Advanced High-Strength Steels Microstructure and Texture Evolution

Activities—Advanced
Advanced High-Strength Steels: Microstructure and

Texture Evolution
Roumen H. Petrov
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium, and
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Delft University of Technology,
Delft, the Netherlands
Jurij Sidor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
Leo A.I. Kestens
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium, and
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Delft University of Technology,
Delft, the Netherlands
Abstract
The microstructure, texture, and some mechanical properties of the most important representatives of first-,
second-, and third-generation advanced high-strength steels are discussed in the context of contemporary
physical metallurgy and new directions in their development are outlined.
INTRODUCTION early 1980s, the research was focused on Fe–Ni systems

with unstable austenite (TRIP steels) and DP steels. How-
Advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) are low-carbon ever, the highly alloyed Fe–Ni materials were unaccept-
steel grades designed in the last 30 years as an answer to able for use in automotive applications. Consequently, a
the contemporary requirements of the automotive industry new concept was formulated (in the 1980s) based on
for lighter, more crash-resistant, and fuel-efficient vehicles. the distribution of islands of metastable austenite in the
They combine excellent weldability, formability, galvaniz- ferrite matrix. This concept was initially developed by
ing ability, crash resistance with high strength, toughness, researchers from Nippon steel[6] and in the 1990s other
and fatigue resistance. research groups[7–11] became increasingly involved in the
The low carbon content of these steels assures good development. Rashid and Rao[12] showed that intercritical
weldability, while appropriate alloying and heat treatment annealing and quenching produces a dual-phase micro-
ensures the requisite combination of strength, formability, structure of ferrite and martensite that eliminates the yield
and toughness. Typical examples of AHSS are the so-called point of the stress–strain curve, increases the uniform
dual-phase (DP) steels, transformation-induced plasticity elongation from 10% to 20%, and improves the ultimate
(TRIP)-assisted steels, complex-phase steels (CP steels), tensile strength. Fig. 1 schematically shows the develop-
etc. Advanced high strength steels are produced mainly in ment of the AHSS until 2010.[3]
the shape of hot-rolled and cold-rolled sheets and their
specifications are covered by a new ASTM International
standard, which replaces the existing A1079-2012.[1] PRODUCTION OF AHSS
Dieter[2] defines sheets as rolled products having thick-
nesses less than 6 mm and widths exceeding 600 mm The production scheme of the AHSS does not differ sig-
whereas strips have widths lower than 600 mm. nificantly from the classical technological schemes for
Multiphase steels became industrially available in steel production. Depending on the equipment and the
1980. However, property-controlling effects such as TRIP capacity, AHSS can be produced in a basic oxygen fur-
were identified as early as 1920.[3] In 1937, Wasser- nace[13,14] or in an electric arc furnace[14] and subjected to
mann[4] associated very high elongation values during vacuum degasing.[14] Subsequent steps include slab cast-
transformation under load in Fe–Ni alloys, with the γ–α ing, hot rolling, cold rolling, and heat treatment after
phase transformation. In 1967, Zackay and his coworkers which the final microstructure and properties are obtained.
showed that the transformation in austenitic steels contrib- However, it should be explicitly mentioned that the afore-
utes to “the enhancement of ductility in high-strength mentioned description is very general, and there are many
steels” and introduced the term TRIP (Transformation- possible variations for each individual technological step,
Induced Plasticity).[5] In the following years and until the depending on the technological equipment of the steel
Encyclopedia of Iron, Steel, and Their Alloys DOI: 10.1081/E-EISA-120050410

70 Copyright © 2015 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
Advanced High-Strength Steels: Microstructure and Texture Evolution 71
Press hardened Michelin: DP for TRIP for
Industrial steels DP for wheel structural parts structural parts
discs
manufacturing
PM steels Ford: DP for

exposed
Complex phase steels
Pilot manufacturing
Chrysler dual- ULCSAB- TWIP steels

phase car body AVC High Mn steels
ULCSAB
Extensive DP
Research research
NSC: TRIP for Frommeyer
Zackay 1950 TRIP in automative TWIP steels
Downloaded by [Lulea University of Technology] at 01:19 22 September 2016
1920-1930 “TRIP” stainless application

Fe–Ni alloys steels
1920 1950 1980 2010

Year
Fig. 1 Historical development of the advanced high-strength steels for automotive application.
Source: From Papaeftimiu[3]
processing company. For example, slab casting can be The production of AHSS can follow three different
continuous or discontinuous, the slabs could be directly processing routes depending on the type of starting slab.
charged in the hot-rolling line or after reheating, etc. The (cf. Fig. 2). Thick or thin slabs are first hot rolled in a hot
large variety of technological solutions will not be strip mill or in a compact strip mill. Hot-rolled strips can
completely described here as only the microstructure be heat-treated directly after finish rolling in order to
formation in the last stage of the heat treatment will be obtain the final microstructure, for example, ferrite and
discussed. Fig. 2 outlines the main technological steps in martensite for the DP steels or ferrite—bainite—retained
the production of AHSS[15] when two different final prod- austenite for the TRIP-assisted steels (route 1, Fig. 2). If
ucts are required, that is, hot rolled in one case and cold smaller gauges are required, the hot-rolled strips can be
rolled in the other. further cold rolled in tandem mills to a thickness below
Slap Hot strip mill

CAL
Tandem
mill
Thin Slap Compact strip HDG

mill
CAL
Hot rolling,
Cast strip Cold rolling
heat treatment
HDG
Hot-rolled strip Cold-rolled strip
Fig. 2 A scheme of processing routes of AHSS depending on the type of the slab and the final product. HDG, hot dip galvanizing line;
CAL, continuous annealing line.
Source: Based on data from Bleck.[15]
72 Advanced High-Strength Steels: Microstructure and Texture Evolution
1 mm, followed by an annealing treatment in a continuous structural constituents in bands and is frequently referred
annealing line (CAL) to obtain the desired microstructure to as band structure or structural texture (Fig. 3) [17] Fig. 3
(route 2, Fig. 2). The heat treatment of the cold-rolled shows a case of Mn segregation in a DP steel (with nom-
AHSS is often combined with the galvanizing treatment inal Mn content of 1.9%) that has martensite and ferrite
in hot dip galvanizing lines (HDGL). In the case of strip bands.[17] The band structure together with the crystallo-
casting and direct hot charging, the processing can follow graphic texture causes anisotropy of the mechanical prop-
route 3 (Fig. 2), which significantly shortens the erties and can deteriorate important technological
processing time since the initial dimensions of the cast properties like deep drawability.
strip are close to the final one. Mn usually segregates on the large scale whereas
Microstructure and texture formation depends critically other elements like Cr, Mo, and B can segregate inside
on the variation of the processing parameters in the stages individual grains. Segregated Mn attracts C and after
of final rolling and cooling for the hot-rolled grades and in slow cooling of the slabs pearlitic bands are formed,
all stages of the final heat treatment in the cold-rolled which remain after rolling and hence also causes C seg-
grades. It should also be mentioned that the initial micro- regation. During heat treatment, the austenite forms from
structure of the steel before cold rolling plays an important this pearlite and after quenching transforms to martensite
role in the heat treatment of the cold-rolled AHSS. The in regions with higher Mn content. Conversely, ferrite
majority of the AHSS are produced as cold-rolled sheets formation is promoted in the Mn depleted zones.
and strips and an example for industrial grades DP steel Annealing and fast cooling cannot prevent Mn segrega-
can be found elsewhere.[16] tion but can minimize that of carbon since it diffuses
Segregation of alloying elements (most often Mn) much faster than Mn.[18]
through the slab thickness and width is a major problem Although the AHSS are designed especially for auto-
in all AHSS. This segregation leads to the alignment of motive application (so-called “body in white” of the car),
2.7%
2.5%
2.3%
2.1%
2.0%
1.8%
20μm Mn Wt 15KV
(A) (B)
3.2
Mn (profile)
3.0 Mn (Nominal)
2.6
Mn (wt.%)
2.2
1.8
1.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
(C) d (μm)
Fig. 3 (A) Mn-distribution maps, (B) superposition of Mn map on microstructure, and (C) Mn profile in central segregation of DP steel.
Source: From Aarnts et al.[17]
they may be used in all fields where they fulfill the (HSLA) steels. The latter are used primarily in thermo-
requirements for mechanical, technological, and func- mechanically control processed (TMCP) conditions in the
tional properties. pipe line industry. As shown in Fig. 4, there is a gap in
the range of strains between 20% and 50% and tensile
strength between 700 and 1600 MPa that is expected to
CLASSIFICATION OF AHHS be filled by the AHSS of the third generation. There are
several approaches in the development of the third gener-
A general review on the AHSS can be found in[19,20] ation AHSS. A detailed analysis of the current trends in
where the existing steel grades are analyzed and the new the development of AHSS can be found in[19,20] from
trends in their developments are clearly pointed out. The which the most important developments can be listed as
main grades of AHSS are DP-steels, TRIP steels that can follows: 1) improved processing to enhance properties
be more accurately denominated as TRIP-assisted steels, of DP steels; 2) modifications to traditional TRIP steel
CP steels, bainitic steels (BS), martensitic steels (MS), processing; 3) development of high-strength steels with
quenching and partitioning (Q&P) steels, twinning- ultrafine bainitic microstructures; 4) implementation of
induced plasticity (TWIP) steels, light-weight steels with new processing routes, including Q&P and ultrarapid
heating and cooling; and 5) development of high-Mn
induced plasticity (L-IP), and shear band strengthened

steels also known as shear-band-induced plasticity (SIP) TRIP steels (Fig. 4).
steels. According to Matlock et al.[20] clear evidence for
the advantages of the DP steel structure was first published
by Rashidand Rao.[12] There[12] they showed that the FIRST-GENERATION AHSS
change from a ferritic microstructure of high-strength
low-alloy steel to a dual-phase microstructure of ferrite DP and TRIP-assisted steels are among the most popular
and martensite can produce a continuous yielding behav- first generation AHSS, with the widest range of applica-
ior without yield point and with an increasing uniform tions. Both steels comprise ferritic matrix, which contrib-
elongation from 10% to 20%, accompanied by a minor utes to the plasticity, whereas the strength is provided by
increase in the ultimate tensile strength. Later on, DP, a hard phase—martensite in the case of the DP-steels or a
TRIP-assisted, CP, and M steel were developed and they mixture of carbide, free bainite, and retained austenite in
are known as first generation AHSS. TWIP, L-IP, and SIP the TRIP-assisted steels. In general, they are low to aver-
(austenitic stainless steels) steels were developed after- age alloyed steels with low carbon content (0.15–0.3%
ward and they are often referred to as second generation C) and a total content of alloying elements below 5%.
AHSS. Fig. 4[19,20] compares the ultimate tensile strength The main alloying elements in these steels are Mn and
and uniform elongation of first and second generation Si, but in the TRIP-assisted steels the latter has recently
AHSS with those of other typical conventional grades of been partially replaced by Al in order to improve the
low-carbon steels for general use or use in the automotive galvanizability. Microalloying additions of Nb are well
industry like interstitial free (IF) steels, mild steels (mild), documented in the literature mainly in TRIP-assisted
bake-hardened (BH) steels, isotropic (ISO) steels, carbon– steel grades, which are used in hot-rolled conditions.[7]
manganese (C–Mn ) steels, and high-strength low-alloyed The range of the composition is very broad and well
70
L-IP
TWIP
60
Aust. SS
Elongation (%)
50
IF
Thi
r
AH d-gen
40
Mild SS era
ti on
30
C–Mn TRIP
20
HSLA
DP, CP Fig. 4 A scheme showing the distribution of the
10
Martensitic steel grades with respect to their tensile strength and

uniform elongation.
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 Source: From De Moor et al.[19] and Matlock
Tensile strength (MPa) et al.[20]
Table 1 Examples of compositions of DP and TRIP-assisted steels.

