migrated horizon and velocities
• Depth horizon and velocities
• Time migrated and depth horizons
Velocity sources can be:
• Average or instantaneous velocity horizons
• Instantaneous velocity from the Formation Table
• Instantaneous velocity from a horizon or the Formation Table
• Defined from time migrated and depth
• User defined
If you are working in the Vertical Functions window, your velocity source can also be:
• Average velocity from vertical functions
Redatuming Preserving Instantaneous Velocity

Steps 1 Velocity functions (or time/depth pairs) are transformed to instantaneous velocity
functions.
2 the system finds the intersection between the instantaneous velocity function and the new
datum time migrated or depth, depending on input function domain. The time and depth
of the datum horizon is calculated using data defined in the Redatuming dialog box.
3 The instantaneous velocity points above the intersection are removed. The intersection
point is defined as zero time or depth, depending on input function domain, and is

assigned the average velocity at the datum horizon calculated using data defined in the
Redatuming dialog box.
4 The instantaneous velocity function is transformed back to the initial function or time/
depth curve, using zero statics and floating datum.
Removing Redatuming
Steps 1 Velocity functions or time/depth pairs are again transformed to instantaneous velocity
functions.
2 the system restores the original time or depth values, which were referenced to another
datum, to restore the velocity function to its original reference time or depth.
3 The interval velocities are transformed back to the initial velocity functions or time/depth
curve. After removing the redatuming, the top layer will be restored as a constant velocity
layer having a velocity equal to the average velocity of the datum horizon.
Redatuming Preserving Time/Depth Pairs

Steps 1 The velocity function is transformed to a time/depth curve.
2 The time and depth of the datum horizon is calculated using data you defined in the
Redatuming dialog box.
3 These time and depth values are subtracted from each point of the time/depth curve.
4 The new time/depth curve is transformed to the initial velocity type, using zero statics and
floating datum.
Removing Redatuming
Steps 1 The redatumed velocity function is transformed to a time/depth curve, using zero statics
and floating datum.
2 The time and depth of the datum horizon are calculated using data as stored along with
redatumed data.
3 These time and depth values are added to each point of the time/depth curve.
4 The segment of the time/depth curve between the floating datum and the datum horizon
is replaced by a straight line. This means we replace all the layers between floating datum
and the datum horizon by a single layer with constant velocity equal to the average
velocity of the datum horizon.
5 The new time/depth curve is transformed to the initial velocity type, using real statics and
floating datum.
Instantaneous Velocity Driven Vertical Velocity Transformations

The following library of equations is used to perform the vertical velocity transformations in
creating velocity sections and velocity volumes specifically and on the fly, creating and scaling

horizon maps and slice maps, interpolating velocity functions in the Vertical Functions window,
and redatuming. The library contains three types of transformation equations for three cases:
• Constant instantaneous velocity between two points - no gradient (G = 0)
• Defined gradient between two points - (G = g)
• Continuous linear interpolation between two points
The system selects the appropriate equation according to the requirements of the application,
the type of input, or user-preference.
Constant (G=0)
Equation 66 on page 109-49 is used in cases where there is no defined gradient:
.
. V
. I1
Equation 66 V . .
I2
V
I2
= V
I1
= V
I
.
Defined Velocity Gradient (G=g)
Equation 67 on page 109-49 is used in cases where the picked points are extracted from time or
depth horizons. The gradients are defined either in the Formation Table or are taken from the
values in gradient maps.
.. V
I1
Equation 67
+ g Z
VI ..
V
I2
= V
I1 2
.
Continuous Linear Interpolation
Equation 68 on page 109-50 is used when the user prefers continuous linear interpolation
between the picked points. This is a typical vertical velocity representation that is used in the
Gulf of Mexico.

