The Project Team
N Halgreen 1
ABSTRACT
The necessity for agreed project outcomes, which are
in accordance with client needs, and the subsequent
requirement for a unique approach to managing
project implementation is discussed. Reasons for
appointing a separate project team to manage a project
are established.
The selection of a project manager, based on the
services they can provide and on their characteristics,
skills and management style, is discussed. The
consequences of selecting the wrong project manager
are explored.
A broad overview of the requirements for the project
team is provided. Criteria for the selection of team
members, and the role played by the project manager
in this selection, are discussed.
The levers that drive 'on-time and on-budget'
projects are discussed in terms of the project's vision,
goals, controls, and incentives.
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
Project
Projects are about change. According to Alvin Toffler
(1970):
Change is the process by which the future
invades our lives, and it is important to look
at it closely, not merely from the grand
perspectives of history, but also from the
vantage point of the living, breathing
individuals who experience it.
There are various ways of defining a project: a project is
the allocation of resources of people, money, material, and
time to achieve defined objectives. In mining, specifically,
Noel Halgreen is Executive Director, for Ingwe Coal
Corporation at Johannesburg, South Africa. He is also
responsible for Business Development, Information
Technologies and is a Director of quite a number of
subsidiary companies. He is a masters graduate in mining
engineering from Pretoria University and has management
qualifications from Harvard and the UK. He has extensive
South African operating coal mining experience with Iscor,
Gencor and Sasol and was a Senior Manager with the Trans-
Natal Corporation when it was merged in 1995 with
Randcoal to form Ingwe. Group sales in 1995/96 were 61.5
million tonnes. Coal Mines of Australia Limited was
purchased in i 996.
Mindev '97 Conference Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
a project is anything on which capital expenditure is to be
incurred; it may be the development of a new process,
operation, or area of activity, which involves the use of
diverse resources.
Ritchie (l996a) defines a project as:
a set of people and activities brought
together to achieve an objective, after which
the project can be considered complete and,
after which, those involved can devote
attention to other issues.
A project is a one-time undertaking that is definable in
terms of a specific goal; it is infrequent, unique, or
unfamiliar to the present organisation; it is complex with
respect to interdependence of detailed task
accomplishment; and it is considered critical to the
company because of a threat of loss, serious penalty or
substantial gain.
Project Team
A project team may be seen as a semi-self-sufficient group
within the general confines of the firm's structure. This
group of people is responsible for achieving an assigned
objective (the project) on schedule, within cost and profit
goals, and to established standards.
Project Manager
A project manager could either be an individual from
within the company, an external consultant, or a
(consulting) group of people fulfilling the task of 'project
manager'. A project manager, however, should not simply
be seen as a 'supervisor' or one who 'watches over' a
project. That is only a small, passive role.
EXPECTED OUTCOMES OF A PROJECT THAT
REQUIRES A DEDICATED APPROACH
As the definition of a project implies, it represents a
special event in the life of an organisation. It is often a
high risk environment, both for the company as well as the
individuals involved. It is therefore to be expected that the
outcomes of a project are significant enough in the context
of the organisation to require a dedicated and focused
approach. A project generally:
• has a unique focus on a difficult goal;
• requires unusual intensity of effort for a comparatively
short-time;
• has a much higher price of failure than that of a variety
of day-to-day operations;
• involves high capital expenditure; and
• the pressure to perform is high.
17
NHALGREEN
REASONS FOR HAVING A SEPARATE PROJECT
TEAM MANAGE A PROJECT
The traditional functional form of most organisations is
based on the premise that there will be a continuous flow
of tasks, products, or services, with substantial similarity
in the performed tasks. Functional organisations, by the
nature of their structure, cannot deal effectively with
unusually complex or markedly different projects because
of:
• exisiting responsibilities,
• special skills not available,
• lack of overall perspective,
• slow decision-making processes, and
• lack of flexibility and responsiveness necessary to cope
with new and rapidly changing project requirements.
A dedicated project organisation can provide the
organisational capability, emphasis and control necessary,
to counteract any weaknesses in the pre-existing company,
functional or otherwise, that could impair successful
completion of the project.
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE
PROJECT TEAM
Fundamental project requirements include:
• leadership/project direction,
• client/contractor liaison,
• planning,
• persuasivness,
• control,
• evaluation, and
• reporting.
Every project office/team must have the ability to satisfy
all of these requirements. Since the complete range of
requirements cannot generally be fulfilled by a single
individual, all those involved in the project need to work
as a team. This teamwork concept is vital to the success of
any project.