Steel C, mass % Mn, mass % Si,c mass % YS, MPa UTS, MPa ef, (%) Ref
FF 280 DP a
0.14 1.6 0.40 300–380 490 25 [3]
Dual-phase 450 0.08 1.6 0.40 280–340 450–530 27 [3]
Dual-phase 600 0.14 2.1 0.40 330–410 600–700 21 [3]
Dual-phase 980 LCEb Y 700 0.11 2.9 0.70 700–850 980–1,100 8 [3]
Dual-phase 980 Y 700 0.18 2.4 0.60 700–850 980–1,100 8 [3]
Dual-phase 1180 0.18 2.4 0.60 900–1,100 1,180 5 [3]
TRIP 590 0.175 2.0 2.0 380–480 590–700 26

TRIP 690 0.200 2.0 2.0 410–510 690–800 25
TRIP 780 0.250 2.0 2.0 450–550 780–900 23
Abbreviations: ef, uniform elongation in % for samples with L0 = 80 mm and thickness <3 mm.
a
FF 280 DP (full finished): grade specially developed for skin parts.
b
LCE: low carbon equivalent grade, used to optimize properties in service.
c
For TRIP steels is given the sum of Si + Al, for DP steels only Si.
described in the scientific literature. Usually the DP ensure good weldability (low carbon equivalent); 3) the
steels have compositions close to ~0.08–0.2 C; 1.5–3 Mn content should be balanced in order to ensure a suffi-
Mn; 0.25–0.7 Si, (all in mass.%) whereas a typical ciently low critical quench rate and to stabilize the austen-
TRIP-assisted steel is composed of ~0.15–0.2 C, 1.5–2 ite; and 4) Si is used in TRIP-assisted steels to suppress
Mn–1.5 Si, or in the case of substitution of Si by Al ~0.2 carbide formation during the isothermal treatment in the
C–1.6 Mn–0.4 Si–1.1 Al. Table 1 (adapted from http:// bainitic region (austempering), but it has a negative influ-
www.arcelormittal.com/fce/saturnus/sheets/A1_EN.pdf ence on the galvanizability as Si forms a stable Mn2SiO4
(accessed October 2013)[16] and http://www.arcelormittal. surface oxide during annealing, which inhibits hot-dip
com/fce/saturnus/sheets/B_EN.pdf (accessed October galvanizability.[8,13]
2012)[21]) lists examples of the different compositions As a consequence, in recent years Si is partially
of DP and TRIP-assisted steels currently in production. replaced with Al.[8,13] or combinations of Al and P.[9,11]
More detailed information on the new trends in the devel- Although Al is an effective substitute of Si with respect to
opment of DP and TRIP-assisted steels is available suppressing the cementite formation during austempering
in.[15,19,20] and therefore enhances the retention of austenite at room
The alloying strategy of DP and TRIP-assisted steels is temperature, its solid solution strengthening potential is
subjected to several basic restrictions: 1) the C content weaker in comparison to the one of Si. Consequently an
should be high enough to ensure an appropriate martensite optimum in Al–Si balance is found in the contemporary
fraction with appropriate hardness in the DP steels and TRIP-assisted steels. A more detailed analysis of the influ-
sufficient fraction of retained austenite in the TRIP- ence of the alloying elements on the microstructure for-
assisted steels; 2) the C content should be low enough to mation can be found elsewhere.[6]
1000 Ac3
1000 Ac3
900 900
A
800 Ac1
800 Ac1
F
700 83 90 95
95 95 700
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
57 5 5 F
14 24 40 75 P A 60
5 –1 3 4 5 3 40
600 15 8
600 P
B 28
500 30 41 43 500
38
M5 2 7 B
M 45 70
400 400 72
M
300 300
200 0.06% C 200 0.17% C
100 100
365 275 245 225 205 185 180 175 175 140 125 430 410 305 270 210 110
0 0
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 0.1 1 10 102 103 104
(A) Time (sec) (B) Time (sec)
Fig. 5 Influence of C on the CCT diagram of steel: (A) 0.06% C and (B) 0.17% C. The amounts of rest of the alloying elements are
identical.
Source: From Beranger et al.[24]
1000 1000
900 0,44% C; 0,66% Mn 900 0,48% C; 2 % Mn
800 Ac
3 800 Ac3
Ac1
700 30 50 700 Ac1
25
Temperature (°C)
F 10 50 4
Temperature (°C)
600 3 80
75 70 600 4 96
P 96
1 70 1 25 P
10 A F
500 500 1
B
400 400 B
55
Ms 2 20 65
17 5 15
300 300 Ms 1
M
200 200
210
100 100 Fig. 6 Influence of Mn on the CCT diagram of

548 318
0
533 294 274 224
0 640 625 415 390 300 299 280 steel with 0.44% C: (A) 0.66% Mn and (B) 2%
1 10 102 103 104 1 10 102 103 104 Mn.[24]
(A) Time (sec) (B) Time (sec) Source: From Beranger et al.[24]
The hot-rolled DP steels compositions are based on the transformation to lower temperatures and decreases the
standard composition of the C–Mn steels added with Si critical quench rate,that is, improves the hardenability of
and/or Cr. Si, Mn, and Cr are typical alloying elements in the steel. The numbers in the lines representing various
hot-rolled DP steels and they are used to suppress the cooling rates show the transformed fraction and the num-
formation of pearlite and bainite and to determine the bers in the circles display the Vickers hardness after the
austenite fraction that will be available for transformation end of the transformation.
to martensite. Si and Cr are ferrite promoting elements, However, it should be mentioned that C decreases the
whereby Si is particularly important because it strengthens critical quench rate (improves hardenability) only until
the ferrite, generates more polygonal ferrite at high tem- ~0.4% C. The increase of the C concentration above
perature, and hinders the connection of martensitic islands ~0.4% increases again the critical quench rate and
in the microstructures, which presumably contributes to decreases the hardenability (the start of transformation is
improving the toughness. Cr decreases the critical quench shifted to the left).
rate and thereby improves the hardenability and promotes
martensite formation. Microalloying additions like V,
Nb, and Ti are also explored in these steels.[14,15] A more MICROSTRUCTURE FORMATION IN DP AND
detailed description of the influence of the alloying addi- TRIP-ASSISTED STEELS
tions on the microstructure formation of DP steels can be
found in,[22,23] whereas alloying strategies with regard to Technological Routes for DP Steels
TRIP-assisted steels are reported in.[6,8,9,11,15]
Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate the influence of the main alloying Two main technological routes can be followed in order to
elements, C and Mn, on transformation kinetics, by way form a DP (or TRIP-assisted) microstructure in the AHSS.
of continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams. The first one is associated with the production of DP or
An increase of C and Mn content in the shown concentra- TRIP-assisted steels by hot rolling. Fig. 7 illustrates sche-
tion range induces a shift of the start of austenite–ferrite matically the two possibilities for the production of hot-
Fig. 7 A scheme showing the time temperature

schedules for production of hot-rolled DP and
TRIP steels.
Source: From http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/
sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/
sub_4/images/pdfs/039.pdf (accessed October
2013).[15]
200 nm 200 nm F
M F
Fig. 8 SEM images showing the difference in

the martensite microstructure (M) in as-quenched
steel (A) and after 2 s tempering at 300 C (B). F,
C ferrite; C, carbides.
(A) (B)
Source: From Kamp et al.[25]
rolled products with DP or TRIP microstructures.[15] The 2 s at 300 C can cause changes in the martensite microstruc-
last rolling pass is given in both cases above the Ar3 ture and provokes carbide formation along the martensite
temperature and it is followed by very slow cooling or laths (cf. Fig. 8). A detailed description of the tempering
isothermal holding between Ar3 and Ar1 temperatures in processes in DP steels is reported in.[22,25–27]
order to allow the formation of proeutectoid (intercritical) A microstructure of hot-rolled DP steels is shown in
ferrite. During the ferrite formation, carbon redistributes Fig. 9. After etching with 4% picric acid in ethanol (4%
between the ferrite and austenite and the carbon content of Picral) followed by etching with 10% aqueous sodium
the intercritical austenite increases. metabisulfide, the martensite phase appears respectively
The ferrite formation curve of the CCT diagram shifts to dark or brown (Fig. 9A) and the ferrite remains white.
the right (dotted line in Fig. 7) and both the critical quench After etching in the equal volume mixture of 4% picral
rate and the martensite start temperature, Ms, of the and sodium metabisulfide (known as Le Pera technique)
intercritical austenite decrease slightly. After quenching the martensite remains white and the ferrite colors in blue
from the intercritical temperature, the remaining carbon- or green depending on the etching conditions (Fig. 9B). It
enriched austenite transforms to martensite and a dual-phase should be mentioned that traces of bainite in the vicinity of
structure of ferrite and martensite forms. In the industrial the martensite zones can often be observed in the micro-
rolling line, this process is controlled on the run-out table, structure of the DP steels.
and it is critically dependent on the available cooling rates. The thermomechanical processing (TMCP) conditions
The cooling rates should be slow enough to ensure the can be successfully used to control the fraction of ferrite
formation of a sufficient amount of ferrite in the intercritical and martensite and therefore the mechanical properties of
range (~85%) followed by fast cooling (the precise cooling the steel.[29] Fig. 10[29] shows that the microstructure of
rate depends on the chemical composition) in order to avoid DP steel under various TMCP conditions, where the mar-
bainite or pearlite formation and to form only martensite. tensite volume fraction varies from 0.1 in Fig. 10A to 0.2
Therefore, an appropriate alloying strategy or applying a in Fig. 10B to 0.4 in Fig. 10C, depending on the start
holding step in the temperature range of maximum ferrite quench temperature.
formation can be used for a successful control of the process.
After quenching, the hot-rolled DP steels are coiled at tem-
peratures of 200–300 C. Hence, it is also important to con- TECHNOLOGICAL ROUTES FOR TRIP-ASSISTED
trol alloying additions such that martensite transformation STEELS
completes at ~300 C. During and after the coiling, the mar-
tensite in the dual-phase structure is tempered. Depending The microstructure formation in hot-rolled TRIP-assisted
on the alloying combination the steels can be very sensitive steel (dotted line in Fig. 7) can be controlled in two main
to tempering. Kamp et al.[25] show that tempering for only steps during cooling. In the first step, the strip is cooled
Fig. 9 (A) Microstructure of a DP steel after

etching with 4% picral followed by etching with
M
10% aqueous sodium metabisulfide (SMB).[22]
F The martensite is brown, bainite appears bluish
to black, and the ferrite zones are white. (B)
Microstructure of a DP steel[26] after etching with
Le Pera method.[28] Martensite (and retained aus-
tenite if any) is white; the ferrite matrix is darker
10 μm
(green in this case, depending on the etching con-
20 μm
ditions). F and M shows the place of ferrite and
(A) (B) martensite, respectively.
(A) (B)
20 μm 20 μm
(C)
Fig. 10 LOM images for samples containing

