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Undergrad Thesis Hebia
Undergrad Thesis Hebia
Undergrad Thesis Hebia
INTEGERS
jvb
JOVI AL ENARIO HEBIA
jvb
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS
JUNE 2018
Republic of the Phillippines
CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY
Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon
APPROVAL SHEET
Recommending Approval:
Approved:
Noted:
The auhtor, Jovi Al Enario Hebia, was born in Purok 17a Hagkol, Valencia
City, Bukidnon on the 20th day of January 1997. He is the eldest son of Mr. Jose
C. Hebia and Mrs. Luzviminda E. Hebia. He graduated his elementary education
at Valencia SDA Elementary School in 2010 and his secondary education at Central
Bukidnon Institute in 2014. In school year 2013 - 2014, he enrolled as a student
in Central Mindanao University at Musuan, Maramag, Bukidnon in the course of
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me the
strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this research study
and to persevere and complete it satisfactorily. Without his blessings and
guidance, this achievement would not have been possible.
I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness and render my warmest
thanks to my thesis adviser, Prof. Longrio C. Platil, who made this work
possible. His friendly guidance and expert advice have been invaluable
throughout all stages of the work. And also for his support, patience, and
constructive criticism despite his busy schedule, he overviewed my thesis
progress, gave his valuable suggestions and made corrections.
I would also wish to express my gratitude to my panel members, Dr.
Rolito G. Eballe and Prof. Shirley Mae Galindo, for the time they alloted in
reading my paper, for extended discussions and valuable suggestions which have
contributed greatly to the improvement of the thesis.
To my classmates, for their valuable help and support, and for creating a
pleasant atmosphere.
To the faculty of the Department of Mathematics, for their kind support
and guidance throughout my undergraduate studies.
Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my family, my parents,
Jose Cablinda Hebia and Luzviminda Enario Hebia, and my brother Joe Davinci
Hebia, for their endless moral and financial support, for providing me with
everything I need in this study. They bore me, raised me, supported me, taught
me, and loved me. To them, I dedicate this thesis.
And once again, to our Almighty God for giving me the knowledge and
wisdom to complete this thesis. I owe everything to them. Besides this, to
several people who have knowingly and unknowingly helped me in the successful
completion of this thesis.
Jovi Al E. Hebia
ABSTRACT
the chromatic number of P G1 (R), the vertex independence and vertex covering
P G1 (R), and the domination number of P G1 (R), where R is the ring of integers
Zn .
TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL SHEET ii
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF NOTATIONS vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 Review of Related Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.8 Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS 4
2.1 Concepts on Abstract Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Concepts on Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Concepts on Prime graph of a ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 MAIN RESULT 11
3.1 Size and Subgraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Domination, Independence, and Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Vertex and Edge Colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 19
4.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
APPENDIX 21
BIBLIOGRAPHY 24
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTIC AUTHORSHIP 25
LIST OF NOTATIONS
Notation Description
γ(G) domination of G
A⊆B A subset B
INTRODUCTION
results such as, the degree, eulerianity, planarity and the girth of P G1 (Zn ).
In this paper, we investigate some aspects of prime graph P G1 (R) of ring
of integers modulo n, Zn such as the size of P G1 (Zn ), the domination number,
the vertex independence and edge independence numbers, vertex and edge
covering numbers, and the vertex and edge coloring of P G1 (Zn ).
This study investigates some aspects of prime graph P G1 (R) of the ring of
integers to obtain some important results in the area of graph theory.
2. Size of P G1 (Zp ),
This study focuses only on the finite ring, the ring of integers modulo n,
Zn . For the part of graph theory, simple graphs are considered.
1.7 Methodology
The researcher deeply studied the concepts of P G(R) and P G1 (R). The
researcher also studied some concepts of graph theory such as the subgraphs of a
graph, the colorability of a vertex in a graph, and the size of a graph. By drawing
samples of prime graphs of ring R, some observable patterns emerged. From these
patterns, formulas were given through validated propositions. Both direct and
indirect methods of proving were employed to prove the propositions.
This paper consists of four chapters. The first chapter contains the
statement of the problem or the objectives of the study and its background. The
second chapter contains a brief review of some graph theoretic terminologies and
some concepts in abstract algebra. The third chapter is the presentation of the
main results. The last chapter contains the summary and the recommendations
for further study.