THE PROJECT MANAGER
SERVICES THAT A PROJECT MANAGER CAN
PROVIDE
Some of the services that a project manager can (and
should) provide to an organisation include:
• a global view of the project objectives,
• assistance in scope definition,
• the achievement of an 'end result' within the
constraints of available resources and performance
capabilities,
• direction and management of a project team's efforts,
• feedback on the project's progress,
• identification/evaluation and testing of alternatives
• time management,
• project cost control and accounting,
• environmental and safety management,
• risk management,
18 Sydney. 24 - 26 November 1997
• quality management,
• construction management,
• importation control,
• administration,
• contract management,
• client management,
• liason with government bodies.
• project procedures manual,
• project close-out management,
• coaching and motivating the project team to achieve
the defined objectives,
• operating manuals, and
• safety manuals.
Depending on what the client wants, the in-house skills
available to him, and the complexity of the project, these
services will have different priorities - some services will
be essential, while others will be optional.
SELECTING THE PROJECT MANAGER
Timing of Selection
To ensure 'ownership' of the project, its objectives,
timetable and budget, it is crucial that the project manager
be involved from an early stage. The project manager
should be selected soon after a project has been approved,
once the organisation has formulated its objectives. The
reason for this is that the project manager can (and must)
be instrumental in defining objectives, developing a vision,
and staffing the project team.
Sonrcing the Project Manager
Traditionally, the project manager would be drawn from
the major discipline associated with the project. For
example, a new mine project would be led by an engineer
or mine manager; a new metallurgical plant project team
would have a metallurgist as a leader. There has been a
move away from this approach to choosing the best overall
project development skills, bearing in mind the range of
services to be provided.
The project manager can be appointed from within the
organisation, should they have most of the necessary
skills, experience, and characteristics. Project managers
from within the organisation having the advantage of
knowing about the organisation - its values, policies, and
procedures - and its key people. Such a person does not
have to be 'brought up to speed' and can quickly give
quality performance.
The internal project manager is also a 'known quantity'
within the organisation, has already established a
performance record can handle certain responsibilities and
authority. (The responsibilities and authority associated
with the project, however, will be different from that
which they already have.) They are also likely to be a
known quantity to clients and other employees, all of
whom may prefer to work with someone they know.
The mere fact that individuals have worked in a variety
of functions, however, does not guarantee that they will
make good project managers. Their variety of work
Mindev '97 Conference

experience may indicate not a breadth of skills, but that
they could not hold anyone job for a reasonable length of
time. In that case, they have reached their true level of
incompetence and putting them into project management
will only maximise the damage they can do to the
company. If an individual is appointed project manager
simply to be given exposure to project management, this,
too, could spell disaster.
Recruiting from outside the company has its advantages.
An externally sourced project manager would be less
likely to have exisitng functions, authority, and
responsibilities that are tied, formally or informally, to the
line or functional organisation. They would be able to
operate independently and objectively without ties to the
hierarchy or politics of the organisation and would also
bring different experience and ideas to bear on the project.
However, if the project manager is an outside consultant
(or consulting group) and the project team is primarily
made up of people already employed by the organisation,
there may be some resentment and conflict. Employees
tend to resist change: an outside consultant may do things
very differently from that with which they feel
comfortable in their organisation. This may be either a
good or a bad thing. The outside project manager may also
be expected to be 'superman' who can perform miracles
and solve all problems.
The Effect of Specific Job Requirements on the
Selection of the Project Manager
When selecting a project manager, there are certain job-
related questions to consider, according to Kerzner (1984):
• Are feasibility and economic analyses necessary?
• Is complex technical expertise required?
• If the individual is lacking expertise, will there be
sufficient back-up strength in the line organisations?
• Is this the company's or the individual's first exposure
to this type of project and/or client? If so, what are the
risks to be considered?
• What is the priority for this project, and what are the
risks?
• With whom must the project manager interface, both
inside and outside the organisation?
These questions are about technical and managerial
skills. They are relatively simple to answer if the candidate
already works in the company. If the candidate comes
from outside the company, however, it is more difficult to
assess some of these skills, such as interface capability. If
the project management is completely outsourced, all
these issues will be dealt with by the consulting company.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROJECT
MANAGER
Project management involves a fairly simple two-step
sequence, each of which requires different management
styles:
• Plan - this entails the development of the project's
concept and technical requirements; visioning;
developing a project governance strategy; intelligence
gathering; setting direction; and effective team
development.
Mindev '97 Conference Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
THE PROJECT TEAM
• Produce - this is the task execution and coordination
phase.
Ideally, the first phase needs a leader and the second
phase needs a manager!
Most management theories (Blake and Mouton,
University of Michigan Studies, Ohio State University
Studies, and Harvard University Studies) propose an ideal
management style that takes into consideration both
production and people.
This is especially applicable to project management.