0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 of martensite volume fractions
20 μm obtained with a cooling rate of 10 C/s
Source: From Asadi et al.[29]
down slowly in the intercritical α + γ region (or held there During heating to the intercritical temperature domain, the
isothermally) after the last rolling pass with a cooling cold-rolled ferrite–pearlite structure recrystallizes and
rate that allows the formation of a sufficiently large frac- intercritical austenite forms from a fully recrystallized
tion of intercritical ferrite. In the second step, the strip is parent ferritic phase.
rapidly cooled to the bainitic range where it is held iso- The fine microstructure of the DP steels can be
thermally (often called austempering stage). During the observed with scanning and transmission electron
isothermal holding, the intercritical austenite transforms
to carbide-free bainite. Growing bainitic ferrite laths
push away the carbon, which enriches the neighboring
austenite. The carbon-enriched austenite has a very low B
Ms temperature and it remains untransformed during the F
final cooling to room temperature from the austempering
region. After such a heat treatment the microstructure of
the hot-rolled TRIP-assisted steel contains ferrite, bainite,
and retained austenite.
The microstructure of hot-rolled TRIP-assisted steel is
RA
shown in Fig. 11.[30]
Thin sheets of DP and TRIP-assisted steels are pro-
duced by cold rolling and followed by an annealing treat-
ment, which can be carried out on CALs or continuous
galvanizing lines. The time–temperature schedule of this
treatment is shown schematically in Fig. 12.
The microstructure of the steel sheets before annealing
is usually cold-rolled ferrite and pearlite (cf. Fig. 13).
After uncoiling, cutting the front edge, welding, and 10 μm
degreasing, the sheet enters the heating section of the
CAL where it is heated up with a heating rate from 10 to Fig. 11 Microstructure of hot-rolled TRIP steel with ferrite (F),
40 C/sec to temperatures in the dual phase α + γ range bainite (B), and retained austenite (RA).
until a fraction of ~50% austenite and ferrite is formed. Source: From Koh et al.[30]
A3 F A3
Ferrite F
A1 A A
Ferrite
A1
Pearlite
Pearlite
Temperature
Temperature
Bainite Bainite
Ms
Ms
F F
B
M RA
(A) Time (B) Time
Fig. 12 A scheme of the time–temperature schedule for heat treatment of (A) cold-rolled DP and (B) TRIP-assisted steels.
Source: From http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_4/images/pdfs/039.pdf

(accessed October 2013).[15]
microscopes (SEM and TEM, respectively). Fig. 14A higher intercritical annealing temperature (point 1 in
shows an SEM image of a cold rolled and intercritically Fig. 15) compared to the austenite formed at temperatures
annealed DP steel with clearly defined martensite and 2 and 3. Hence, a larger fraction of martensite with low
ferrite phases, whereas in Fig. 14B a TEM bright field carbon content and lower strength will be formed from
image is shown of a region containing martensite and austenite formed at temperature 1. Similarly, the martens-
ferrite phase. Owing to the volume differences between ite fraction at temperatures 2 and 3 will be lower but due
the martensite and the ferrite, local stresses and strains are to its higher carbon content it will have a higher strength.
created in the ferrite in the vicinity of the martensite Therefore, different properties can be obtained in a DP
phase, which can be observed in the fine microstructure steel with a given chemical composition by balancing the
formed by an increased dislocation density.[22] intercritical austenite fraction and carbon content via the
The balance between the phases is crucial for obtaining annealing temperature. The soaking time at the selected
the desired mechanical properties. The volume fraction of annealing temperature should be sufficiently long to reach
each particular phase can be controlled via the tempera- homogeneous austenitization and complete dissolution of
ture of intercritical annealing, as illustrated in Fig. 15.[6] the carbides. Special attention should be paid when the
Fig. 15 shows schematically the variation of carbon con- steels are alloyed with strong carbide forming elements
tent and fractions of austenite on a pseudo binary phase Nb, V, and Mo that require longer soaking times for car-
diagram for steel with 0.2% C and 1.5% Mn. The projec- bide dissolution.[31]
tion of points 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 15A on the horizontal axis Figs. 12B and 16 show the time–temperature schedule
(10, 20, 30) show the C concentration of the austenite in the for intercritical annealing and austempering of cold-rolled
steel before the transformation, whereas the fraction of TRIP-aided steel. Owing to the limitations of the
α and γ phases can be determined by the lever rule. The annealing temperatures and time in the industrial
higher the intercritical annealing temperature, the higher processing lines (CAL and galvannealing), the equilib-
the intercritical austenite fraction and, correspondingly the rium concentration of the substitution elements is never
higher the martensite fraction is after quenching of the DP achieved and only C diffusion can occur, that is, the aus-
steel. Austenite with lower carbon content forms at a tenite and ferrite phases form in paraequilibrium
Fig. 13 (A) Microstructure of cold-rolled DP

steel (black regions are pearlite, white ferrite)
and (B) the same steel after annealing in the
intercritical region and quenching (ferrite is
white, martensite is gray). Light optical micro-
(A) (B) graphs after 2% Nital etching.
M
F
F High dislocation
density in the
M ferrite Fig. 14 (A) Microstructure of cold-rolled DP
steel in SEM (black regions are ferrite, white
martensite) and (B) bright field TEM image of
the region containing martensite and ferrite
10 mm 1 mm showing increased dislocation density at the
martensite–ferrite interface.
(A) (B) Source: From Pushkareva.[22]
conditions. Depending on the temperature in the a function of the C content is shown with the gray line in
intercritical α + γ region, the austenite C content increases Fig. 15B. At the temperature of isothermal holding in
to 0.3–0.4 wt.% as a result of the C-partitioning between the bainite transformation range, ferrite has lower free
ferrite and austenite (see points 10, 20, and 30 in Fig. 15A). energy than the free energy of the austenite at the start
Subsequently, the steel is quenched to a temperature in the of the transformation, which provides the driving force
bainitic transformation range with a cooling rate, which for the diffusionless γ–α transformation. As the γ–α trans-
prevents formation of pearlite (usually >30 C/sec) and formation proceeds, the C, which can still diffuse at these
isothermally held for several minutes. At the beginning of temperatures, is expelled from the bainite into the austen-
the cooling when the temperature is still above the Ar1 ite. Owing to the Si, Al, and/or P alloying, the carbide
temperature the cooling rate may be lower (cf. Fig. 15A), formation is suppressed and the C content of the
in order to further enrich the austenite with C (Fig. 15A remaining austenite increases. The bainite transformation
point 200 (γ ini)). The variation of the earlier parameters stops when the C content of the austenite reaches the T0
(cooling rate and bainite transformation time) is limited point for the given conditions, because beyond this point
by the ability of the industrial CALs or continuous galva- Gγ < Gα. After austempering at 400–500 C, the C content
nizing lines. At the bainite transformation temperature the of the retained austenite can reach 1.5–2.0% C.[6]
progressing formation of bainitic ferrite pushes away Although the previous mechanism is theoretically and
the carbon that enriches the remaining austenite particles experimentally verified, some authors[35,36] give a differ-
that decrease in size and increase their C content to ent explanation for this incomplete reaction phenomenon.
1–1.5 wt.% C. Owing to the increased carbon content, the By means of finite element calculations, the implemented
Ms temperature of the austenite decreases, and it remains bainitic diffusion model of Van Dooren et al. [36] showed
untransformed at room temperature as retained austenite. that the C diffusion from the bainite subunit into surround-
The bainite transformation takes place at the temperature ing austenite is too slow to have a pronounced influence
T0 at which Gα = Gγ, where Gα and Gγ are the free energy on the renucleation of new sub units. They suggest that the
of ferrite and austenite of identical composition, respec- austenite transformation in the bainite region is stopped
tively, (Fig. 15B).[6] The position of the T0 temperature as by the accumulation of stresses in the surrounding
T (°C) g T (°C) 1250

–24
1 1 2 g ini
2
a+g 3 Gg
3 –26
Ae3 1000
Free energy (kJ/mo)
Ga –28
–30
g = >gret + aB 750
T0
–32
Ae3
Fig. 15 (A) Pseudobinary Fe–C diagram
500 T0 –34
Ms for Fe–1.5% Mn showing the changes in
–36 the C content of the austenite and (B) the
Ctot Cg ini CT0 Acm corresponding phase diagram indicating
2′′ the position of the T0 line that indicates
250 –38
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 the end point for the bainitic transforma-
1′ 2′ 3′ C (wt.%) tion during austempering (right).
C (wt.%)
(A) (B) Source: Adapted from De Cooman.[6]
2. Intercritical annealing:
- Form g with sufficient hardenability
~ –5°C/sec
Time: 2–4 min
3. Rapid cooling:
Temperature: 750–800°C - Avoid formation of «new» a
- Avoid formation of pearlite
~ –10–50°C/sec
1. Heating:
Temperature
- Recrystallization of a 4. Isothermal bainitic transformation:

- Dissolution of cementite - Enrichment of retained g with carbon
- Formation of g(T > Ac1)
Time: 4–8 min
Temperature: 350–490°C
~ +5–20°C/sec ~ –1–10°C/sec
5.Final cooling:
-Martensite formation (Ms > RT)
Fig. 16 Schematic of the stages in the thermal
treatment of the TRIP-assisted steels.

Time Source: From Barbe.[11]
austenite phase that is in agreement with the work of austenite, and martensite), clasping the ferrite grains,
Quidorf et al. [35] Long isothermal bainitic transformation which thereby decrease in size. Ferrite and retained aus-
times result in the decomposition of the austenite into tenite deform simultaneously to minimize the local
ferrite and carbides. Fig. 16[11] schematically summarizes stresses at the phase boundaries, until the strain-induced
the time–temperature schedule of the heat treatment of martensitic transformation takes place. The composite-
TRIP-assisted steels. like strengthening behavior in a TRIP-aided steel might
Figs. 17 and 18[33,34] present in schematic format the be expressed by the decreasing free path of dislocations
microstructure formation in TRIP-assisted steel during in ferrite due to the enlarging and thickening of the
the austempering stage and the real microstructure of multiphase skeleton as plastic deformation progresses.
a cold-rolled TRIP-assisted steel after austempering, Such a microstructural response postpones the strain
respectively. localization and localized necking and therefore contrib-
The behavior of the TRIP-assisted steels under utes to high uniform elongation of the TRIP-assisted
mechanical load is heavily influenced by the transforma- steel. Fig. 19 compares the tensile test results and the
tion stability of the retained austenite. Under mechanical strain-hardening exponents of a DP- and TRIP-aided
loading, the retained austenite in the strain concentration steel.[34] As deduced from Fig. 20, which shows the
regions transforms to martensite. The stronger martensite results of a dynamic energy absorption test on an AHSS,
has the larger volume and also causes local work DP- and TRIP-assisted steels have very good energy
hardening in the surrounding ferrite, which causes local absorption properties as a result of their complex micro-
strengthening of the regions with strain concentration structures. Peixinho and Peixinho et al.[37,38] reported the
and shifts the martensite transformation to neighboring results of tests on top-hat and hexagonal sections made
areas. Wassilkowska et al.[34] showed that the strain- from dual-phase (DP 600) and transformation-induced
induced transformation of retained austenite to martens- plasticity (TRIP 600) high-strength steels, and subjected
ite leads to localized deformation of ferrite close to the to axial impacts by masses travelling up to 15 m/sec.
ferrite/martensite phase boundaries and the formation of Progressive buckling (i.e., regular folding) is observed in
a composite skeleton of several phases (bainite, retained all specimens with failure in the laser welds in TRIP 600
Small angle Maximum extension of g at

