What is culture:

Culture is the total of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors shared by and passed on by the
members of a specific group. Culture acts as a blueprint for how a group of people should
behave if they want to fit in with the group.

EB Taylor- Culture is a complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by the man as a member of society.

Graham wallas- An accumulation of thoughts, values and objects; it is the social heritage
acquired by us from preceding generations through learning as distinguished from the
biological heritage which is passed on to us automatically through genes.

CC North- The instruments constituted by man to assist him in a satisfying his wants.

Redfield- Culture is an organization of phenomenon of acts, objects, ideas attitudes, values

and use of the symbols. Culture is an organized body of conventional understanding
manifested in arts and artifacts which persisting through tradition, characterizes the group.

Humans are social creatures. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens nearly 250,000 years ago,
people have grouped together into communities in order to survive. Living together, people
form common habits and behaviours—from specific methods of childrearing to preferred
techniques for obtaining food. Almost every human behaviour, from shopping to marriage to
expressions of feelings, is learned. 

Characteristics of culture:

Variable:

culture varies and changes from society to society. Because each and every society has its
own culture. It also varies within a society from time to time. Ways of living of people of a
particular society varies from time to time.

Learned:

 Culture is a learned behavior not inherited. It is learned through experience, imitation,

communication, concept, thinking and socialization process. Culture is transmitted by
vertically or horizontally thus it is communicative. Vertical transmission is from one
generation to another whereas horizontal transmission is from one group to another group
within the same period Culture is social not individual the pattern of thinking, feeling &
acting can be shared by the members of the group and kept relatively uniform through group
pressures.
Culture is not inherited biologically but it is leant socially by man in a society. It is not an
inborn tendency but acquired by man from the association of others, e.g. drinking, eating,
dressing, walking, behaving, reading are all learnt by man.

Social:
Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the
members of a particular group or society. ... Thus, culture includes many societal aspects:
language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations,
and institutions.

It is not an individual phenomena but it is the product of society. It develops in the society
through social interaction. It is shared by the man of society No man can acquire it without
the association of others. Man is man only among men. It helps to develop qualities of human
beings in a social environment. Deprivation of a man from his company is the deprivation of
human qualities.

Shared:

Culture is something shared. It is nothing that an individual can passes but shared by common
people of a territory. For example, customs, traditions, values, beliefs are all shared by man in
a social situation. These beliefs and practices are adopted by all equally.

Culture is transmitted

Culture is capable of transmitted from one generation to the next. Parents papas cultural traits
to their children and in return they pass to their children and son on. It is not transmitted
through genes but through language. Language is means to communication which passes
cultural traits from one generation to another.

Culture varies from society to society

Every society has its own culture and ways of behaving. It is not uniform every where but
occurs differently in various societies. Every culture is unique in itself is a specific society.
For example, values, customs, traditions, ideologies, religion, belief, practices are not similar
but different in every society. However the ways of eating, drinking, speaking, greeting,
dressing etc are differs from one social situation to another in the same time.

Culture is dynamic and adaptive both. It is constantly changing. It is cumulative and

progressive. Noted American sociologist Kimball Young wrote that ‘culture is expanding and
persisting accumulation of ways of doing and thinking which one generation hands down to
the next’.
Culture is dynamic and thus complex. Culture is fluid rather than static, which means that
culture changes all the time, every day, in subtle and tangible ways.

Types of culture:

Material and non-material:

Material culture is the name of physical, tangible and explicit type of culture. It is the culture
which has material evidence of its existence. Examples in this type may include;

 Infrastructure of a culture
  Clothing and food in a culture
 Literature of a culture

To elucidate this point further we can take example of Cuba. In this island country the ‘cars’
are a bit old fashioned. Despite political reasons for this, this thing is taken as a part of Cuban
culture. Any documentary on Cuba doesn’t complete without showing the old models cars as
part of Cuban culture. Similarly, we eat burger at multinational fast food chains. Basically
this denotes the Western food culture. Another manifestation of material culture is Gothic
style buildings usually built in European countries.

 Non-Material Culture
This type reflects non-tangible, immaterial and implicit culture. It is not apparent in the
infrastructure or other material objects of a society. It is to be found in thoughts, ideas, values
and rituals of a society. They affect the actions of human beings in society. This type of
culture includes:

 Norms
 Customs
 Values
 Folkways
 Language

culture consists of thoughts (expectations about personal space, for example) and tangible
things (bus stops, trains, and seating capacity). Material culture refers to the objects or
belongings of a group of people. Metro passes and bus tokens are part of material culture, as
are automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship. Nonmaterial
culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material and
nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas.
A metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture, namely,
capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing, hairstyles, and
jewellery are part of material culture, but the appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for
specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school building belongs to material culture, but
the teaching methods and educational standards are part of education’s nonmaterial culture.
These material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to region. As
people travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different parts of the
world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically unfamiliar.
What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact with cultures other than
our own, we become more aware of the differences and commonalities between others’
worlds and our own.