The tendency in project management may be to focus on
the task - there are schedules, plans, and objectives that
encourage this. Project teams, however, are usually staffed
by specialists, 'knowledge workers', who have been
chosen for their expertise, and who may resent being seen
as a means to an end.
The project manager needs to adopt a style that focuses
on the objectives, yet emphasises teamwork and
interdependence as a means to achieving these objectives.
The project manager should see themselves as a facilitator
who assists in problem solving, helps to integrate new
members into the team, mediates in interpersonal
conflicts, represents the team to higher management, and
facilitates group decisions. Their job is to encourage
interpersonal relationships that are characterised by trust,
respect, and consideration.
The ability to deal with people is as
purchasable a commodity as sugar or
coffee. And I pay more for that ability than
for any other under the sun.
JOHN D ROCKEFELLER
Finding the 'right' person for the position of project
manager is not an easy task because the selection of a
project manager very often depends more on their
characteristics than a fit between their skills and the actual
job description. Moreover, the debate over whether
something is a personality trait or a skill rages on. For
example, is the ability to make decisions something that is
innate (a trait) or something that is learnt (a skill)?
In general, a project manager is the one who sees how
the pieces fit together and how diverse detail becomes
pattern. They must like 'trouble' (or better still, tries to
anticipate and avoid 'trouble') and be capable of
evaluating and thriving on risk and uncertainty.
The ideal project manager should be:
• A saint - show honesty and integrity.
• A psychologist or industrial relations expert -
understand personnel problems.
• A business manager - who understands management
principles.
• A communications expert - in order to coordinate,
negotiate, and implement.
• A lawyer - in order to understand contracts and
legislation
• A diplomat - who represents the team to management
and to the outside world.
• A chess player - who is alert, quick, and has an
intuitive understanding of the next move.
19
NHALGREEN
• A quick-change artist - who is flexible, adaptable, and
versatile.
• A tactician - who can plan, strategise, and fight battles.
• An Olympic athlete - who has the energy to sprint and
the staying power to run long distances.
• A politician - who is assertive, confident, persuasive,
and verbally fluent.
• A juggler - who can keep more than one ball in the air
at anyone time, and who can balance technical
solutions with time, cost, and human factors.
• An explorer - who is willing to leave the well-known
path, to show initiative, to think laterally, and to
discover new ways of doing things.
• An evangelist - who keeps the project's vision -in front
of him and communicates it to his team with
enthusiasm in order to motivate them.
• A detective - who identifies and solves problems.
This ideal project manager should probably at least have
doctorates in engineering, business and psychology. They
should have experience with ten different companies in a
variety of projects and in different office positions, and
should have the energy of a 25-year old. They would be
unmarried and preferably orphaned ... !
According to Kerzner (1984), even the good project
managers in industry today would be lucky to have a
significant percentage of these characteristics. The best
project managers are willing and able to identify their own
shortcomings and know when to ask for help. A good
project manager understands their own strengths and
weaknesses, as well of those of the team members and
builds a team which complements one another.
SKILLS REQUIRED OF A PROJECT MANAGER
As Kerzner (1984) states: the right mixture of skills
depends on the project task, the techniques employed, the
people assigned, and the organisational structure. To be
effective, project managers should consider all the facets
of getting the job done.
Project managers need skills that relate to both 'things'
and 'people'. Current 'knowledge workers' need less
supervision; they do, however, need direction and co-
ordination. The days of the manager who gets by with
technical expertise alone or pure administrative skills are
gone.
Communication
Communication is the foundation upon which successful
projects are built. Good communication facilitates conflict
resolution, motivation, co-ordination, and empowerment.
Effective, positive, and open communication allows issues
to surface and new concepts to be introduced, criticised,
and refined. It also allows the changes in the project to be
relayed within the team and to other members in the larger
organisation.
According to Ritchie (1996a), team progress should be
communicated at pre-scheduled sessions, critical, or
milestone events, so that revised objectives, timelines, and
resource allocation can be negotiated, agreed upon, and
implemented as required.
20 Sydney, 24 • 26 November 1997
Team Buildiug
For the project manager to be effective, they must provide
an atmosphere conducive to teamwork. This is largely
achieved through effective communication, a sincere
interest in the professional growth of team members, and a
commitment to the project.
A team is a collection of individuals who have been
charged with completing a mission and who must depend
upon one another for successful completion of that work.
Team building strives for greater co-operation, better
communication, and less conflict. People who work
together as a team co-operate and direct all their efforts to
achieve a collective goal. If people co-operate instead of
compete, more gets done. An effective team should share
responsibility, have a common sense of purpose,
communicate with each other, focus on the task at hand,
use their individual talents and creativity, identify and act
on opportunities and see change as an opportunity for
growth.