a–a gb austenisation temperature
~ KS a–g
relationship Proeutect. a Parent a
Fig. 17 Schematic model of bainite microstructure. The
Residual a–g lamellae gb movement dashed line indicates the position of the α–γ grain boundary at
a g (bainite) a before bainite the end of the austenitization process. During cooling the γ grain
g formation
shrinks and the boundary moves as indicated by the arrows.
No specific When reaching the bainite formation temperature the γ–α plate
relationship Exact K–S structure (bainitic ferrite) grows (gb, grain boundary).
relationship Source: From Zaefferer et al.[32]
F B
B
F
RA
RA
Acc.V Spot Maqn Dat WD 5 mm
25.0 kV 8.8 8000x SE 18.6 Hivac Fig. 18 Microstructure of TRIP-assisted steel
observed (A) in the light microscope after color
(A) 5 mm (B) 5 mm etching (bright field image), (B) SEM image
after 2% Nital etching, and (C) combined image
quality (IQ) map and color-coded phase map
A obtained by means of high-resolution EBSD
B
measurement. BCC constituents (ferrite and
bainite) are in blue and FCC (retained austenite)
is yellow. (D) Bright field TEM image showing
RA
bainite, ferrite, and retained austenite regions in
F high resolution F—ferrite, B—bainite, RA—
F B
5 mm
retained austenite.
Sources: (C) From Petrov et al.[33] and (D)
500 nm
(C) (D) Wasilkowska et al.[34]
steel, whereas all of the top-hat sections made from DP should be mentioned that the transformation is also tem-
600 with laser or spot-welds responded with a regular perature dependent. Retained austenite stability depends
progressive buckling. mainly on the carbon concentration (which determines
Having in mind that the deformation response depends the MSs temperature of austenite), but also the size and
on the transformation stability of the retained austenite, it crystallographic orientation of the individual austenite
islands cannot be neglected.[33]
1000
Engineering stress (MPa)
900
TRIP
800
700
DP
600
500
400
300
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
(A) Engineering strain (%)
0.3
Strain-hardening expponent
0.25
0.2 TRIP
0.15
DP
0.1
0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25
(B) Engineering strain (%)
Fig. 19 (A) Stress–strain diagram of the TRIP and DP steels

and (B) strain hardening exponent n = d lnσ/d lnε as a function of Fig. 20 Progressive buckling observed in an AHSS steel during
strain for both steels. dynamic impact test.
Table 2 Chemical composition of several CP steels currently Fig. 22 shows examples of microstructures of complex-
in production. phase steels, which contain martensite, carbides, bainite,
C, mass %, Mn, mass %, Si, mass %, and retained austenite. The large variety of microstruc-
Grade max max max tures provides varied possibilities for control of the
CP 600 0.10 1.60 0.40 mechanical properties.
CP 800 Y 600 0.17 2.20 0.60 The bright white phase in Fig. 22A is martensite, gray
CP 1000 SF 0.18 2.40 0.60 is bainite, and the black phase is a mixture of bainitic
CP 1000 Y 800 0.20 2.70 0.80 ferrite and cementite. Fig. 22B shows an SEM micrograph
CP 750 0.25 1.40 0.40
with a more complex microstructure containing acicular
CP 800 0.10 2.00 0.25
ferrite (AF), martensite–austenite islands (MA), bainite
CP 1000 0.14 1.70 0.25
regions, and pearlite islands. The EBSD maps allow better
resolution between the structural constituents. The micro-
structure in Fig. 23 shows superimposed pattern quality
COMPLEX-PHASE AHSS and Kernel scalar maps (IQ parameter) of a CP steel where
austenite is black, martensite is dark green, and bainitic
ferrite is orange.
Complex-phase AHSS are low-carbon steel grades

exhibiting a microstructure that contains small amounts of
martensite, retained austenite, and carbides within the fer-
rite/bainite matrix. They have very high ultimate tensile
strengths but reduced plasticity in comparison to DP- and TEXTURE FORMATION IN DP AND
TRIP-assisted steels. Microalloying with elements like Ti, TRIP-ASSISTED STEELS
Nb leads to extreme grain refinement due to retarded recrys-
tallization of the austenite during hot rolling and pre- The main phases that form the microstructures in the
cipitation of carbides of the microalloying elements. In AHSS have the BCC (BCT) and FCC crystal structure.
comparison to DP steels, CP steels show significantly The main components of the BCC-phases rolling and
higher yield strengths at equal tensile strengths of 800 MPa annealing textures are usually displayed in the φ2 = 45
or higher. CP steels are characterized by high energy section of Euler space (Fig. 24B), whereas the φ2 =45 ,
absorption and high residual deformation capacity. Table 2 65 , and 90 sections are used for the fcc phases. Fig. 24
shows the chemical composition of several CP phase steels plots the orientations schematically in the φ2 =45 section
currently in production; Table 3 and Fig. 21A[39] compare of Euler space; the most important BCC-texture compo-
the tensile properties (yield stress, UTS, and uniform elon- nents belong to either α-fiber (<110>//RD) or γ-fibers
gation) for CP steel and other AHSS steels. (<111>//ND). The orientations typical of the FCC phase
The CP steels can be produced as hot-rolled and cold- are displayed in the sections of Fig. 24A, with the charac-
rolled sheets. An example of the heat treatment schedule teristic FCC rolling β-fiber texture running from the
of cold-rolled sheets is shown in Fig. 21B. Cold-rolled Cu component ({112}<111>) over the S component
sheets are first heated in the intercritical (Fig. 21B) or in ({123}<634>) to the Brass component ({110}<211>).
the fully austenitic temperature range. The microstructure A recent, analytical description of the β-fiber[49] shows
of CP steel is formed during continuous cooling or contin- that the Cu and Brass components are connected via
uous cooling followed by interrupted isothermal holding {325}<10 15 12>, {213}<9 15 11>, {314}<5 9 6>,
in the bainitic temperature range (cf. Fig. 21B). The and {718}<26 50 29>. The FCC α-fiber (connecting the
microstructures and the phase fraction can vary widely. Br and Goss ({110}<001>) may also appear in the tex-
ture of rolled FCC metals.
The transformation textures of steel are described
Table 3 Comparison between mechanical properties of several in details in.[43–48] It is well established that the texture
AHSS. of recrystallized austenite contains mainly the Cube
Steel grade YS, MPa UTS, MPa Total elongation, % {100}<001> orientation, whereas after rolling the aus-
HSLA 350/450 350 450 23–27 tenite orientations tend to align along the α and β fibers.
DP 300/500 300 500 30–34 Therefore, the transformation product BCC texture of
DP 350/600 350 600 24–30 AHSS will contain transformation products originating
TROP 450/800 450 800 26–32 mainly from the aforementioned components of the α
DP 500/800 500 800 14–20
and β fibers or the cube component, depending on
CP 700/800 700 800 10–15
the precise strain and temperature profile during hot
DP 700/1000 700 1,000 12–17
MS 1250/1520 1,250 1,520 4–6 rolling. Table 4 shows the main BCC and FCC texture
Abbreviations: MS, martensitic steel; CP, complex-phase steel; DP,
components.
dual-phase steel; TRIP, transformation-induced plasticity steel. The balance between the texture components after
Source: www.worldautosteel.org (accessed June 2009).[39] transformation depends on the parent texture and the
1400 900 Ac3
Engineering stress (MPa) 800 TIA
1200 CP 1000/1200 Ac1
700 Ar1
Temperature (°C)
1000 CP 800/1000 g –a g – P Fig. 21 (A) Comparison between tensile
600
800 CP 850/850 500 TIBH g –aB properties of different CP steel grades and a
600 400
MS
mild steel and (B) schematic representation
300
400 Mild steel of the heat treatment schedule for processing
200
200
100 of cold-rolled CP steels.
0 0 Source: (A) From http://www.arcelormittal.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 com/fce/saturnus/sheets/C_EN.pdf (accessed
(A) Engineering strain (%) (B) Time (sec) October 2013).[40]
precise characteristics of the orientation relationship the crystallographic variants formed in the final product
between parent FCC and product BCC orientations. There depend on the chemical composition of the parent phase
are several transformation models that are used for simu- and the local stress and strain distribution in the parent
lation of the γ-α transformation textures. The models pro- phase during the transformation. They are well studied
posed by Bain (B), Kurdjumov–Sachs (K–S), Nishiyama– but still not completely understood. A complete under-
Wassermann (N–W), and Greninger–Troyano (G–T) are standing of the transformation textures and the variant
based on the parallelism between the high atomic density selection phenomena could generate possibilities for
planes and directions in the parent and product phases. appropriate texture control in the metallurgical production
For example, according to the K–S transformation model, in general.
the closest packed FCC planes and directions are aligned, Fig. 25 shows model textures, which are typical for
that is, {111}γ//{110}α and <110>γ//<111>α are the the 1) recrystallized and 2) deformed fcc phase. The
planes and directions that remain identical before and corresponding bcc transformation products according to
after the γ–α phase transformation. the K–S transformation rule are shown in Fig. 25C–F and
The orientation correspondence can be represented also the experimentally measured textures are displayed in
by an axis–angle rotation expression, which for the case of Fig. 25F and G correspondingly.[51] Although the predic-
K–S is <112>90 (or in minimum angle representation tion of the transformation texture from recrystallized aus-
<2 2 11>42.85 ). Applying the aforementioned transfor- tenite is qualitatively good, the intensity of the Goss and
mation rule gives rise to 24 bcc variants originating from rotated Goss component is weaker compared to the rotated
one single parent orientation. The number of product crys- cube component, which may be an indication of variant
tallographic variants can be different depending on the selection. In austempered cold-rolled TRIP steel the
type of the transformation correspondence. Table 4 gives rotated Goss component, which is a transformation prod-
a short description of the most frequently used transforma- uct of austenite with Copper orientation, is not measured
tion relations (in minimum angle representation) and the experimentally, which also in this case is an evidence
corresponding number of variants. of variant selection (Fig. 25H). The BCC transformation
There are two important points that should be texture of Fig. 25H also shows that the parent austenite
mentioned with regard to the formation of transformation was partially recrystallized before the transformation,
textures: 1) the angular distances between the correspon- which gives rise to the Goss and rotated cube textures in
dences in Table 4 is in the range of few degrees only, the bcc phase.
which is often within the range of scatter of orientation Fig. 26 shows an EBSD map of a cold-rolled TRIP-
data and 2) in the transformation products not all predicted assisted steel where the austenite phase is in black, ferrite
crystallographic variants are observed, which is known as is gray, and the bainite pixels are yellow. The bainite
a variant selection. The operating transformation rule and pixels are extracted using the approach proposed by
AF
MA
B
P
Fig. 22 Microstructures of CP steel (A) opti-
cal microscopy, Le Pera etching and (B) SEM
10 mm
20 mm Acc.V Spot Maqn Dat WD
SE 20.0
image after etching with 2% Nital.
25.0 kV 4.0 2500x
Sources: (A) From Zhao et al.[41] and (B)
(A) (B) Mesplont[42]
Table 4 Most important crystallographic orientations in FCC