V = V
-
V- .
.
I1 I2 V
I2 I1
Equation 68 V I = V I + g Z V
2 1
VI – VI
2 1
I2
.
G = ---------------------
-
Z
The following cases describe the four types of transformation equations:
where:
Va = Z/T
V = vertical velocity gradient
VI = instantaneous velocity
VR = RMS velocity
Va = Average velocity
Z = depth
T = one way time
Case 1: Input is Instantaneous Velocity as a Function of Depth (VI,Z)

a. When G = 0:
T = 
Z-
------
Equation 69 VI
T 2 = T 1 + T
Dix:
2 2
V R T 1 + V T
I
Equation 70 V = 1
--------------------------------------
-
R2 T2
b. When G = g
or
 VI
G + G= ---------
Z
Z2
 
1 g Z
--------------------------------------- = --- log  1 + ----------

dz
Equation 71 T =
V + g  z – Z1  g  V 
I1  I1 
Z1
where:

V
I T g
Z = --------1  e – 1
g
T g
V = V e
I2 I1
c. Dix transform with vertical velocity gradient:

T2
g  t – T 1 2

2 2
V T = VR T1 +
R2 2
V e
I1
dt
2
T1
Equation 72 2 2
V
R2 2
T – VR T1
1 2  1 2g T
-------------------------------------------------- = ------  e – 1
2 2g
VI
1
V = ZT
a
Case 2: Input is Instantaneous Velocity as a Function of Time (VI, T)

a. When G = 0:
Z = T  V I ; Z 2 = Z 1 + Z
Equation 73 2 2
V R T 1 + V T
2 1 I
V = --------------------------------------
-
R2 T2
b. When G = g:
VI
T g
Equation 74 Z = --------1-  e – 1
g
c. When V I = V I- :
1 2

V  V – V ; T V
I I2 I1 I
Z = -----------------------------
 V 
log  1 + --------I-
V
 I 1
V
Equation 75 g = -------
Z
V = V + g Z
I I
2 1
VR and Va as in Case 1.
Case 3: Input is RMS Velocity as a Function of Time (VR, T)

a. When G = 0:
2 2
V – V T1
R2 R1
Equation 76 VI = -----------------------------------
T
Equation 77  z =  tV I
b. When G = 0:
2 2
VR T2 – V T1
2 R1
Equation 78 V = -----------------------------------------
-
I1 1 2g  T
------  e – 1
2g
VI
1  Tg
Equation 79  Z = ---------  e – 1
g
 Tg
Equation 80 VI = VI + g  Z = VI e
2 1 1
c. When V I = V I- find g from:

1 2
2 2
2g  T VR T2 – VR T1
e –1 2 1
Equation 81 f  g  = ------------------------- – ----------------------------------------- = 0
2g 2
VI
1
T 1 - 2g  T
Equation 82 f'  g  = ------- 2g  T – -------- e – 1
g 2
2g

fg
Equation 83 g i + 1 = g I – ----------
- Newton Raphson
f'  g 
Case 4: Input is Average Velocity and Time/Depth Pairs

Equation 84 (V ,T) (V ,Z) (Z,T)
V a = Z  T  V a·  Z T Z T are known
a. When G = 0:
T
Equation 85 V = -------
1 Z
b. When G = g:
gZ
Equation 86 V = ----------------------
I1 gT
e –1
c. When V = V - find g from:

I1 I2
gT
e – 1 Z
Equation 87 f  g  = ---------------------- – --------- = 0
g VI
1
T gT 1 gT
Equation 88 f'  g  = ------- e – ------  e – 1
g 2
g
fg 
g i + 1 = g i – ----------- Newton Raphson
f'  g 
Equation 89
VR - as in Case 1.
Technical Information on Anisotropy
Stress-Strain Relation in Elastic Media

A linearly elastic material is defined as one in which each component of stress  ij is linearly
dependent upon every component of strain e kl . For such material the relation between stress
and strain is described by Hooke’s law:

Equation 90  ij = C ijkl e
kl
where:
 ij and e kl are the stress and strain tensors respectively
C ijkl is the fourth order elastic moduli tensor (which is called the stiffness tensor and
completely characterizes the elasticity of the medium)
Because of symmetry of stress (  ij =  ji ) and symmetry of strain ( e ij = e ji ) Hooke’s law
describes only six independent equations. Therefore it can be written as:
Equation 91   = C  e 
where: ij or kl is mapped into  or  according to the following rule:
ij or kl 11 22 33 23 13 12
 or  1 2 3 4 5 6
 is the six component stress vector, C is the symmetric, 6 x 6 elastic matrix, and e is the strain
vector. By convention, e and  in terms of their tensor elements are:
e1 e 11 1  11
e2 e 22 2  22
e3 e 33 3  33
Equation 92 e = =  = =
e4 2e 23 4  23
e5 2e 13 5  13
e6 2e 12 6  12
Anisotropy
The propagation of elastic waves in media in which velocity varies with direction and azimuth
of propagation is referred to as anisotropy.
The arrangement of nonzero components and any constraints that may exist among the
components in the elastic matrix characterizes the symmetry of the elastic material or the
anisotropy of the medium. The most simple form of elastic material is obtained for an isotropic
medium, where the elastic properties do not change with direction. Such a medium presents
the highest symmetry and therefore all constraints are imposed on the components of the

elastic matrix. In this case the constraints are: c11 = c22 = c33,
c44 = 55 = c66, and c12 = c13 = c23 = c11 -2c66, and the elastic matrix is given by:
c 11 c 12 c 13 0 0 0
c 12 c 22 c 23 0 0 0
c 13 c 23 c 33 0 0 0
Equation 93 C =
0 0 0 c 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 c 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 c 66
These components are related to the Lame parameters by c 33 =  + 2 and c 44 =  . A

transversely isotropic (TI) medium, which is the simplest anisotropic medium, has one axis of
symmetry. The elastic matrix describing such a medium has the same nonzero components in
the same locations as in an isotropic medium but with less constraints. For a medium with a
vertical axis of symmetry (TIV) the constraints are: c11 = c22 and c13 = c23, c44 = c55, and c12 =
c11 -2c66. An orthorhombic medium has the same nonzero components in the same locations
but has no constraints imposed by symmetries. In general, forms of elastic tensors can be
derived in a simple way by examining constraints obtained by applying appropriate symmetry
operations to tensors initially assumed to have 21 independent components. The constraints
come from the requirements that the tensor be unchanged after a symmetry operation. The
number of independent components from symmetry constraints for media with different
symmetry ranges from 21 for triclinic through nine for orthorhombic, five for VTI, and two for
isotropic.
Weak Elastic Anisotropy (VTU)

As mentioned, for a transversely isotropic medium with a vertical axis of symmetry the five
independent elastic constants are: c11, c33 , c13 , c44 and , c66. Thomsen (1986) suggested a
convenient notation for this type of medium when it is weakly anisotropic. The above 5 elastic
coefficients are expressed in terms of the P-wave and S-wave velocities  and , respectively,
propagating along the symmetry axis plus three additional constants, :
Equation 94  = c 33  
Equation 95  = c 44  
c 11 – c 33
Equation 96  = ---------------------
2c 33
c 66 – c 44
Equation 97  = ---------------------
2c 44

2 2
 c 13 – c 44  –  c 33 – c 44 
Equation 98  = -----------------------------------------------------------------
2c 33  c 33 – c 44 
The constant  describes the fractional difference of the P-wave velocities in the vertical and
horizontal directions:
o o
c 11 – c 33  p  90  –  p  0 
Equation 99  = -----------------------    -------------------------------------------
2c 33 o
p  0 
and therefore is referred to as the P-wave anisotropy.