Leadership
The project manager usually has allocated by the
organisation some formal authority - to enforce, order and
direct the activities of others within the context of the
project. As a manager, they must plan, organise and
control. They should, however, also be a leader who gets
results without having to use the force of their allocated
authority.
The project manager must be a leader by virtue of
certain personal qualities, including the ability to consult
their followers and motivate them, thus obtaining their co-
operation without coercion. Leadership is the ability to
influence individuals and groups to work willingly for the
attainment of the project's goals.
A project manager's leadership skills are especially
important as they work in a relatively unstructured
environment.
Conflict Management
Insisting on harmony and pseudo-agreement is destructive.
Organisations need both unity and dissent. The former
creates the cohesion necessary for effective functioning;
the latter prevents stagnation and plants the seeds of
change. Every team needs at least one person to question
the way things are.
Functional conflict can encourage involvement,
questioning and a competitive spmt. It opens
communication channels, serves as a release to pent-up
emotion, anxiety and stress, and helps people to learn and
grow. Appropriate levels and types of conflict energise
people in constructive directions. A project manager
should be able to determine and encourage such conflict.
Dysfunctional conflict, however, which can be a result
of intragroup or intergroup interactions, can affect the
project in a number of ways: it can lead to delays, poor
decision-making and a disruption of the team's
cohesiveness. It can erode project performance because of
political infighting, dissatisfaction, lack of teamwork and
staff turnover. It uses time and energy that could more
profitably be spent on other more important activities and
issues.
Mindev '97 Conference

In order to resolve dysfunctional conflict and improve
the overall performance of the project, the project manager
should foster an environment that caters to the needs of the
team. They should reinforce the common objectives and
communicate with the team on all aspects of the project.
By recognising what causes conflict, the project manager
can help to avoid, or at least, minimise conflicts before
they escalate.
Technical Expertise
A project manager should have sufficient expertise to
understand the technical implications of a problem. Such
expertise includes the understanding of the technology
involved in the project, engineering tools and techniques
employed, product applications, technological trends, the
relationship between supporting technologies and the
people who are part of the relevant technical community.
Technical expertise is important because the project
manager is ultimately responsible for all decision making.
However, many good, technically-orientated managers
have failed because they have become too concerned with
the technical issues of the project and have ignored the
management side. The reverse is also true and good
business management sense needs to be balanced against
relevant technical expertise.
Being au fait with jargon is a help when it comes to
communicating with the team and suppliers, assessing
risks, and making sound decisions and judgements about
specialised issues that affect costs and schedules. Some
suppliers may rely on jargon to try and bamboozle a
project manager, but if they know that 'manufacturing a
widget for the wankel engine of a front end loader will
require an extra two months and will cost an extra $1
million' is no more than a ploy, they are well on the way to
telling the supplier to wankel his widget.
Promoting an employee to the position of project
manager because of their special expertise may be
acceptable if, and only if, the project requires this
expertise and direction in 'research and development'
efforts. It is often better to have a 'generalist' as a project
manager, rather than a technician.
Planning
Planning, not only at the beginning, but continuously, is
absolutely essential to the success of a project. In order to
plan effectively the project manager needs more than a
sense of organisation and a logical mind. All the project
manager's other skills come into play: communication,
information processing, negotiation, organisation and
technical skills.
No plan should remain unchanged for the duration of a
project. Plans need constant revision as the scope, depth
and performance of the project change. In order for the
plan to be the road map for the project's journey to its
destination, it needs to be updated and modified as detours
and short cuts occur.
This does not mean, however, that planning should be
the be-all and end-all of a project. Some project managers
fall in love with their plans, nurturing them with loving
care to the point that they have eyes for nothing else:
innovations and new ideas can become a threat to 'The
Plan'.
Mindev '97 Conference Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
THE PROJECT TEAM
Decision-Making
Because a project often has a relatively short duration and
delays are inevitably cos~ly, decision-making must be
rapid and effective. According to Kerzner (1984),
managers must be alert and quick in their ability to
perceive the 'red flags' that can potentially lead to serious
problems.
Effective decision-making is an integral part of a project
manager's job - it is part of planning, organising,
leading, and controlling. It is also important that a project
manager has sufficient knowledge to make all of the
decisions that affect a project.
Organising
Organising:
• establishes an effective communication system;
• promotes meaningful innovations and faster
adjustments to changing circumstances;
• facilitates and improves effective leadership and
control;
• is responsible for systematic work performance;
• allocates and deploys resources;
• divides work and responsibilities into specific jobs and
departments;
• assigns tasks and responsibilities to individuals; and
• promotes synergy through coordinated efforts.
In order to do this properly, the project manager needs to
know how the organisation works and how to work it - its
reporting relationships, responsibilities, lines of control
and information needs.