and BCC metals after rolling and annealing.
Fiber Common axis of orientation
α <011>//ND
β None. Skeleton line connecting
C, S, and B orientations
γ <111>//ND
θ <001>//ND
Designation Miller indexes {hkl}<uvw>
C (Copper) {112}<111>
S {123}<634>
B (Brass) {011}<211>
E {111}<110>
F {111}<112>
Cube {001}<100>
H {001}<110>
G (Goss) {110}<001>
P {011}<233>
L {110}<011>
V {225}<1 11 4>
Fig. 23 Combined EBSD map showing the martensite, dark
green; bainite, light orange-brown; and the retained austenite,
black. orientations with the highest intensities correspond to the
Cube {100}<001> and the Goss{110}<001> compo-
nents with values of 2.9 and 4 mrd (multiples of random
Zaefferrer et al.[50] The figure shows the texture of density), respectively. The Brass {110}<112>, Copper
retained austenite where all texture components, which {112}<111>, and S {123}<634> texture components
are typical for deformed austenite, can be found appear with intensities below 1.7 mrd. Further fast cooling
(Fig. 26B). Fig. 26C and d plot the textures measured for to the bainitic region results in preferential transformation
the ferrite and bainite constituents (Fig. 26C and D). The of the Cube and Goss components (cf. austenite ODF at
textures of the intercritical ferrite and the bainite formed 400 C in Fig. 27) and their intensity decreases respec-
during austempering are very similar and the transforma- tively to 1.8 and 1.7 mrd, whereas the intensity of the
tion product of austenite with brass and Goss orientation brass, copper, and S texture components remains almost
can be clearly observed. Results of in situ texture mea- unchanged. It seems that the transformation products from
surement carried out with high energy x-rays in a synchro- Goss, Cube, and partially from copper components con-
tron allows tracking of the α–γ–α transformation at tribute to the strengthening of the ferrite ND (<111>//
different temperatures.[51] Fig. 27 shows the results of ND) and RD (<110>//RD) fiber components (cf. ferrite
the texture analysis of a cold-rolled and austempered ODF at 400 C in Fig. 27).
TRIP-assisted steel at different temperatures—at 800 C However, the analysis of the transformation texture of
in the intercritical α + γ range ( 50% ferrite and 50% ferrite shows significant amount of transformation prod-
austenite), in the bainitic range at 400 and at room tem- ucts from austenite with brass orientation in the ODFs
perature Table 5. (cf. ferrite ODF at 400 C in Fig. 27). In general, the
The ODF corresponding to the isothermal holding at crystallographic texture of the ferrite after austempering
800 C in Fig. 27 shows that the austenite crystal does not differ significantly from the texture of the
0 j2 = 45° constant section

j1 (°)
15 H
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 H
q - fibre 0
30 g -fibre H {001}<110> Cube {001}<110>
E Cube 10 {001}<100>
L F E V 20
j2 45 P C H {112}<110> Cu {112}<111>
B 30
f (°)
a-Fibre {113}<110>
60 G H
F 40
S
{223}<110> {111}<110> {111}<112> Fig. 24 (A) Reduced Euler space with impor-
50 E F
75 e F tant fibers and crystallogra c orientations in FCC
ibr E
b-f
alloys. The φ2 = 45 ODF section and the β-fiber
90 {111}<110> {111}<112>
0
0 B 70 {554}<225>
15
30 30
15
extending from φ2 = 45 to φ2 = 90 are illus-
45 45 80 L {110}<001>
j1 60 60 F 90
trated. (B) Position of the main BCC and FCC
75
90 90
75 {112}<110> {110}<112> Brass Goss texture components in φ2 = 45 section of Euler
(A) (B) space.
Modeled textures
0 90 0 90
0 0
Cu
Cube A Brass
{112}<111>
{100}<001> {110}<112>
Goss
90 90
(A) j2 = 4 5° (B) j2 = 4 5° {110}<001>
Ar3
0 90 After g–a transformation (K–S products)
0
Tr. Brass 90
Tr. Copper90 Tr. Goss
0 0
0 0 90
0 0
F
90 j2 = 4 5°
90 90 90 Fig. 25 Modeled austenite textures in
(C) j2 = 4 5° j2 = 4 5° j2 = 4 5°
Measured texture recrystallized (A) and deformed (B) states
(D) and the corresponding BCC transformation
Int. crit. ann. –max. int. 8x 0 90 0 90
0 Measured texture
0 products from FCC cube texture (C) and
from FCC brass, copper, and Goss (D);

combination of transformation products
from brass, copper, and Goss (E); and (F)
according to the K–S transformation rule.
90
j2 = 4 5° 90 j2 = 4 5° Experimental BCC transformation texture
j2 = 4 5° j2 = 4 5°
(G) (E) (F) Cold rolled and ICR
measured in laboratory hot-rolled TRIP
0.11C; 1.53 Mn; 1.26Si;TRIP steel: –max. int. 6x steel (G) and in the intercritically annealed
FRT:950°C.(laboratory hot rolled) (H) cold-rolled TRIP steel (H).
j2 0 j2 45 j2 65
(B)
0
90
j
0.8 2.5
j 1.0 3.2 Fig. 26 (A) EBSD map of TRIP-assisted steel
90 1.3 4.0
1.6 5.0 where retained austenite is shown in black, ferrite
5 mm 2.0 is in gray, and bainite is in yellow; (B) texture of
j2 j2 6.4
45 45
(A)
retained austenite; (C) texture of ferrite; (D) tex-
(C) (D) (E) ture of bainite; and (E) isointensity levels.
Austenite Austenite Austenite Ferrite

j1 j2 = 45°
j2 = 0° j2 = 45° j2 = 65°
f Cube Max 4
Brass
Copper
800 °C
Goss S
Max 4 Max 4 Max 2

Max 1.8
Tr Brass
400 °C
Max 1.9 Tr Goss

Max 1.8 Max 3.5
Max 1.9
Tr Cube Fig. 27 Texture of austenite and ferrite mea-

26 °C
sured in a TRIP-assisted steel at different temper-

atures during the austempering. Maximum
texture intensity is shown in each section.
Max 1.9 Max 1.8 Max 3.7 Source: From Petrov et al.[51]
Table 5 Representations and disorientations of some important phenomenon can only be explained by variant selection.
orientation relationships. Hutchinson and Kestens[109] reported that the dominant
Orientation mechanism of variant selection giving rise to texture
relationship Representation Misorientation memory arises from the fact that nucleation during phase
Kurdjumov– {1 1 1}γ //{0 1 1}α 42.8 /<2 2 11> transformation primarily occurs at grain boundaries (GBs)
Sachs <1 0 1>γ //<1 1 1>α of the parent structure. Some GBs of the parent phase are
Nishiyama– {1 1 1}γ //{0 1 1}α 45.98 /<2 5 24> special in the sense that on either side of the GB, a specific
Wassermann <1 1 2>γ //<0 1 1>α orientation variant of the product nucleus may exhibit a
Greninger– {1 1 1}γ //{0 1 1}α 44.23 /<3 2 15>
low-energy coherent interface, characterized by one of the
Troiano <5 12 17>γ //<7 17 17>α
well-known orientation relations such as K–S or N–W.
Inverse {5 12 17}γ //{7 17 17}α 44.23 /<2 3 15>
Greninger– <1 1 1>γ //<0 1 1>α There is convincing experimental evidence[110] that nucle-
Troiano ation is largely favored at such special parent GBs. In a
forward and reverse transformation sequence, the high
temperature phase, by virtue of its formation as a transfor-
intercritical ferrite. This observation is possibly an indi- mation product of the low-temperature phase, will abound
in such special GBs. During the reverse transformation,
cation of the epitaxial growth of bainitic ferrite on the

intercritical ferrite during cooling. There is no texture only the nuclei of exactly the same orientations that have
changes observed in the last cooling stage from 400 C to produced the special GBs will appear during the forward
room temperature. transformation and thus the initial parent texture of the
The results in[51] show that the austenite Goss and Cube forward transformation is retained.
texture are the preferred texture components after nucle- In many instances, the textures in first generation of
ation and growth in the intercritical temperature interval. AHSS are identical. Small variations of chemical compo-
It was observed that the same components such as Goss sition and similarities in the hot rolling and processing
and Cube are among the principal gamma phase compo- conditions give rise to similar types of texture. Therefore,
nents, which transform back to the BCC phase after the observed combination of BCC textures can also be
cooling from the intercritical temperature. The volume found in the DP and the CP steels as long as their micro-
fraction of the RD and ND fiber BCC-components structure is formed by γ–α phase transformation. How-
increased as a result of this transformation. ever, the control of steel composition (microalloying with
In summary it can be said that as a result of incomplete Nb), fine-tuning of thermomechanical and austempering
recrystallization, many TRIP steels contain both the cube processing parameters can be successfully used for micro-
and FCC rolling texture components prior to transforma- structure and texture control, which in turn will affect (the
tion. The resulting textures thus contain elements of both anisotropy of) the mechanical properties.
the transformed cube and the transformed rolling fibers.
Intercritical annealing involves two sequential transfor-
mations: the forward α-to-γ transformation and the reverse SECOND GENERATION OF AHSS
γ-to-α transformation, occurring during heating and
cooling, respectively. In the absence of variant selection, The second generation of AHSS combines very high
such a double transformation would give rise to a random- strength (600–1600 MPa) with uniform elongation 35–
ization of the texture as each parent grain is substituted by 90%. Typical representatives are TWIP steels, L-IP, and
a number of possible product variants. In reality, however, SIP steels. These are highly alloyed steels with an entirely
texture memory is observed, which implies that the final austenitic structure. Although these steels differ in compo-
product texture very much resembles the initial parent sition, the physical metallurgical effects that govern their
texture at the onset of the double transformation, even in mechanical behavior are quite similar and TWIP-assisted
cases where the sheet was annealed above the Ac1 tem- steels will be used as an example for further explanation of
perature in the full austenite domain. The texture memory the microstructure formation in these grades.
x/y/z Fe-xMn-ySi-zAl x/y/z Fe-xMn-ySi-zAl