Similarly, the constant  describes the fractional difference of the SH-wave velocities between
vertical and horizontal polarizations of the horizontally propagating S-wave:
o o o o
c 66 – c 44  SH  90  –  SV  90   SH  90  –  SH  0 
Equation 100  = ---------------------    ---------------------------------------------------- = --------------------------------------------------
2c 44 o o
 SV  90   SH  0 
 is the crucial anisotropic parameter for near vertical P-wave propagation. This can be seen
from the approximation for phase velocities, which can be written as (Thomsen, 1986):
2 2 4
Equation 101  p    1 + sin cos  + sin  
2
Equation 102  SV   1 +  2 2
------   –  sin cos 
2

2
Equation 103  SH    1 + sin  
where:
VSH is the wavefront velocity of the pure shear wave which has no component of
polarization in the vertical direction
VSV is the pseudo-shear wave polarized normal to the pure shear wave
Vp is the pseudo-longitudinal wave
 is the phase angle between the wavefront normal and the symmetry, i.e.,3 vertical, axis.
Since  and  are usually of the same order of magnitude, it is clear from Equation 102 on
page 109-56 that at small angles , where sin4 is small compared to sin2 cos2, the third term
(with  ) is small compared to the second term (with  ). Therefore since most reflection
profiling takes place with small , will dominate most anisotropic effects for P-wave
propagation.
References
Aki K., and Richards, P.G., Quantitative seismology, theory and methods, vol 1: W. H. Freeman
and Company, 1980.
Thomsen, L., Weak elastic anisotropy, Geophysics, 51, 1954-1966, 1986.

Thomsen, L., Reflection seismology over azimuthally anisotropic media. Geophysics, 53, 304-
313, 1988.
Winterstein, D.F., Velocity anisotropy terminology for geophysicists, 55, 1070-1088, 1990.
Wright, J., The effects of transverse isotropy on reflection amplitude versus offset, Geophysics,
52, 564-567, 1987.
Anisotropy Implementation
Overview
The most common type of anisotropy in sedimentary basins is vertical transverse isotropy (VTI
media), usually associated with shale formations. Anisotropy induces such distortions in
conventional isotropic processing as inaccurate reflector depths, blurry images and lateral
mispositioning of dipping events and misstacking of moderate and large offset reflections.
While sometimes it is possible to make a correction for anisotropy in conventional “isotropic”
processing by artificially “adjusting” lateral velocity variations, this approach represents only a
partial solution to imaging problems and creates unrealistic velocity models. P-wave time
processing in VTI media is controlled by two parameters - the short spread moveout (stacking)
velocity Vnmo, produced by conventional semblance velocity analysis, and the anisotropic
parameter . The most stable method for obtaining  is based on velocity analysis of dipping
events;  can also be estimated using long-spread (non hyperbolic) moveout from horizontal
reflectors. Note that  has the potential of becoming an important tool in lithology
discrimination from surface seismic data, especially in sedimentary sequences containing
shales and sands.
In anisotropic media with complicated structure in which velocity varies with the different
directions (angles) of rays, time processing cannot be used at all. Depth imaging is necessary
and requires knowledge of the spatial distribution of three relevant VTI parameters -VPO, , and
 (or ). Velocity analysis methods for anisotropic heterogeneous media are currently under
development. It may be possible for instance, to carry out anisotropic parameter estimation
using multidimensional coherency inversion constrained by well control or by a global
tomography solution. Although we can expect a certain degree of interplay between the VTI
parameters, anisotropic migration using one of the possible models should still be superior to
the results of isotropic imaging.
Implementation
We have widened the definition of the model to transverse anisotropy with a vertical axis of
symmetry and tilted axis of symmetry. Alkhalifah and Tsvankin in 1995 introduced the
parameter , as having a relationship to  and . In the time, time migrated, and depth domains
you can perform  analysis along horizons, where  is a parameter that integrates the
differences between  and , and is used for fourth order NMO correction and time migration
(fourth order correction option).
To get reliable values for , we need long offset data. The way we implement the  analysis is
by first muting the data to short offsets (less than the target depth) to obtain the vertical
component of the velocity. We then extend the mute for the far offsets to obtain  from them.