Co-ordinating
According to Ritchie (1996a), co-ordination is the art of
making all the pieces of the project orchestra play together
in harmony. Co-ordination requires constant, active and
personal attention, and can be assisted using classic
scheduling tools, PERTlcritical path techniques, modern
project management (or project monitoring) software
tools.
Entrepreneurship
The entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to
it, and exploits it as an opportunity. Entrepreneurial skills
are usually innate and developed through experience but
may be honed through MBA programs and training. The
entrepreneurial project manager should be on the alert for
new and different opportunities combinations of existing
resources.
AdministrationJControJlReporting
The project manager must ensure that actual activities
conform to planned activities. Planned activities need to be
monitored and adjusted, if necessary. If control is
performed in a haphazard way, this could cost the
company a serious amount of money. Suppliers and
contractors are usually quick to pick this up and, given the
opportunity, will exploit it. The project manager must also
21
NHALGREEN
ensure that the owner is regularly and fully informed on
physical and financial progress.
Relationship Building
The project manager should have complete access to the
senior management level, which carries ultimate
responsibility for the projects and the authority to call on
specialist departments in the organisational matrix for all
the assistance they requires.
The project manager must negotiate with management
for clear objectives, key results and completion indicators;
and for resources and required skill/team matches. The
project manager may also have to negotiate with
management for additional resources, tools, time, or
money.
In order to gain the support of management, it is
therefore crucial that the project manager build good
relations with management. According to Kerzner (1984),
there are four key variables that influence the project
manager's ability to create favourable relationships with
senior management:
• their on-going credibility,
• the visibility of the program,
• the priority of the program relative to other
organisational undertakings, and
• their own accessibility.
Resource Allocation
Resource allocation can be facilitated by the 'Statement of
Work' , which is part of the project plan; specific
agreements with all key contributors and their superiors on
their tasks, budgets and schedules; and goal dates for the
hardware and software components of the project. In order
to minimise conflict that may arise from resource
allocation, schedules, budgets and other tasks should be
allocated during the proposal stage of the project and be
written into the plan. The plan should also make provision
for changes in resource allocation as the project
progresses.
SELECTING THE WRONG PROJECT MANAGER:
PITFALLS AND CONSEQUENCES
Some of the pitfalls and consequences of selecting the
wrong project manager have already been dealt with in
this paper, for example under 'sourcing' and 'technical
expertise'. Despite the project owner having a good idea of
the characteristics and skills required for a project
manager, it may still select the wrong person for the job.
The following are some possible situations.
Methuselah (The Mature Manager)
There are two types of maturity - maturity of body and
maturity of mind - and the former is not necessarily an
indication of the latter. Maturity, as it specifically applies
to a project manager, implies experience born of exposure
to a variety of different projects and different project
positions, not long service to the same project. An older
person who has managed the same or same type of project
22 Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
for an extended period may be set in theirr ways and
resistant to new ideas and ways of doing things. A good
blend of the widest possible experience and proven
performance is required.
Attila the Hun (The Authoritarian)
A line manager who obtained results from their
subordinates by telling them what to do and when and how
to do it, is not the type of manager needed for a project.
People who are brought together to form the project team
because of their expertise will not necessarily need
continuous supervision. A project manager with an
authoritarian style may, in the short-term, get the job done,
but in the long run they will find it difficult to control their
team because coercion does not engender loyalty or
respect. In such circumstances, the team members will
undermine the manager at every opportunity.
Tweedledum and Tweedledee (Changing Horses in
Midstream)
As was pointed out earlier, different phases of a project
really require different skills. Sometimes management take
this to mean that a project requires more than one project
manager. Manager A is chosen for the planning phase.
They do this rather well and it seems as though the project
is running itself. At this stage Manager B is in between
projects, and is available. So Manager B gets the job and
Manager A is assigned to initiate another project. Manager
A gets frustrated because they never see the end of what
they have started. Manager B gets frustrated because they
are working according to a plan in which they were not
involved. And the team has to break in another manager!
THE TEAM
THE PROJECT MANAGER'S OBJECTIVES
DURING STAFFING
The project manager's objectives during staffing are to:
• acquire the best available assets and try to improve
them;
• provide a good working environment for all personnel;
and
• make sure that all necessary resources (such as
computers and other equipment) are available for his
team to do its job.
The project manager must collect their specialists and
weld them into a team that will concentrate continually on
the mission assigned. Moreover, they should determine the
proper fit of the team to the existing organisation.
The project manager should not choose the easy way out
by selecting those they know well, are unlikely to
challenge current ways and modes of thinking, who agree
with their point of view and with whom they get along
well. This could lead to inflexibility in thinking and
strategy and a team that is inwardly rather than outwardly
focused.