15/4/2 15/4/2
15/3/3 15/3/3
15/2/4 15/2/4
20/4/2 20/4/2 Fig. 28 Mechanical strength (A) and elongation
20/3/3 20/3/3
20/2/4 20/2/4 (B) for high manganese alloys as a function of Al
25/4/2 25/4/2 and Si content. Tensile test at room temperature at
25/3/3 25/3/3
25/2/4 25/2/4 a strain rate of 104 sec1. Yield stress Rp0.2
30/4/2
30/3/3
30/4/2 (black bars), ultimate tensile strength Rm (gray
30/3/3
30/2/4 30/2/4 bars), uniform elongation εun (black bars), and
0 200 400 600 800
Rp0, 2, Rm , MPa
1000 1200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
final elongation εf (gray bars).
(A) (B) emm, ef ,%
Source: From Grassel et al.[52]
35 35 After tensile tests
Mn content (% mass) After
Mn content (% mass)
30 at 298K
30 quenching at
g Intense
25 298K 25 mechanical
g+e 20
Twinning
20
g+e
15 Hadfield steels 15
g+e+a¢ g+e+a¢
10 10 Fig. 29 (A) Fe–M–C phase stability dia-
g+a¢ g+a¢
0 0 gram. (B) Phase-stability diagram of the
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 same alloy system after tensile testing.
(A) Carbon content (% mass) (B) Carbon content (% mass) Source: From Schumann.[57]
TWIP steels are highly alloyed steels containing promotes a higher hardening rate, the TWIP effect
approximately 15–30% Mn, which is an austenite stabiliz- results in a balance between good strength and strain
ing element and thus at room temperature the microstruc- with a moderate hardening rate.
ture is fully austenitic. Additional alloying elements in Deformation twinning has been reported to be the domi-
TWIP steels are Si and Al (cf. Fig. 28) and they have very nant deformation mechanism in alloys with 12 m J m2<
strong influence on the mechanical properties.[52] Alloying SFE <35 m J m2, whereas at very low SFEs (i.e., SFE <
with Al is considered particularly important since its pres- 20 mJ m2) the strain-induced ε-martensite transformation
ence leads to minimization or complete elimination of the becomes the predominant mechanism of strain accommo-
effect of delayed cracking.[53] dation.[64,65] Austenitic Fe–Mn steels with additions of
Depending on the alloying, the steels also show N, C, Al, Si, and Cr have variable stacking fault energies
combined TRIP/TWIP effects. The TRIP effect is caused leading to the possibility of deformation by slip, mechan-
by the transformation of the FCC austenite (γ) to ε (HCP) ical twinning, or mechanically induced martensite. These
martensite and/or α0 (BCC) martensite[52,54–56] under mechanisms can occur simultaneously or sequentially in
external load. The occurrence of these transformations these steels.[66]
depends on the manganese and carbon contents as well The SFE depends on the alloy composition and tempera-
the presence of other alloying elements, since chemical ture.[71] Therefore, depending on temperature and composi-
composition determines the stacking fault energy (SFE). tion, different deformation mechanisms may be activated at
Fig. 29 shows the dependence of the phase composition each stage of deformation (see Fig. 30).[67] An empirical
of the Fe–Mn–C alloys as a function of C and Mn quantitative description of the SFE dependence on the
content after quenching (Fig. 29A) and tensile testing at chemical compositions in Fe–Cr–Ni systems can be found
room temperature (Fig. 29B). The gray zone in Fig. 29B
shows the phase border of the unstrained alloy.[57] There-
fore, the phase transformation also depends on the strain
imposed on the material and obviously on the test
temperature.[58]
The operating deformation mechanism in the TWIP
steel is strongly controlled by the stacking fault energy
(SFE) (J m2). SFE refers to the energy per unit area
required to produce a stacking fault,[60] and hence it
Temperature
Pe
determines the distances between the partial disloca-

r fe
tions. Low SFE suggests greater separation distances Mode of accommodating

c td
Pa
deformation
is
between the partial dislocations, which hinders the

lo
M
rti
ca
ec
al
cross-slip, coalescence, or creep of dislocations.[61,62]

tio
ha
di
slo
ns
n ica
The effect is an increase in the strength of the material,

ca
e–
lt
m
tio
wi
by retarding local necking and increasing strain harden-

ar
a¢
ns
nn
te
–m
ing.[63] If the SFE is lower than a certain critical value,

ns
in
ar
g
ite
te
the austenite microstructure remains stable during defor-

ns
ite
mation and a significant part of the deformation occurs

by twinning, which contributes to enhanced elongation. SFE
Conversely, the formation of twin boundaries hinders
the dislocation mobility, thereby contributing to the Fig. 30 General effect of SFE and temperature on the deforma-
increase of strength.[59] Compared with TRIP steels tion mechanisms of TWIP steels.
where deformation-induced martensitic transformation Source: After Bracke.[67]
Table 6 Typical compositions that yield the TWIP/TRIP MICROSTRUCTURE AND TEXTURE OF TWIP
effect. STEELS
Mn, wt.% Si, wt.% Al, wt.% C, wt.% Def. mechanism
15.8 3.3 2.9 0.02 TRIP After annealing, the microstructure of cold-rolled TWIP
18.0 1.5 0.6 TWIP steel consists of equiaxed austenitic grains with well-
22.0 0.6 TWIP defined recrystallization twins (cf. Fig. 31). After hot
20.1 2.8 2.9 0.04 TWIP/TRIP rolling and annealing, the microstructure changes
26.5 3.0 2.8 0.03 TWIP depend on the alloy composition and the annealing
29.2 3.0 2.8 0.02 TWIP
temperature. Fig. 31 shows[74] the microstructure of a
33.0 3.0 2.9 TWIP
hot-rolled steel with 0.78% C; 15.9% Mn; 0. 096% Si;
Sources: Grassel et al.[52,54] and Qin.[73]
0. 031% N; 0. 007% Al; and 0. 028% P after hot rolling
and annealing.
The authors in[74] found that cementite is formed in
in[68–70] but they have limited validity on the Fe–C–Mn the austenite grain boundaries if the steel is annealed at
system, whereas the SFE dependence on the temperature temperatures below 750 C. The cementite dissolves par-
tially at 850 C and completely disappears from the
can be found elsewhere.[72,73]

In summary, increasing the temperature increases the microstructure when annealing temperatures are as high
SFE and as this happens, the deformation mode in TWIP as 950 C and 1050 C. Cementite dissolution is one factor
steels changes from mechanically induced martensite that accounts for the increase of fracture elongation in
to mechanically induced twinning and finally to slip- tension from 65% to 80% (cf. Fig. 31A). On the other
controlled deformation (cf. Fig. 30).[67] The stacking fault hand, the cementite dissolution is also a reason for grain
energy is the main characteristic that governs the defor- growth at elevated temperatures (cf. Fig. 31D) that
mation mechanism and stress–strain behavior of AHSS causes a decrease in the strength (cf. Fig. 32B).[74] Hofer
from the second generation. SFE varies with chemical et al.[74] showed that this is a general tendency, which is
composition and temperature. Mn, C, and Al increase the similar for both hot- and cold-rolled sheets, and it can
SFE whereas Si and N have a reducing effect on it. Con- vary slightly depending on the production mass, which in
centrations above 4 wt.% Al decrease the SFE and in the the particular case varied from 80 kg lab cast ingots to
Fe–Cr–Ni ternary system, the SFE has a parabolic depen- 2.8 t industrially manufactured slabs (see Fig. 32 for
dence of the Cr and Ni content. The stacking fault energy details).
also increases with temperature. Compositions of several As previously mentioned, the active deformation
examples are shown in Table 6. mechanism in TWIP steel depends on the chemical
composition and the temperature. Fig. 33 shows the
EBSD maps with corresponding evolution of twin frac-
tions and kernel average misorientation charts for a
TWIP steel with Fe–22 Mn–0.6 C (wt.%). Twin bound-
aries are delineated in white, whereas all the remaining
(A) (B)
high angle grain boundaries are in black. The Kernel
average misorientation (KAM) distribution gives an
indication of the distribution of the geometrically neces-
sary dislocation (GND) density in the material,[75–77]
and so, a low value of KAM can generally be associated
with a low density of GNDs. The microstructure of the
100 mm 100 mm fully recrystallized steel (Fig. 33A) reveals a very low
average KAM-value (0.3 ) and a twin fraction of 0.35
(C) (D)
(i.e., of the total length of GB observed in the map of
Fig. 33A, 35% exhibited a <111>60 twin-orientation
relation). In the 15% cold-rolled steel (Fig. 33B) the
fraction of twins is 0.17 and the KAM increases to
1.2 , whereas after forging at high temperature
(Fig. 33C) the KAM is 0.8 and the twin fraction
100 mm 100 mm
decreases to 0.06. Although the deformation twins can
be resolved by high resolution EBSD,[78,79] the twins
Fig. 31 Microstructure of the hot-rolled large scale condition considered in this figure are mainly recrystallization
after annealing at (A) 750 C, (B) 850 C, (C) 950 C, and (D) twins because the resolution of the EBSD in the current
1050 C for 10 min. measurement does not allow resolving successfully the
Source: From Hofer et al.[74] deformation twins.
100 1400
Tensile / yield strength (MPa)

Fracture elongation (%) 90
1200 TS
80
70 1000
TS hot rolled large scale
60 800 YS hot rolled large scale
50 TS Cold rolled large scale
40 600
YS
YS Cold rolled large scale
TS Cold rolled small scale
Fig. 32 (A) Fracture elongation and (B)
YS Cold rolled small scale
30 Hot rolled large scale 400 tensile strength (TS) and yield strength
20 Cold rolled small scale
(YS) as a function of the annealing tem-
200
10 Cold rolled large scale
0 0 perature for hot-rolled and cold-rolled
700 800 900 1000 1100 700 800 900 1000 1100 conditions.
(A) Annealing temperature (°C) (B) Annealing temperature (°C) Source: From Hofer et al.[74]
111
001 101
100 um 90 um
(A) (B)
0.6
15% cold deformed (rolling)
Hot deformed (forging)
0.5 Undeformed
0.40 0.35
0.35
Number fraction
Fraction of twins
0.4 0.30
0.25
0.3 0.20 0.17

0.15
0.10 0.06
0.2 0.05
0.00
Undeformed Cold Deformed Hot Deformed
0.1 15% 15%
Fig. 33 EBSD maps of steel Fe-22, Mn-0.6 C in
0 (A) annealed condition, (B) after 15% cold rolling,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 um Kernel average misorientation (°) and (C) after hot deformation (cross forging) in
Gleeble. (D) Distribution of kernel average
(C) (D) misorientation and twin fractions.
2% 4% 20%
0.1 mm
(A) (B) (C)
Fig. 34 TEM micrographs of TWIP steel after (A) 2%, (B) 4%, and (C) 20% of prestrain showing that at the initial stages of
deformation the dislocation density increases and there is no formation of twins. At 20% strain, the twin boundaries act as effective
barriers for dislocation movement.
Source: Adapted from http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/13349/InTech-High_mn_twip_steels_for_automotive_applications.pdf (accessed
October 2013).[53]
0° j1 90°
0°
2.36
F
Fig. 35 Texture of the Fe 23.2 wt.% Mn,
0.57 wt.% C TWIP steel after hot rolling. ODF
sections at φ2 = 45 , 65 , and 90 . Levels: 1, 1.5,
90° and 2.
j2 = 45° j2 = 65° j2 = 90°
Source: From Lue et al.[81]
However, due to the very fine twin structure, the best depending on the rolling conditions can exhibit significant
way to study the deformation microstructures of TWIP texture gradients across the plate thickness.[80] An example
steels is by means of TEM. De Cooman et al.[53] showed of the hot-rolling texture of TWIP steel measured in the
by TEM study that there is no formation of twins but an midthickness of the sheet is shown in Fig. 35.[80] The
increase of dislocation density in the prestained samples at maximum texture intensity of 2.36 mrd is observed in the
the initial stages of deformation. It was also shown that the vicinity of the cube {001}<100> component, which is a
deformation of TWIP steel at low strains is governed by typical texture of recrystallized austenite. The steel was hot
a planar slip and the formation of wide stacking faults. rolled from 55 mm thickness after reheating to 1150 C to a
The high dislocation density between deformation twins final thickness of 2.4 mm (ε = 3.13) through 25 passes with
(Fig. 34C) at 20% strain suggests that the twin boundaries reheating after each pass.
act as effective barriers for dislocation movement. A systematic study of the cold-rolling texture[81,82]
showed that the cold-rolling texture strengthens gradually
with increasing rolling reduction giving rise mainly to
TEXTURE FORMATION OF TWIP STEELS evolution of Brass and Goss texture components, which
show intensity of ~5 mrd at 70% cold-rolling reduction.
Investigations of crystallographic changes in TWIP steels The deformation texture components such as copper and S
focus mainly on texture evolution during cold rolling and strengthen up to a level of 2.5 mrd at ~40% cold-rolling
recrystallization since the sheets in their final forms are reduction and with an increase of reduction to 70% the
annealed. Hot-rolling texture in TWIP steels is weak and intensity drops again to 1–1.5 mrd (cf. Fig. 36).[81] A weak
j1 j2 = constant
<111> // ND fiber
j Goss Cu
Brass
j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45°
S
j2 = 65° j2 = 65° j2 = 65° j2 = 65° j2 = 65° j2 = 65° j2 = 65° j2 = 65°
j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90°
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)
Fig. 36 Texture of the Fe 23.2 wt.% Mn, 0.57 wt.% C TWIP steel after cold rolling at various reductions. ODF sections at φ2 = 45 , 65 ,
and 90 for (A) 0%, (B) 10%, (C) 20%, (D) 30%, (E) 40%, (F) 50%, (G) 60%, and (H) 70% reduction. Levels: 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5,
and 5.
Source: From Lue et al.[81]
j1 j1 j1 j1
Cu
F G F F F
B
45° 45° 45° 45°
65° Fig. 37 Deformation and recrystallization tex-