CHAPTER 2
PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS
This chapter presents basic definitions and some results that can be used
in this study.
Definition 2.1.2. Let A and B be sets. The set A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ Aandb ∈ B}
is the cartesian product of of A and B.
Definition 2.1.6. A group hG, ∗i is set G, closed under binary operation ∗, such
that the following axioms are satisfied:
H = {an |n ∈ Z},
G = {an |n ∈ Z},
Definition 2.1.9. A non empty set R is said to be a ring (or an associative ring)
if there exist two binary operations + and . on R satisfying the three conditions:
(i) (R, +) is an Abelian group;
(ii) (R, ·) multiplication is associative; and
(iii) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c and (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c for any a, b, c ∈ R.
Example 2.1.10. Consider the cyclic group hZn , +i. If we define for a, b ∈ Zn
the product ab as the remainder of the usual product of integers when divided by
n, it can be shown that hZn , +n , ·n i is a ring.
Definition 2.1.13. If a and b are two nonzero elements of a ring R such that
ab = 0, then a and b are called divisors of 0 (or zero divisors).
Definition 2.1.15. Let R be a commutative ring with unity. Let Z(R) be the set
of all zero-divisors of R. For x ∈ Z(R), annR (x) = {y ∈ R : y · x = 0} is called
annihilator of an element of a ring.
Definition 2.1.16. For any integer n > 1, we define a function φ(n) to be the
number of positive integers less than n and relatively prime to n called Euler’s
totient function. If p1 , p2 , p3 , ..., pn
Theorem 2.1.18. In the ring Zn , the divisors of 0 are precisely those elements
that are not relatively prime to n.
Theorem 2.1.20. The cancellation laws hold in a ring R if and only if R has no
zero divisors.
Definition 2.2.3. The number of vertices in a graph G is the order of G and the
number of edges is the size of G. A graph of order 1 is called trivial graph. A
nontrivial graph therefore has two or more vertices. A graph of size 0 is called
an empty graph. A nonempty graph then has one or more edges. At the other
extreme is complete graph in which every two distinct vertices are adjacent.
colors, then the edge coloring is a proper edge coloring. An edge coloring that uses
colors from a set of k colors is a k-edge coloring. A graph G is k-edge colorable
if there exists a k-edge coloring of G. The chromatic index (or edge chromatic
number ) χ0 (G) of a graph G is the minimum positive integer k for which G is
k-edge colorable.
|E(G)|
χ0 (G) ≥ .
α0 (G)
χ0 (G) ≥ ∆(G).
Theorem 2.2.13. (Vizing’s Theorem) [2] For any non empty graph G,
χ0 (G) ≤ 1 + ∆(G).
Definition 2.2.16. A vertex cover in G is as set of vertices that covers all the
edges of G. An edge cover in a graph G without isolated vertices is a set of edges
that covers all the vertices of G. The minimum cardinality of a vertex cover in
9
1 2
3
Definition 2.3.3. [3] The prime graph P G1 (R) of a ring R is a simple undirected
graph with V (G) = R and two distinct vertices x, y are adjacent if either x · y = 0
or y · x = 0 or x + y is a unit of R.
Remark 2.3.4. [3] Since 0 · x = 0 for all x ∈ Zn , {0, x} ∈ E(G) for all x ∈ V (G).
Theorem 2.3.5. [3] For any n ∈ Nn the degree of vertex zero in P G1 (Zn ) is n−1.
10
Theorem 2.3.6. [3] P G1 (Zn ) is not eulerian for any positive integer n.
Theorem 2.3.8. [3] Let z be a nonzero zero divisor in a ring R = Zn , for any
n ∈ N and n = pq, where p and q are distinct primes, then the degree of z in
P G1 (R) is
deg(z) = φ(n) + 1.
Theorem 2.3.9. [3] Let z be a nonzero zero divisor in a ring R = Zn , for any
n ∈ N such that x2 ≡ 0(mod n) then the degree of z in P G1 (R) is
MAIN RESULT
Lemma 3.1.1. Let G = P G1 (Zp ), where p is prime. Then, {a, b} ∈ E(G) if and
only if a + b 6= p, for all distinct elements a, b ∈ Zp .