It should be remembered, when selecting the project
manager, that personal attributes and abilities will either
attract or repel highly desirable individuals.
Mindev '97 Conference

TEAM SELECTION
Diversity
The selection process should emphasise diversity - of
skills and personality - over homogeneity. A homogenous
team of people, who know each other well and who all
agree with each other, can lead to a comfortable bonhomie
among members, increasing insularity, and alienation from
knowledge of the significant trends affecting their
industry.
Homogeneity can lead to 'groupthink', a phenomenon in
which group members are pressured by the norm of
consensus. Individuals who hold a position different from
that of the dominant majority are under pressure to
suppress, withhold, or modify their true feelings and
beliefs, as well as their ideas. Individuals find it more
pleasant to be in agreement with the group than to be a
disruptive force. Examples of extremely damaging cases
of groupthink are the Vietnam war and Apartheid. A team
always needs at least one member who is willing to tell the
emperor that they are not wearing any clothes.
Balance
The project manager needs to achieve a balance between
'practical' and 'creative' team members. A project needs
people with creative and 'exploring' skills that are
necessary for business development.
Selection Criteria
Some of the overall criteria applicable to the selection of
team members are: specialist knowledge; a proven track
record; practical know-how; technical know-how; lateral
thought processes; progressive thinking; integrity; similar
project exposure; energy and vigour backed by wisdom
and experience; knowledge of the latest technology; and
ability to work in a team.
Team Size
The size of a project team is affected by the mix of
expertise required. A team should be small enough to
manage, but big enough to cope with the volume of work
to be done. Some project managers are inclined to make
the team large so as to increase the prestige of the project
and ultimately, their own status.
ROLES OF TEAM MEMBERS
Usually, different members in a team have different roles,
such as innovating, promoting, developing, organising,
concluding, inspecting, maintaining, and advising. All
these roles are coordinated and facilitated by the project
manager. Team members should be chosen not only for
their skills and expertise, but also for their personal
characteristics and the roles they can play.
The Ideal Team
Crainer (1997) summarises nine archetypal functions/roles
that make up an ideal team, as identified by Meredith
Mindev '97 Conference Sydney, 24·26 November 1997
THE PROJECT TEAM
Belbin in 1984. An ideal team would have a good mix of
the following (after Belbin):
• Plant - creative, imaginative, unorthodox, solves
difficult problems. Allowable weakness: bad at dealing
with ordinary people.
• Co-ordinator - mature, confident, trusting; a good
chairman; clarifies goals, promotes decision making.
Not necessarily the cleverest.
• Shaper dynamic, out-going, highly strung;
challenges, pressurises, finds ways round obstacles;
prone to bursts of temper.
• Teamworker social, mild, perceptive,
accommodating; listens, builds, averts friction.
Indecisive in crunch situations.
• Completer - painstaking, conscientious, anxious;
searches out errors; delivers on time. May worry
unduly; reluctant to delegate.
• Implementer - disciplined, reliable, conservative,
efficient; turns ideas into actions. Somewhat inflexible.
• Resource investigator extrovert, enthusiastic,
communicative; explores opportunities; loses interest
after initial enthusiasm.
• Specialist - single-minded, self-starting, dedicated;
brings knowledge or skills in rare supply; contributes
only on a narrow front.
• Monitor evaluator - sober, strategic, discerning. Sees
all options, makes judgements; lacks drive and ability
to inspire others.
Negative Roles
Negative roles get in the way of the team's progress or are
detrimental to its functioning. Negative roles include that
of:
• Authoritarian - wants to control and dominate other
members and their activities; can restrict decision
making or the expression of opinions and breed group
hostility.
• Know-it-all - cares more about winning arguments than
listening to other points of view.
• Rival - wish to win and tend to make every situation a
contest. Tends to be hostile towards anybody who
strives for superiority.
• Comedian - is the joker of the group who seeks
attention. Comedians can play positive roles by
providing light relief. Very often, however, they take
nothing seriously and hinder the activities and
functions of the group by constantly playing the fool.
• Chatterbox - never stops talking and seldom gives
other members the opportunity to express their ideas.
• Withholder - withholds information or help, and
disagrees with the majority of the members. The
project manager should be alert to this type of
behaviour as it can jeopardise the project and the
cohesiveness of the team. Checking of credentials
with previous employers can help in this regard.
It is not always possible, however, to know what role a
person will play until they have been in the team for a
while.
23
NHALGREEN
TEAM RECRUITMENT
Options
There are various options available for developing and
recruiting members for a project team. The owner either:
• handles the entire project in-house, including the
project management and engineering and construction
management;
• manages the project and contracts in the engineering
consultant or consultants;
• appoints project managers and engineering consultants
individually;
• contracts out a one-stop project management
engineering and construction management service;
• contracts out for an entire management, design, and
build service (a turnkey operation);
• appoints a project manager who, in turn, appoints
specialist consultants; or
• appoints a project manager and a basic engineering
consultant, and contracts the work out in design-and-
build packages.