65° 65° 65°
ture of 50% cold-rolled TWIP steel. (A) Cold-
Brass rolling texture; texture of (B) deformed and (C)
recrystallized grains observed in partially
recrystallized sample at 700 C; (D) texture of
fully recrystallized sample annealed at 700 C;

90° 90° 90° 90° isointensity levels 1.00, 1.40, 1.85, 2.50, 3.40,
Deformed Deformed Recrystallized Recrystallized 4.70, and 6.35.
(A) (B) (C) (D) Source: From Bracke et al.[82]
γ-fiber develops in the cold-rolled sheets at 60% and 70% recrystallization and an energetically homogeneous defor-
cold-rolling reduction (Fig. 36G, H). mation structure has produced a near site-saturated nucle-
Even though the contributions of dislocation slip, twin- ation mechanism. The formation of recrystallization
ning, and shear banding to the development of the brass- texture is not sensitive to the heating rate, which is used
type cold-rolling texture is still under discussion, texture as an argument by Bracke et al. as proof that the recovery
development during cold rolling is well documented and stage prior to recrystallization of TWIP steels is virtually
relatively well understood. The authors of[81] associated absent, which is typical of low SFE metals.[55]
the change in the intensity of the Cu orientation with a
competition between homogeneous dislocation slip and
deformation twinning, whereas the shift of the texture THIRD GENERATION OF AHSS
intensity from the brass orientation toward Goss orienta-
tion above 60% deformation can be attributed to shear Although the second generation of AHSS clearly exhibit
banding. It is suggested[81] that the development of the superior mechanical properties, these austenitic grades are
<111> // ND fiber texture above 60% reduction is due to highly alloyed, which results in a significant cost increase.
the alignment of twin-matrix lamellae with the rolling The industrial processing of these alloys, specifically the
plane. These results are in very good agreement with the TWIP steels, is still challenging and the TWIP grades
results reported by Bracke et al.[82,55] are sensitive to delayed cracking,[19,53], even though the
The formation of the recrystallization texture in TWIP delayed cracking sensitivity can be reduced by alloying
steels is well documented by.[82,83] They show that after with aluminum. Fig. 4 makes clear that a property gap
recrystallization the crystallographic textures changes exists between the currently available AHSS grades of
quantitatively by decreasing the intensity of the rolling the first and second generations, which defines the prop-
texture components brass and copper but the main cold- erty field of the third-generation AHSS. Nowadays,
rolling components were not replaced by new orientations research is aimed at filling in this property window by
after recrystallization (Fig. 37).[82] developing new or fine-tuning existing compositions and
Hence the crystallographic texture after recrystalliza- processing routes thereby optimizing the costs and
tion is very similar to the cold-rolling texture. After depending on temperature and composition industrial
detailed study of the recrystallization nuclei and the feasibility.[84,85] De Moor et al.[19] summarized some
unrecrystallized matrix by EBDS and TEM, the authors[83] possible strategies as follows: 1) processing to enhance
suggest that the retained rolling texture is a consequence properties of DP steels, 2) modifications to traditional
of the energetically homogeneous deformation structure, TRIP steel processing, 3) development of high-strength
which resulted in the absence of preferred nucleation sites. steels with ultrafine bainitic microstructures, 4) implementa-
This implies that nucleation occurs randomly in the tion of new processing routes, including Q&P and ultrarapid
deformed structure producing a retained rolling texture. heating and cooling, and 5) development of high-Mn-con-
The combination of a high driving force for tent TRIP steels.
Ferrite
40 TRIP (ULSAB)A
Note A: 80 mm gauge length
Austenite Note B: 25.4 mm gauge length TRIP (GM)A
Note C: Gauge length unspecified Conventional TRIPB
1- Step Q&PB
2- Step Q&PB
Martensite 30 M (ULSAB)A
Total elongation (%)

M (GM)A
M (Ispat-Inland)C
DP (ULSAB)A
Temperature
DP (GM)A
20 TRIP DP (Ispat-Inland)C
AC1
Carbon
MS Partitioning partitioning
DP
Ferrite 10 Q&P
RA M
MF Quenching
Tempered
martensite 0
400 800 1200 1600
Time New (B) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
(A) martensite
Fig. 38 (A) Scheme of the quenching and partitioning process and (B) comparison between mechanical properties of DP, TRIP, Q&P,
and martensitic steels.
Source: From Speer et al.[89]
MICROSTRUCTURE AND TEXTURE FORMATION (Fig. 38B),[89] making them highly promising for auto-
OF QUENCHING AND PARTITIONING STEELS motive applications. Recent investigations demonstrate
that a better control of the microstructure is possible
Quenching and partitioning (Q&P) steels have a micro- by online Q&P treatments,[90] which lend credit to the
structure of martensite and retained austenite. Although potential that this technology is very suitable for the
the martensitic microstructures containing retained aus- development of a new type of AHSS, that is, third gener-
tenite have been observed in the past in quenched mar- ation of AHSS.
tensitic steels, the contribution of the retained austenite The Q&P process invokes complicated, highly
to improved properties were small.[86] Additions of Si nonequilibrium thermodynamic processes, involving
and Al in steel composition inhibit cementite precipita- supersaturated martensite, suppressed carbide and/or
tion, which in turn creates the possibility for obtaining bainite, and stabilized austenite. Since the Q&P process
carbon-enriched austenite (i.e., with improved stability) has been developed, scientific controversy has arisen
by carbon partitioning from a supersaturated martens- involving numerous debates on 1) whether ferrite or
ite.[87] The Q&P process, proposed by Speer et al.[87] in bainite formation takes place during quenching;[91] 2) the
2003, is one method that applies this concept. The Q&P kinetics of the processes at the austenite/martensite inter-
heat treatment consists of a partial martensite trans- faces, where the key process of carbon partitioning takes
formation (quenching step) from a full[88] or partial[87] place and with the possibility of moving martensite/aus-
austenitization condition, followed by an annealing treat- tenite interface;[92–95] 3) the occurrence and control of the
ment (partitioning step) at the same (one step) or higher competing formation of carbide or bainite reducing the
temperature (two steps) to promote carbon partitioning efficiency of austenite stabilization;[96–98] and 4) the stabi-
from the supersaturated martensite to the austenite lization of austenite in small grains, containing carbon-
(Fig. 38A). During the partitioning step, the austenite is concentration gradients during final quench.[91,94–96]
enriched with carbon, thus allowing its stabilization at
room temperature. The process allows control of the
fraction of the strong phase (martensite) and of the HEAT TREATMENT PARAMETERS
carbon enrichment of the austenite (improving forma-
bility) in two different steps. The resulting microstruc- The austenitization temperature can be selected above
tures consist of ferrite (in the case of an initial partial the Ac3 (fully austenitic range) and between Ac1 and
austenitization), martensite, and retained austenite. Ac3 temperatures (intercritical α + γ range). After
The literature results show promising combinations of reheating to the fully austenitic range, the steel is
strength and elongation properties in these steels quenched to a temperature between Ms and Mf known as
Fig. 39 EBSD analysis of the microstructure
obtained after full austenitization in steel with
C—0.2%, Mn—2.5%, Ni—1.47%, Cr—1.01%,
and Si—1.50% quenched at 275 C 5 C and
partitioned at 450 C for 10 sec. (A) superimposed
image quality map and phase map BCC phase—
blue, FCC—red. (B) Image quality map and ND
2 mm 2 mm inverse pole map for retained austenite. Second-
ary formed martensite is darker
(A) (B) Source: From Santofimia et al.[95]
the quench temperature (QT). The microstructure at QT partitioning step is applied is known as the partitioning
consists of a predefined fraction of martensite and temperature (PT) and the holding time as partitioning
untransformed austenite. In order to stabilize this austen- time (Pt).
ite during the final quench until room temperature, the After sufficient Pt, which allows for attainment of the
Ms temperature of the untransformed austenite should desired carbon enrichment and stabilization of austenite,
decrease at least to room temperature. This condition the steel is quenched to room temperature. The final
can be fulfilled by carbon enrichment during the microstructure is composed of retained austenite and pos-
partitioning step where the diffusion of carbon from the sibly two types of martensite: the one formed during the
supersaturated martensite to the untransformed austenite first quench and perhaps the one formed during the second
will occur. As a result, the Ms temperature of the aus- quench.
tenite will decrease and after final quench to room tem- When the austenitization temperature is in the
perature it will remain stable in the microstructure as intercritical α + γ range, different fractions of austenite
retained austenite. The partitioning step can happen at and ferrite are formed depending on the chosen tempera-
the QT or even at higher temperatures in order to accel- ture. During intercritical annealing compared with full
erate the carbon diffusion. These two variants are austenitization, a smaller initial fraction of austenite but
known as the one-step and the two-step Q&P heat treat- with higher initial carbon content is present. Fig. 39 shows
ment, respectively. The temperature at which the the results of a metallographic examination of a steel with
Fig. 40 Microstructure of a selected area of the

sample quenched and partitioned at 175 C for
100 sec. (A) LOM, (B) DIC, (C) color-coded
phase map obtained by EBSD, and (D) combined
image quality (IQ) map and color-coded phase
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm map obtained by EBSD. Arrows show clearly the
epitaxial ferrite in (B).
(A) (B) (C) (D) Source: From Santofimia.[99]
1.0 The quench temperature is an important parameter of