Using the Thompsen  and  a priori known parameters, GeoDepth 2D supports a full flow for
model building, depth imaging and updating. Ray tracing and ray migration directly use the
VTI ray equations. As a result, the ray-based coherency inversion is also a VTI velocity analysis.
As for prestack depth migration since we use the wavefront reconstruction method, which is
based on direct ray tracing, this is also an anisotropic migration. Similar to coherency inversion,
tomography uses anisotropy ray tracing which is also fully consistent with the VTI assumptions.
You define anisotropic parameters  and  in the Formation Table or as epsilon and delta
volumes for 3D Kirchhoff migration.
References
Alkhalifah, T. and Tsvankin, I., 1995, Velocity analysis for transversely isotropic media.
Geophysics, 60: pp. 1550-1566.
Alkhalifah, T. and Tsvankin, I. Larner, K. and Toldi, J., 1996, Velocity analysis and imaging in
transversely isotropic media: Methodology and a case study: The Leading Edge, 15: no. 5, pp.
371-378.
Thomsen L., 1986, Weak elastic anisotropy: Geophysics, 51, pp. 1954-1966.
Thomsen L., 1988, Reflection seismology over azimuthally anisotropic media: Geophysics, 53,
pp. 304-313.
Treatment of Datum, Static, and Replacement Velocity

Information
There are three types of data used for handling topography:
• Datum elevation
• Static correction
• Replacement velocity
Each of these entities can be calculated based on the other two. The system treats these three
types of data as special surfaces.
Currently the system handles the following information:
• Elevation of floating datum (floating_datum in depth domain)
• Floating datum statics (floating_datum in time domain)
• Replacement velocity (floating_datum in velocity domain)
The floating datum statics is the time shift between floating datum and Seismic Reference
Datum and the replacement velocity is used for transforming between the elevation and static
shifts.
In addition, the database contains information about shot and receiver static values for each
trace. This information is obtained from the SEG-Y header. Shot and receiver statics are the
vertical time shifts between SRD and topography at shot and receiver location respectively.

Figure 11
S R floating datum
CMP
source receiver
statics floating statics
datum statics
SRD
The system assumes that the input data is processed to FD prior to loading. Thus every trace
was actually shifted to a locally flat datum at CMP location.
Figure 12
S
topography
time
shift R
applied
time shift floating datum
applied
CMP
Floating datum is usually a smooth representation of the surface. The concept of processing to
floating datum, which essentially means that the traces are shifted to a locally flat datum at
CMP location, is used only for stacking velocity analysis, for stacking, and for all poststack
applications. With prestack data, these shifts are required so that in the CMP domain,
reflections are hyperbolic and velocity is measured from floating datum and not from SRD.
Another approach is to process from topography, where the computation is done from actual
source and receiver locations on the surface instead of shifting the traces to the floating datum
as described above.
All applications that include ray tracing or wave equation migration do not require that events
be hyperbolic at the CMP domain. Currently, the system handles the situation as follows: The
vertical time shifts between CMP datum and source and receiver datum are removed from the
data. In this way processing is performed from the source and receiver location on the floating
datum rather than from a locally flat datum. This is based on the assumption that the floating
datum is very close to the topography.
In summary, all prestack and poststack applications use FD as do prestack operations that are
hyperbolic (locally flat datum). All prestack ray tracing and wave equation operations work
from actual source and receiver location on the FD.
Note When static corrections are applied, it is assumed that the
raypaths within the near surface layer are vertical. This is a good
assumption when the near-surface layer is a low velocity layer. In other
situations, for example in areas underlain by tundra, it may be best to
incorporate the low velocity layer within the model. If near-surface
velocity layer statics have been applied but residual affects remain, the

system can estimate the remaining error in the velocity using depth
gather tomography. In this case a near-surface velocity layer should be
included in the velocity model.
For additional information, see “Topography” on page 31-66.
You load floating datum and statics information into the project database using the SEG-Y
Import/Export utility Customize option. Floating datum and statics information are stored in
floating_datum horizon in the database. (You can also set statics correction parameters in the
Project/Survey Manager utility. See “2D Line Geometry in Epos” on page 28-43 for details.)
After loading data, you must build models for your floating datum horizon (floating_datum)
with the Model Building options, before performing modeling and migration calculations.
When you create models for floating datum, the system changes the sign of the floating datum
elevations to be consistent with our system of coordinates (where data above sea level is
negative and below is positive). For example, if floating datum elevations are positive in the
SEG-Y headers, they will now appear negative. See “Floating Datum Statics Model Creation” on
page 88-1.
Velocity Data Types and Subtypes