Recruitment of the team will be greatly influenced by
the option the organisation selects. The skills of the team
members required under the various options are quite
different.
In-House Recruitment
In order to staff a project team from within the
organisation's own personnel complement, the project
manager should analyse the skills required and base the
selection on personnel records and interviews. Personal
references are also helpful.
Each individual must be assigned to carry out some
primary duty, which can be economically justified. The
advantages associated with in-house recruitment of team
members are similar to those of selecting a project
manager from within the organisation. Regular company
members are already indoctrinated in company
procedures, practices, and philosophy; therefore, little time
need be wasted in orientation. Conflicts of the 'outsider-
insider' type can avoided because members have already
built up a rapport.
An early decision should be taken as to whether the
team members should be dedicated full time to the project
or whether it should merely occupy part of their time. The
advantage of having part-time members on the team in a
matrix is that those drawn from a particular department of
the organisation will always have recourse to other
members of the department.
External Recruitment
In certain instances a team member may be an individual
who has been hired from outside the organisation to
perform on the team or project group. Team members
from outside may bring broader experience from being in
other firms. External recruitment also has the advantage
of preventing 'inbreeding' and of introducing new ideas,
especially to an organisation that has not been responsive
to change.
24 Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
FACTORS THAT AFFECT TEAM SELECTION
Client Skills and Requirements
The size of the organisation and the skills and experience
of its senior management will have a significant affect on
the selection of a project manager and their team. If the
owner has adopted a growth strategy, the client would
probably opt to develop these skills in house, despite the
initial learning curve. If the owner elects to outsource the
project management function, it is still likely to require an
in-house team, albeit a substantially smaller team with a
different skills base, to ensure 'ownership' of the project.
Project Timing
There are different phases in a project:
• Initial stage. In the early stages of the plan, team
composition consists largely of designers, idea people,
and analysts in one or more special fields of
knowledge.
• Action stage. As the project approaches the action
stage, the team becomes staffed largely with
operations-orientated personnel, and the theorists can
be retired from the scene. At the action stage, line
operative management is the dominant power on the
task force.
During the early-stage of a project, before final (Board)
approval has been received, it is likely that smaller
organisations in particular will experience difficulty in
recruiting competent personnel, because of the uncertainty
associated with the projeCt at that stage.
FACTORS THAT ATTRACT TEAM MEMBERS
There are various reasons why a high calibre person would
be attracted to working on a project team. Some of these
are:
Organisational Culture
A person may be attracted to a company's organisational
culture: its values, philosophy, norms, rules, strategy,
mission, systems, style, staff and focus on people. Most
cultures evolve directly from top management, who can
have a powerful influence on employees by what they say
and do.
Organisational Structure
An organisational structure or management style that
makes allowances for autonomy and participation within a
defined structure of logical functional groupings, may
appeal to a project orientated person.
Personnel Policies
These policies and procedures give prospective candidates
an idea of working conditions. They include appointment,
promotion, termination, leave, benefits, conditions,
medical aid, pension contributions and obligations of an
employee to an organisation.
Mindev '97 Conference

Remuneration
A remuneration policy, together with other benefits, that
compares favourably with similar companies and projects
may be an initial attraction.
Human Resources Environment
This includes flexibility of work practices, relations with
unions, career pathing, training and development.
Personal Factors
People with experience and high quality skills may be
attracted to a project because they are interested in
designing and developing a new project. They feel they
can make their mark and take pride in the ownership of a
new project. They may also perceive a gap in their
experience which could be filled by the particular project.
Company Commitment
The feasibility of the project and the organisation's size
and financial commitment to it would attract those who
currently hold jobs and would not leave them if the risk
were too great. The effect of this factor should not be
underestimated.
ACHIEVING 'ON-TIME AND ON-BUDGET'
PROJECTS
FUNDAMENTAL REASONS FOR SUCCESS
Fundamental reasons for success of the team (and
ultimately the project) include:
• clear objectives,
• committed sponsorship,
• realistic expectations,
• planning,
• adequate resources,
• team cohesion and harmony, and
• effective leadership.
Successful project management is largely a people
process. Software can assist, but leadership is a personal
issue.
THE VISION
Vision is anticipation of where the project is going, as
opposed to concentrating on where it is at anyone time.
Vision enables a clear understanding of the finished work.
With clear vision, one intimately comprehends what is to
be built, created, developed, shaped, or drawn.
A rock pile ceases to be a rock pile the
moment a single man contemplates it,
bearing within him the image of a cathedral.