the Q&P heat treatment since it determines the initial
fractions of martensite and austenite before partitioning.
MQT
0.8 The optimum quench temperature to achieve the maxi-
mum possible retained austenite fraction after Q&P
processing can be determined by the methodology pro-
gQT posed in[19] (cf. Fig. 41). With the simplifying assumptions
Phase fraction
0.6
of full carbon partitioning and that all of the carbon
escapes to the austenite, while carbides are not formed,
the amounts of austenite and martensite are estimated after
0.4 quenching, based on the degree of undercooling below Ms,
according to the Koistinen–Marburger[100] relationship:
0.2 g FINAL MFRESH f m ¼ 1 eðMs QT Þ (1)

where fm is the fraction of austenite that transforms

0.0 to martensite upon quenching to a temperature QT below
0 100 200 300 400
Quench temperature (°C)
the Ms temperature. Ms for the applicable austenite
composition can be estimated from published correlations
Fig. 41 Representation of the Koistinen–Marburger-based and α is a rate parameter, controlling the kinetics of mar-
prediction of the optimum quenching temperature. tensite formation, which strongly influences the amount of
Source: According to De Moor[19] and Speer et al.[89] martensite formed. In literature, often a value for α of
0.011 is used. However, this parameter depends on the
austenite composition, and it is therefore more appropriate
to use the equation proposed in:[101]
0.185% C, 1.61% Mn, 0.35% Si, 1.1% Al, and 0.09% P,
which was heated at 5 C/sec, partially austenitized at
900 C for 10 min and cooled at 100 C/sec to temperatures α103 K 1 ¼ 27:2 ð0:14xMn þ 0:21xSi þ 0:11xCr
in the range 125–175 C to get a partial martensitic trans-
formation of the intercritical austenite. þ 0:08xNi þ 0:05xMo Þ 19:8 1 e1:56xC
The main mechanism of carbon enrichment under such (2)
conditions is not only the partitioning step but also the
epitaxial growth of the ferrite, formed during the first To apply these equations, the carbon content of the aus-
quench. The epitaxial ferrite can be distinguished from tenite during annealing before the first quench should be
the intercritical one by a different etching color, as known. Since the solubility of carbon in the ferrite during
observed in.[99] The etching contrast has been attributed intercritical annealing is very low, the carbon content of
to a different concentration of alloying elements due to a the austenite could be approximated by assuming that all
paraequilibrium condition with the austenite during of the carbon is dissolved in the austenite. This part is
growth. By this mechanism, carbon is expelled into the represented in Fig. 41[89] by the gray dotted line—γ QT.
remaining austenite due to its lower solubility in ferrite. The martensite fraction is shown with the MQT line, which
During the isothermal holding step at the PT, an extra increases to 1 with the decrease of temperature. The opti-
carbon enrichment of the austenite occurs due to carbon mum quench temperature corresponds to the peak of the
diffusion from the supersaturated martensite into the retained austenite curve shown in Fig. 41. However, part
austenite (Fig. 40). of the unstabilized austenite transforms after the final
(A) (B)
Fig. 42 (A) TEM bright field and (B) (002) c

dark field images showing martensite and
retained austenite in 9260 alloy quenched to
190 C and equilibrated for 120 sec before final
0.5 mm
cooling to room temperature.
Source: From Speer et al.[89]
quench, which gives rise to the secondary formed martens- INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY OF Q&P STEELS
ite (indicated as MFRESH in Fig. 41). The secondary mar-
tensite contains more carbon and usually appears darker in The Q&P process has been studied considering either a
the microstructure or with lower image quality in the two-step treatment (as defined in Fig. 38A) or a one-step
EBSD maps (cf. Fig. 39). treatment, in which the partitioning step takes place at the
If the quench temperature is too low, there is little quenching temperature. Investigations have focused on the
austenite left after the first quench. If the quench temp- development of cold-rolled sheet steels,[103] while some
erature is too high, there will not be enough carbon to studies examined higher-carbon bar steels[88] and, very
stabilize all the remaining austenite and part of it will recently, hot-strip mill processing,[89] where the opportu-
transform to a new martensite during the final quench. nity for quenching involves run-out table cooling prior to
The peak temperature is the one where martensite forma- coiling. Other issues as weldability or galvanizability of
tion is just precluded during the final quench, whereby the Q&P steels have not been addressed until now. Although
remaining austenite has an Ms temperature equal to the the industrial application of Q&P is still limited, the ten-
room temperature after full partitioning. dency of its application is increasing.
The earlier model shows some deviations compared There is a lack of knowledge on the relationship
to the experimental results. At lower temperatures, the
between microstructure and mechanical properties and, in

retained austenite fraction can be less because of kinetic particular, on the evaluation of the TRIP effect in these
effects and noncomplete partitioning. The observed dis- alloys.[104] However, such analyses have already been car-
crepancy could also be caused by other mechanisms such ried out in other complex-multiphase microstructures.[105–
108]
as bainite formation or carbide precipitation, which could Recent studies on temper embrittlement involving
decrease the expected austenite fraction. At higher tem- martensite and metastable-retained austenite[86] have been
peratures, the fraction of retained austenite could be published in relation to this topic. Texture formation of the
higher than the predicted one, which can be explained by Q&P steel was not a subject of special investigation until
the difference in diffusion coefficients of carbon in mar- now. The type of texture, which is formed in these mate-
tensite and austenite. The diffusion of carbon in martensite rials, is similar, to a large extent, to the textures formed in
is much faster than in austenite. This will create a pileup TRIP and DP steels.
of carbon in the austenite grains near the boundary where
the austenite will be stabilized locally. Thus, the final
fraction will be less sensitive to the fraction of austenite SUMMARY
present or the initial quenching temperature. This can also
explain a rather film-like morphology of the austenite in Advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) are low-carbon
the final microstructure (Fig. 39[95] and Fig. 42[89]). steel grades designed in the last 30 years to fulfill the
requirements of the automotive industry for lighter, more
crash-resistant, and fuel-efficient vehicles. They combine
excellent weldability, formability, galvanizing ability,
DESIGN OF Q&P STEELS crash resistance with high strength, toughness, and
fatigue resistance. The ultimate tensile strength of AHSS
The criteria for the design of Q&P steels must be specific can vary from 600 MPa to 1600 MPa and more, whereas
for this application and take into account the following the uniform elongations may vary from 10% to above
points: 1) to avoid the uncontrolled formation of ferrite 60%. They are produced mainly in the shape of sheets
and/or pearlite during the first quench of the Q&P process, and practically all known strengthening mechanisms are
2) to retard the formation of bainite and to reduce the used in the design of their microstructure and properties.
bainite start temperature in order to minimize the possible The microstructure and texture can be controlled effec-
overlapping between the carbon partitioning from the tively by appropriate thermomechanical and thermal
martensite to the austenite and the formation of bainite, treatment.
and 3) to minimize the carbide precipitation during the Present-day research and development of AHSS is
partitioning step. focused on filling in the property window between the first
To avoid ferrite, pearlite, or bainite formation, the and the second by developing new or fine-tuning the
steels suitable for Q&P should have enough slow critical existing compositions and processing routes optimizing
quench rates, which can be obtained by alloying with Mn, the costs and industrial feasibility. New strategies that
Ni, or Cr. Since carbide formation can reduce austenite involve practically all strengthening mechanisms are ori-
stabilization during the partitioning step it should be ented to enhance the properties of DP steels, modifications
suppressed by alloying with Si and Al. However, Si seems to traditional TRIP steel processing, and the use of high
incapable of retarding the ε-carbide formation and even Mn TRIP steels, development of high-strength steels with
stabilizes it, thereby allowing it to persist for longer times ultrafine bainitic microstructures, and implementation of
and at higher temperatures.[102] new routes for thermal treatment like quenching and
partitioning (Q&P) and ultrarapid heating and cooling. 17. Aarnts, M.P.; Rijkenberg, R.A.; Twisk, F.A.; et al. Micro-
With these new strategies, the strength and toughness bal- structural Quantification of Multi-Phase Steels (Micro-
ance is obtained by improving the grain refinement and Quant). Contract No RFSR-CT-2006-00017; 2005–2009;
the balance between martensite and retained austenite. Research project report; European Union: Brussels, 2011.
A detailed description of the aforementioned strategies 18. Offerman, S.E.; van Dijk, N.H.; Rekveldt, M.T.; Sietsma,
J.; van der Zwaag, S. Ferrite/pearlite band formation in hot
can be found in the work of De Moor et al.[19]
rolled medium carbon steel. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2002,
18(3), 297–303.
19. De Moor, E.; Gibbs, P.J.; Speer, J.G.; Matlock, D.K.;
Schroth, J.G. Strategies for third-generation advanced
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Advanced High-Strength Steels: Microstructure and

INTRODUCTION early 1980s, the research was focused on Fe–Ni systems

Encyclopedia of Iron, Steel, and Their Alloys DOI: 10.1081/E-EISA-120050410

PM steels Ford: DP for

Complex phase steels

Chrysler dual- ULCSAB- TWIP steels

1920-1930 “TRIP” stainless application

1920 1950 1980 2010

Slap Hot strip mill

Thin Slap Compact strip HDG

Hot-rolled strip Cold-rolled strip

induced plasticity (L-IP), and shear band strengthened

Martensitic steel grades with respect to their tensile strength and

Table 1 Examples of compositions of DP and TRIP-assisted steels.

Dual-phase 450 0.08 1.6 0.40 280–340 450–530 27 [3]

Dual-phase 600 0.14 2.1 0.40 330–410 600–700 21 [3]

Dual-phase 980 Y 700 0.18 2.4 0.60 700–850 980–1,100 8 [3]

Dual-phase 1180 0.18 2.4 0.60 900–1,100 1,180 5 [3]

TRIP 590 0.175 2.0 2.0 380–480 590–700 26

100 100 Fig. 6 Influence of Mn on the CCT diagram of

Fig. 7 A scheme showing the time temperature

Fig. 8 SEM images showing the difference in

Fig. 9 (A) Microstructure of a DP steel after

Fig. 10 LOM images for samples containing

(A) Time (B) Time

Source: From http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_4/images/pdfs/039.pdf

Fig. 13 (A) Microstructure of cold-rolled DP

T (°C) g T (°C) 1250

- Recrystallization of a 4. Isothermal bainitic transformation:

treatment of the TRIP-assisted steels.

Small angle Maximum extension of g at

Fig. 19 (A) Stress–strain diagram of the TRIP and DP steels

Complex-phase AHSS are low-carbon steel grades

Table 4 Most important crystallographic orientations in FCC

0 j2 = 45° constant section

from FCC brass, copper, and Goss (D);

Austenite Austenite Austenite Ferrite

Max 4 Max 4 Max 2

Max 1.9 Tr Goss

Tr Cube Fig. 27 Texture of austenite and ferrite mea-

sured in a TRIP-assisted steel at different temper-

cation of the epitaxial growth of bainitic ferrite on the

x/y/z Fe-xMn-ySi-zAl x/y/z Fe-xMn-ySi-zAl

determines the distances between the partial disloca-

tions. Low SFE suggests greater separation distances Mode of accommodating

between the partial dislocations, which hinders the

cross-slip, coalescence, or creep of dislocations.[61,62]

The effect is an increase in the strength of the material,

by retarding local necking and increasing strain harden-

ing.[63] If the SFE is lower than a certain critical value,

the austenite microstructure remains stable during defor-

mation and a significant part of the deformation occurs

can be found elsewhere.[72,73]

Tensile / yield strength (MPa)

0.3 0.20 0.17

(A) (B) (C)

j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45° j2 = 45°

j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90° j2 = 90°