Proof. Let a, b ∈ Zp \{0} and assume that a + b = p. Since p is not a unit and
a · b = b · a 6= 0 by Corollary 2.1.19, it follows that {a, b} ∈
/ E(G). Hence,
{a, b} ∈ E(G) implies a + b 6= p . Conversely, Let a, b ∈ Zp \{0} and a + b 6= p. By
Corollary 2.1.19, Zp has no zero divisors. Hence, all distinct elements in Zp \{0}
is a unit. Thus, for any nonzero elements a, b ∈ Zp with a + b 6= p, a + b ∈ U (Zp ).
Therefore, {a, b} ∈ E(G).
Theorem 3.1.2. Let Zp be a ring where p is prime with p ≥ 3 and G be the prime
graph P G1 (Zp ). Then
(p − 1)2
|E(G)| = .
2
Proof. Let a, b ∈ Zp with b = p − a. By Lemma 3.1.1, a is adjacent to all
elements in Zp \{b}. Thus, deg(a) = |Zp \{a, b}| = p − 2. Since {a, 0} ∈ E(G) for
all a ∈ Zp \{0} by Theorem 2.3.5, it follows that deg(0) = |Zp \{0}| = p − 1. By
X
Theorem 2.2.10, deg(v) = 2m where m = |E(G)|. Hence, for all a ∈ Zp \{0},
v∈V (G)
2m = deg(0) + (p − 1) deg(a)
= (p − 1) + (p − 1)(p − 2)
= (p − 1)2 .
(p − 1)2
Therefore, |E(G)| = .
2
Example 3.1.3. Let R = Z7 . Then |E(G)| is given by
(7 − 1)2
m= = 18.
2
12
0
1 6
2 5
3 4
lmm
Theorem 3.1.4. Let k, m, n ∈ Z+ with ≤ k ≤ m. Then the induced
2
subgraph H of P G1 (Znm ) with V (H) = hnk i is a complete graph of order nm−k .
lmm
k
Proof. Let H ⊆ P G1 (Zn ), where V (H) = {hn i, for some
m ≤ k ≤ m}. If
2
k = m, then hnm i = {0} and the induced subgraph is Knm−k = Kn0 = K1 . If
lmm m lmm
< k < m, then k = + c, for some c < m − . Thus, for all a, b ∈ hnk i,
2 m m
2 2
a = k1 n 2 +c and b = k2 n 2 +c , for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z+ . Hence,
m m
a · b = k1 n 2 +c · k2 n 2 +c = k1 k2 nm+2c = k3 nm
where k3 = k1 k2 n2 c. This implies that nm |(a · b) that is, a · b ≡ 0 mod nm , for all
a, b ∈ hnk i.
lmm m m
Let k = . If m is even, then k = . Thus for all a, b ∈ hnk i, a = k1 n 2 and
m
2 2
b = k2 n 2 , for some k1 , k2 ∈ Z+ . Now,
m m
a · b = k1 n 2 · k2 n 2 = k1 k2 nm ,
Thus, in any case {a, b} ∈ E(G). Therefore, the induced subgraph of P G1 (Znm )
with V (hnk i) is a complete graph of order nm−k .
5
6
4
7
3
8 2
9 1
0
15
10
11 14
12 13
lmm
k
The induced subgraphs with vertex set hn i where ≤ k ≤ m are given
2
below:
k=2
V (H) = hn2 i = h22 i = h4i = {0, 4, 8, 12}
|V (H)| = |h22 i| = 4
12 8
k=3
hn3 i = h23 i = h8i = {0, 8}
|V (H)| = |h23 i| = 2
0 8
k=4
V (H) = hn4 i = h24 i = h16i = h0i = {0}
|V (H)| = |h24 i| = 1
2 14
4 12
6 10
8
0
1 6
2 5
3 4
1 4
2 3
β(G) = p − 2.
Example 3.2.6. For ring Z5 , H = {0, 1, 4} covers all the edges of P G1 (Z5 ).
Hence, β(G) = |{0, 1, 4}| = 3.