SAINT-EXUPERY
According to Ritchie (l996b), when one actually
envisions the end result, and the required steps that lead to
the target, one begins to feel confident that the obstacles in
one's path are only things that one manoeuvres around and
over to arrive at the goal.
Mindev '97 Conference Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
THE PROJECT TEAM
Reinforcement of the vision/mission, which is one of the
functions of the project manager, encourages team
members to realise that they have shared goals and that
individuals and teams are interdependent on each other.
A clear vision and its communication to the team
members is a leadership (as opposed to a management)
function. The project manager needs to motivate team
members to work towards the vision and to remain loyal to
the vision, even during times of adversity. One of the most
important factors for high performance is a clear and
elevating vision.
SETTING MEASURABLE GOALS
A project must have a specific, definite goal.' Goals are
important because they:
• Provide a sense of direction. Because all know where
they are going, they feel empowered to overcome
obstacles.
• Focus efforts - in the use of resources and the setting of
priorities.
• Guide plans and decisions.
• Help the team to evaluate its progress - by serving as a
measure of achievement. As such, they are an
important part of controlling because, if the team
deviates from the planned route, corrective actions can
be taken.
• Motivate members - to achieving common goals.
• Provide for unity of direction. Without a clear
understanding of common goals, those involved with
different aspects of the project cannot plan to the same
end.
• Facilitate delegation. Delegation of authority cannot be
specified unless objectives are clearly understood.
• Help to identify the necessary steps to achieve the
goals.
• Indicate the end point ofthe project.
Setting initial goals is the joint responsibility of the
project manager and the management of the company
commissioning the project. Goals are determined by
constraints, success factors, completion indicators, and the
resource budget. Specific objectives should largely be the
responsibility of the project manager and his team.
Participation in setting goals and objectives will help to
create a climate of understanding and commitment.
CONTROL PROCESS
The control process is arguably the single most important
element in the management of a project. The most
intensive research, efficient planning, and incisive
decision-making can flounder if a single unforeseen
obstacle or altered condition remains untested and no
compensatory action is taken.
The control process involves evaluating measurable
goals by monitoring activities to ensure that they are being
accomplished as planned and correcting any significant
deviation.
Control also entails the regulation of team members'
behaviour and performance by the shared values, norms,
and other aspects of the organisation's culture.
25
NHALGREEN
Control is needed to:
• cope with change;
• add value (in the form of better quality or added safety
features, for example);
• unify team members from different backgrounds;
• facilitate delegation and teamwork. (This is especially
important in participative management: the project
manager has ultimate responsibility, yet he needs to
monitor team members' progress without hampering
their creativity or involvement with their work.);
• standardise activities to increase efficiency;
• measure progress;
• evaluate the effectiveness of the planning; and
• set parameters for self-evaluation.
INCENTIVES
Material Incentives
A project, by its very nature, tends to be a one-off event
that lends itself to the structuring of innovative incentives
without too much risk of setting a precedent with which
the organisation will have difficulty living at a later stage.
Incentives should ideally be arrived at prior to the
appointment of the project manager and team. They could
take the form of a 'bonus' or 'success fee' to be paid on
completion of the project. Budget and timing are usually
easily measurable components. One should, however,
ensure that no compromises are made on the quality of the
end product.
The incentive should also be significant and appropriate
to the size of the project, and should represent a real
'carrot' to the team. If it is too small, it is likely to have no
effect at all, despite management's expectations to the
contrary.
26 Sydney, 24 - 26 November 1997
Intangible Incentives
If the goal is big enough, however, these material
incentives will be secondary to the achievement of the
overall objective and the personal pride in being part of it.
Being part of a successful project also helps future career
prospects!
A successful project manager will themselves take
responsibility and personal risk for the 'glory' or the final
goal. They will take possession of the project and imbue
the team with his commitment and enthusiasm. Together
they will succeed or fail. If the latter, it will not be for lack
of pride and ownership of the project and its grand goal.
CONCLUSION
Project management and team playing are not for the
feint-hearted. It should only be tackled by the bold - who
have the wisdom of a 60-year old, the energy of a toddler,
and the fearlessness of a teenager!
REFERENCES
Crainer, S, 1997. The Ultimate Business Library: 50 Books that
made Management, pp 37-39 (Capstone: Oxford).
Kerzner, H, 1984. Project Management: A Systems Approach to
Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling, 937 p (Van Nostrand:
New York).
Ritchie, L, 199511996a. Project Management, in The Manager's
Toolkit, http://www.geocities.com.
Ritchie, L, 1995/1996b. Vision, in The Manager's Toolkit,
http://www.geocities.com.
Toffler, A, 1970. Future Shock (Pan: London).
Mindev '97 Conference