Functions of culture:

Transfer of knowledge:

Culture is Transmissive in nature. It helps in transmission of customs, rituals and the

knowledge behind everything it bears.
Transfer of knowledge becomes possible as a function of culture when a young generation
conceives cultural practices from the preceding generation. The young ones of a society see
cultural practices being observed. This makes them ask about the rationale and reason behind
the acts of their elders. In this way transfer of cultural knowledge takes place.

Another manifestation of transfer of knowledge in culture is when socialization takes place in

a peculiar culture. This socialization transfers the knowledge of that specific culture to the
individuals being socialized.

Culture transfer knowledge form one society into another society as well. This happens when
people from one culture go to live in another culture. They carry with them the cultural
knowledge to share with others which might be accepted or rejected.

The folk-tales produced by a specific culture also transfer as knowledge to the generations
coming. Similarly, cultural history is transferable.

Define situation:

 culture plays role in defining a situation. Human being faces several scenarios in a day.
Culture defines those scenarios and situation by;

 Giving him knowledge about it

 By teaching him how to behave and act in that situation
 By telling what the situation means to the society
 By giving him a comparative view of situation
 By bringing forth how others act during such situation

Take a common example that there has arisen a dispute between two families in a traditional
village. Now what their culture normally defines this situation is that they would go to the
elders of the village. The elders will call a meeting to hear both the sides and decide the
matter. In this way culture defined a conflicting situation.

Similarly, culture defines the situation of a wedding ceremony, a funeral, a public gathering
etc. Defining a situation by culture helps the culture itself in establishing concrete cultural
practices and regulating the social setup. Gradually, the defined situations become customs of
a society.

Provide Behavior Pattern

Behavior is manner of action and reaction by human beings in society. Culture in itself is
learned and demonstrated behavior which sets the pattern of human conduct. Culture teaches
man how to behave for a particular situation. For instance, it is behavior pattern that a person
who becomes father distributes sweet among his co-villagers. Similarly, it is a behavior
pattern taught by culture that people share happiness on a wedding and share sorrow on a
funeral in a society.
Molds Personality

Culture molds personality. Its manifestation can be seen in two important cases. First is a
child who is brought up in a specific culture. Gradually culture molds him into a person with
common behavior and practices in society.

Similarly, a person who leaves his country to go and live in abroad for the sake of earning
money adapts to the foreign culture. This molds his personality to the new customs and
circumstances. He begins to practice the behavior pattern taught to him by the new culture.

Besides these functions, some other functions of culture include;

 Socialization of human being

 Interprets society
 Creates needs and methods to achieve them
 Regulates social relationships

 Culture is composition of following major elements:

 A.Norms
Norm is defined as ‘informal understandings that governs individuals’ behavior in
society’. It is one of the cultural products along with being an important element of
culture.
 Norm is observed by the individuals of a culture who if deviate from it are taken as
victim of deviance and anomy. An example of norm is handshaking between the
contesting and competing players after game. Norm is also referred as something
usual, typical or standard.

 B.Values
‘Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher order norms.’ Cultural
values vary from society to society just like norms. Values of a culture has shaped by
religion, morality and ethics observed by the people of those culture. History also puts
considerable influence on values of a society. Usually norms are specific, values are
not. This defines the relationship between them. Values are often attributed with the
measures of goodness and desirability.

 C.Beliefs
Belief is mental representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the
likelihood of something being true. Belief in a culture can be of superstitious as well
as religious nature. Beliefs erupt from the religious teachings most of the time but that
not always the case. A culture might have beliefs which are based on historical
practices and folkways of a society. A common example comes from the traditional
Hindu societies which are considered full of people with strict belief in superstitions.
  D.Sanctions
Any kind of means by which conformity to socially approved standards is enforced, is
called social sanction. Sanctions can be negative as well as positive. They can be
formal as well as informal.
 E.Customs
Custom is a traditional and widely accepted way of behaving or doing something that
is specific to a particular society. Customs constitute an important part of any culture.

What is Socialization?

Socialization refers to the means of bringing the individuals into the social and cultural world
thus making them social animal and a part of regular society.

2. Why Socialization is Necessary?

Socialization is inevitable because of the following reasons;

 Child requires to be socialized to make them a part of social environment

 Continuous dependence of children upon adults makes it necessary to socialize them
 For learning language, culture, skills and making oneself acquaint with the social
setup

3. Link between Socialization and Culture

Socialization and culture are definitely linked in a sense that the former is a way to instruct
the latter. Socialization is in fact a set of means and modes which enable an individual to
learn the culture of a society he or she is part of.

Socialization and culture are dependent on each other. When one says that an individual is
being socialized it does mean that that individual is being made familiar with the cultural
norms, values and customs of his society.