1 4
2 3
p+1
Theorem 3.2.7. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then β 0 (G) = and
2
p−1
α0 (G) = .
2
p+1
Proof. Let U = {1, p}, {2, p − 1}, ..., , p . By Lemma 3.1.1, U ⊆ E(G).
2
p+1 0 p+1 lpm p + 1
Note that |U | = . Hence, β ≤ . By Lemma 2.2.18, |u| ≥ = .
2 2 2 2
p+1 p−1
Therefore, β 0 (G) = . Moreover, by Gallai’s Theorem, α0 (G) = .
2 2
Proposition 3.2.8. If H is the induced subgraph of G = P G1 (Zp ) with
V (H) = Zp \{0}, then α0 (G) = α(H).
α0 (G) = |U |.
α0 (G) = α(H).
17
0 1
Example 3.3.3.
LetR = Z7 and
G = P G1 (Z7 ).
p+1 7+1
Then χ(G) = = = 4. The is graph shown in Figure 3.11.
2 2
18
0
1 6
2 5
3 4
n − 1 ≤ χ0 (G) ≤ n.
Example 3.3.5. For the ring Z7 , χ0 (P G1 (Z7 )) = 6. The graph below shows a
proper edge-coloring of P G1 (Z7 ).
|{green, blue, red, yellow, violet, orange}| = 6
0
1 6
2 5
3 4
4.1 Summary
Lemma 3.1.1
Theorem 3.1.2
lmm
3. Let k, m, n ∈ Z+ with ≤ k ≤ m. Then the induced subgraph H of
2
P G1 (Znm ) with V (H) = hnk i is a complete graph of order nm−k .
Theorem 3.1.4
Theorem 3.2.1
Theorem 3.2.1
Theorem 3.2.5
20
p+1 p−1
7. Let R = Zp and G = P G1 (Zp ). Then β 0 (G) = and α0 (G) = .
2 2
Theorem 3.2.7
α0 (G) = α(H).
Proposition 3.2.8
Theorem 3.3.1
n − 1 ≤ χ0 (G) ≤ n.
Theorem 3.3.4
4.2 Recommendations
P G1 (Z1 )
V (P G1 (Z1 )) = {0}
P G1 (Z2 )
V (P G1 (Z2 )) = {0, 1}
0 1
P G1 (Z3 )
V (P G1 (Z3 )) = {0, 1, 2}
1 2
P G1 (Z4 )
V (P G1 (Z4 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3}
1 3
2
22
P G1 (Z5 )
V (P G1 (Z5 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
1 4
2 3
P G1 (Z6 )
V (P G1 (Z6 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
1 5
2 4
3
P G1 (Z7 )
V (P G1 (Z7 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
0
1 6
2 5
3 4
23
P G1 (Z8 )
V (P G1 (Z8 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
1 7
2 6
3 5
4
P G1 (Z9 )
V (P G1 (Z9 )) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
1 8
2 7
3 6
4 5
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Gary Chartrand, Linda Lesniak, Ping Zhang, (2015), Graphs and Digraphs,
Sixth Edition, CRC Press.
[2] John B. Fraleigh, (2010), A First Course in Abstract Algebra, Sixth Edition.
Pearson Education Asia.
[3] Kishor F. Pawar, Sandeep S. Joshi (2017), The Prime Graph P G1 (R) of a
Ring, Palestine Journal of Mathematics. 6.1(1), 153-158.
[4] S. Bhavanari, S. P. Kuncham, Nagaraju Dasari (2010), Prime Graph of a
Ring, J. of Combinatorics, Information & System Sciences. 35(1-2), 27-42.
[5] Sanjoy Kalita, (2014), Chromatic Number of Prime Graph of Rings,
International Journal of Combinatorial Graph Theory and Applications,
522012, 145-158.
[6] Sen Gupta, (2013), The Graph Γ2 (R) over a ring R, Int. J. of Pure and Appl.
Math.86(6), 893-904.
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTIC AUTHORSHIP
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and, to the best
another person, nor materials which, to a substantial extent, has been accepted
for the award of any other degree or diploma at CMU or any other educational
contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at CMU
product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the
is acknowledged.
JOVI AL E. HEBIA