In Paradigm™ 18, the velocity data types and subtypes have been reorganized to better
support lower symmetries (orthorhombic). The following velocity-related data types are
available:
• Velocity - All velocities (units m/s or ft/s) that are used in our system such as interval,
normal moveout (NMO), and average.
• Velocity Parameters - The unitless physical velocities, i.e., the high-resolution material
properties, such as vertical gradient, epsilon, and delta.
• Residual Velocity Parameters - The residual physical velocities such as Thomsen delta
and epsilon parameters.
• Velocity Parameters (effective) - The global multi-layer effective velocity parameters,
such as alpha2, eta, and delta alpha.
All applications have been updated to support the new data types. All previous data types/
subtypes have been mapped to new types, as shown in the following tables:

Table 5 Velocity Types

New Name Old Name
Data Type Data Subtype Data Type Data Subtype
Velocity Interval Vp Velocity Interval
(Instantaneous at
reference depth)
Velocity Interval Vs Velocity Interval Shear-
wave
Velocity Average Velocity Average
Velocity Stacking (NMO Velocity Stacking
Time)
Velocity NMO Velocity RMS
Table 6 Velocity Parameters

New Name Old Name
Velocity Vertical Gradient Math Vertical Gradient
Parameters Vp
Velocity Vertical Gradient Math Vertical Gradient
Parameters Vs of Shear Interval
Velocity Vp/Vs Ratio Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters
Velocity Delta Anisotropy Delta Interval
Parameters
Velocity Epsilon Anisotropy Epsilon Interval
Parameters
Velocity Gamma Anisotropy Gamma Interval
Parameters
Velocity Delta1 Anisotropy Delta1 Interval
Parameters
Parameters
Parameters
Velocity Epsilon1 Anisotropy Epsilon1 Interval
Parameters
Velocity Epsilon2 Anisotropy Epsilon2 Interval
Parameters
Velocity Gamma1 Anisotropy Gamma1 Interval
Parameters

New Name Old Name

Velocity Gamma2 Anisotropy Gamma2 Interval
Parameters
Velocity Tilted Angle of Anisotropy Tilted Angle Of
Parameters Axis of Symmetry Axis Of Symmetry
Velocity Azimuth Angle of Anisotropy Azimuth Angle of
Parameters Axis of Symmetry Axis of Symmetry
Velocity ORT Azimuth Anisotropy Interval
Parameters (normal to Orthorhombic
fractures) Azimuth
Velocity Interval Low Vp Anisotropy Alpha Slow Local
Parameters (Alpha Slow)
Velocity ORT Intensity Anisotropy Delta Alpha Local
Parameters (Delta Alpha)

Table 7 Velocity Parameters (Effective)

New Name Old Name
Velocity Res. NMO Relative Residual Res. RMS Velocity
Parameters (Alpha2) Velocity
(effective)
Velocity Res. Stacking Relative Residual Res. Stacking
Parameters (Alpha2) Velocity Velocity
(effective)
Velocity Res. NMO Vs Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters (Alpha2)
(effective)
Velocity Eta Vp Anisotropy Eta effective
Parameters
(effective)
Velocity Eta Vs Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters
(effective)
Velocity Vp/Vs Ratio ConvertedWave Vp/Vs ratio for
Parameters time migration
(effective)
Velocity Res. Low NMO Vp Anisotropy AnisoAlpha Slow
Parameters (Alpha Slow) Effective
(effective)
Velocity ORT Intensity Anisotropy AnisoDelta Alpha
Parameters (Delta Alpha) Effective
(effective)
Velocity ORT Azimuth Anisotropy AnisoAziSlowEff
Parameters (Low NMO Vp)
(effective)
Velocity ORT Reliability Anisotropy Anisotropic
Parameters Intensity
(effective)
Velocity Eta (High NMO Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters Vp)
(effective)
Velocity Eta (Low NMO Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters Vp)
(effective)
Velocity ORT 4th Order Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters Azimuth 1
(effective)