4. Modes of Socialization

A. Formal Socialization

Formal socialization refers to the planned and organized ways of socializing an individual.
This is done through proper institutions. For instance, early schooling of a child is a formal
way to socialize him.

B. Informal Socialization

Informal socialization is unplanned. In this mode a family socializes its young ones with the
traditions and customs it respects as part of its culture. A mother for example emerges to be a
primary institute of socializing her child in an informal way. Similarly, the childhood friends,
playgrounds and siblings all help in socializing the young one in an informal way.

5. What Agencies Socialize an Individual to Culture?

The agents which helps socialization of children to the culture include;

 Family
 School and other Educational Institutes
 Friends and Playmates
 Religious Seminaries
 Media
 State

6. What is taught in Socialization of Culture?

Socialization of culture actually teaches;

 Social customs
 Social norms
 Social ethics
 Social sanctions
 Social expectations
 Social behavior patterns

7. Conclusion

Socialization is inevitable for instructing culture not only to the young generation but also the
elder one in process of re-socialization. Culture acts as the chief subject of socialization.

n this sections several important terms as mentioned in the syllabus shall be defined and
explained. All these terms are somehow related to the subject of culture.

1. Transmission of Culture

Transmission of culture means moving of cultural traits from one generation to

another generation or from one culture into another culture.

Transmission is in the shape of ideas if they are norms and values. And if the culture is
material then this transmission could be seen in actions as well as material objects.
Causes
Cultural transmission occurs because;

 It’s a characteristic of culture

 It’s result of socialization
 It’s a product of individual interaction

Necessity

Cultural transmission is an inevitable and natural process that lays positive impact on the
social setup. It is one of the means of spreading the culture among the young people as well
as the people of other cultures.

2. Cultural Relativism

People either like their culture very much or abhor it. In between the two kinds of
people, a third category exists inspired by cultural relativism. This aspect teaches to
respect the cultural differences instead of condemning them. This concept is contrary
to both ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism. It amounts for;

 Appreciation of cultural diversity

 Logical understanding of all cultures
 Respect for all cultures

3. Sub-Cultures

A sub-culture can be defined as a cultural group within a larger culture, often having
beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture but still a part of it in
the broader understanding. Sub-cultures are formed as a result when a major culture
begins to host people of diverse thoughts and also when the larger culture fails to
agree with the new social practices of a group of people living in it.

4. Ethnocentrism

It accounts for two things;

 Taking one’s culture superior to others

 Taking other cultures as inferior to one’s own

Ethnocentrism is based on the perceptions of the people who do not like change. They think
what they have been practicing in their culture is the only right way and others are wrong.

5. Xenocentrism

Xenocentrism contrary to the ethnocentrism advocates the superiority of other

cultures on one’s own culture. People under this idea are inspired by the other
 cultures. For instance, it is common in the youth of South Asian cultures to get
inspired by the Western cultures and abhor their own.
6. Cultural Lag

When the material conditions change but these changes in the adaptive culture do not
synchronize exactly with the change in the material culture, this delay is the culture lag. In
easy words, the culture often takes its time to catch up with the material advancement which
is rapid in the modern societies. Contrary to that the norms and customs lag behind the
development in materialism.

7. Cultural Lead

This concept is opposite to that of cultural lag. In here, the non-material culture leads
and the material culture lags behind. This happens in the developing countries where
the societies are mostly rich in culture but they are not developed materially.

8. High Culture

High culture refers to a culture which is comparatively rich than the rest of the
cultures. It is most of the times taken in terms of richness in arts and literature
produced by a culture. In sociology, High Culture accounts for richness in customs
and cultural norms most of the times. Usually the Western countries which hosted
ancient civilization have comparatively high cultures and centuries old traditions.
9. Popular Culture

Popular culture is defined as the culture that is “left over” when we have decided what
high culture is. It is modern term originated with the rise of mediums like sports,
music, politics, fashion etc. The role of internet and media is enormous in coining the
term of popular culture. It is also called ‘Pop Culture’.

10. Multiculturalism

It is an association of several cultures in one society. This normally happens when a

society begins to welcome the aliens to live in it. They bring with them their own
cultures which usually grow on the sidelines of the main culture. Its example come
from the US, Canada and India which are the giant centers of multiple cultures.

11. Assimilation

Cultural assimilation refers to the process of gradual adaptation of a culture by a

minority group living under it and which was aboriginally not a part of it. This
assimilation enhances the circle of a culture bringing new people into it. This
assimilation is common to be seen when migrants move to live abroad and gradually
adapt themselves to the new cultural norms.

12.Acculturation:

Acculturation is defined as “the process of cultural change that occurs when individuals from
different cultural backgrounds come into prolonged, continuous, first-hand contact with each
other” (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936, p. 146). Acculturation is a concept that applies to
individuals living in communi- ties other than where they were born, such as immigrants,
refugees, and asylum seekers. Acculturation is a process in which an individual adopts, acquires
and adjusts to a new cultural environment.