New Name Old Name

Velocity ORT 4th Order Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters Azimuth 2
(effective)
Velocity Res. Eta Vp Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters
(effective)
Velocity Res. Eta (High Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters NMO Vp)
(effective)
Velocity Res. Eta (Low Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters NMO Vp)
(effective)
Velocity Asymptotic Vp Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters
(effective
Velocity Asymptotic Vs Not applicable Not applicable
Parameters
(effective
Table 8 Residual Velocity Parameters

New Name Old Name
Residual Interval Vp Relative Residual Res. Interval
Velocity (Alpha) Velocity Velocity
Parameters
Residual Interval Vs Not applicable Not applicable
Velocity (Alpha)
Parameters
Residual Delta Residual Delta Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Epsilon Residual Epsilon Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Gamma Residual Gamma Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Delta1 Residual Delta1 Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters

New Name Old Name

Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Epsilon1 Residual Epsilon1 Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Epsilon2 Residual Epsilon2 Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Gamma1 Residual Gamma1 Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters
Residual Gamma2 Residual Gamma2 Interval
Velocity Anisotropy
Parameters

11 PP Vert Vel Basics HC PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

11 PP Vert Vel Basics HC PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

109

Introduction to Velocity and Velocity Analysis

Velocity Analysis Overview

Techniques for Velocity Determination

Paradigm® 18 | 109-1 | User Guide

Instantaneous Velocity (interval velocity)

Time Depth Pairs

Paradigm® 18 | 109-2 | User Guide

Seismic and Velocity Data Types

Seismic Domain Velocity Type

Converting Different Velocity Representations

Paradigm® 18 | 109-3 | User Guide

Viewing Velocity Data

3D Horizon Velocities and Velocity Slices

Velocity Sections (2D)

Paradigm® 18 | 109-4 | User Guide

Velocity Volumes (3D)

Stacking <–> RMS

Stacking or RMS <–> Instantaneous

Paradigm® 18 | 109-5 | User Guide

Instantaneous <–> RMS

Instantaneous <–> Average

Conventions for Defining Instantaneous Interval Vp Velocity

Paradigm® 18 | 109-6 | User Guide

The relative depth satisfies the relation

Paradigm® 18 | 109-7 | User Guide

where: is the layer thickness.

Semblance (Coherency) Plots

Semblance is used in many applications for measuring coherency. For example:

Paradigm® 18 | 109-8 | User Guide

Residual Moveout Analysis

Paradigm® 18 | 109-9 | User Guide

Reference Offset Reference Offset

Velocity is too high Velocity is too low

Paradigm® 18 | 109-10 | User Guide

Residual Moveout Analysis Technical Information

Paradigm® 18 | 109-11 | User Guide

Velocity Analysis Procedures Available

In the Velocity Navigator Window

In 3D Horizon Based Tomography Applications

In Integrated Canvas > 3D Canvas

Where is Velocity Analysis Displayed?

Analysis Type Window Result

Paradigm® 18 | 109-12 | User Guide

Analysis Type Window Result

Where and How is Velocity Data Used?

2D Applications Based on Ray Tracing

Process Required Input Velocity Required Input Velocity Data

Paradigm® 18 | 109-13 | User Guide

Process Required Input Velocity Required Input Velocity Data

Table 2 Velocity Estimation Applications

Velocity Application Window

Paradigm® 18 | 109-14 | User Guide

Velocity Application Window

Vertical Function Types and Names Created in Velocity Navigator

VF Name Data Set Data Type Domain Description Saved In

Paradigm® 18 | 109-15 | User Guide

VF Name Data Set Data Type Domain Description Saved In

Paradigm® 18 | 109-16 | User Guide

VF Name Data Set Data Type Domain Description Saved In

Paradigm® 18 | 109-17 | User Guide

VF Name Data Set Data Type Domain Description Saved In

Paradigm® 18 | 109-18 | User Guide