1

The Scandinavian Ballad Tale

“Nøkkens Svig”
presented in the Song
“Heiemo og Nykkjen”

Woodcut from “Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus” (History of the Northern Peoples), by Olaus Magnus - 1555AD.

By HL Sionann in Ui Fhlaithbheartaig
(aka: Sheila Louise Wright)
for Kingdom Bardic, A.S. 48
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Table of Contents
“Heiemo og Nykkjen” & “Nøkkens Svig” 3

Sea-Gods, Mermen and Water-Sprites in Mythology and Literature 5

Scandinavian Ballads: A BRIEF History 7

Ballad Melody, Form and Structure 10

APPENDIX 1 - Nøkkens Svig - Summary 11

APPENDIX 2 - Heiemo og Nykkjen - Summary 11

APPENDIX 3 - A Comparison of the Major Plot Points of “Nøkkens Svig” &

12
“Heiemo og Nykkjen”

APPENDIX 4 - Heiemo og Nykkjen - Text & Translation 13

APPENDIX 5 - Heiemo og Nykkjen - Melody 14

APPENDIX 6 - Nøkkens Svig - Text & Translations 15

APPENDIX 7 - Karen Brahe’s Folio: The Ballad Collection Containing the Ballad
19
Tale “Nøkkens Svig”

APPENDIX 8 - Photos of “Nøkkens Svig” text in Karen Brahe’s Folio 20

APPENDIX 9 - Water Sprites, Water Trolls, Mermen/Mermaids & Other Water

23
Creatures Around the Globe

APPENDIX 10 - Types of Medieval Scandinavian Ballads (TSB) 24

APPENDIX 11 - Examples of Ballad Forms 26

APPENDIX 12 - Lyres in Scandinavia 28

BIBLIOGRAPHY 29
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“Heiemo og Nykkjen” & “Nøkkens Svig”

The Dano-Norwegian ballad song “Heiemo og Nykkjen” is based on a medieval Scandinavian
Ballad tale entitled “Nøkkens Svig”, a morality tale found in a Danish collection of ballads
known as “Karen Brahes Foliohandskrift” (Karen Brahe’s Folio) dated 1570-1583AD (SEE
APPENDICES 7 & 8). While this is the earliest extant copy of the ballad, containing text only,
depictions exist of Nøkken at least as early as 1555AD (See Figure 1). Nøkken was a common
character in Nordic balladry, being the central figure in tales such as Agnete og Havmanden,
Rosmer Havmand, Marsk Stigs Døttre, Harpens (Harpans) Kraft, Villemand og Magnhild,
Gautakvæði, Gudmund og Signeliti, Harpespelet Tvingar Nykken, Heiemi og Nøkken, Nøkken
som Belar, & Gaute og Magnhild to name just a few. Norway alone has no less than 360+
regional versions of the tale, the bulk of them coming from Telemark which has a long and
prolific ballad tradition.

Figure 1 - A woodcut from Olaus Magnus’ work entitled “Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus” (History of the
Northern Peoples) printed in 1555. In it you can see Nykkjen/Nøkken playing the fiddle in the middle of the river
Svartafloden near Nyslott, Finland/Sweden.
From this picture it can be said that tales of Nøkken were known at least as early as 1555 outside of Denmark.

In the Nordic countries, Nøkken (in Danish) or Nykkjen (in Norwegian) are creatures who dwell
in various bodies of fresh water. In various ballads like those above, these “water-sprites” are
usually seen as either lithe and beautiful or old and ugly, but they are shape-shifters who can
transform themselves into whatever form might be pleasing to their intended prey, including
that of a grey horse. Nøkken’s prime motivation is to mesmerise or otherwise enchant the
humans he comes in contact with, most often young, unmarried women, though sometimes
both men and children are vulnerable as well. Nøkken is an accomplished musician and
usually uses music to ensnare his victims, sometimes forcing them to dance until they drop
dead of exhaustion, or simply enticing them to go with him to his home under the water, which
of course usually (but not always) leads to their drowning. He can also be ensorcelled by the
music of others and defeated with iron (such as a knife or nail) or calling his name out loud
(much like in the tale of “Rumpelstiltskin”). He demands regular sacrifices to himself, human or
otherwise, prompting the many tales of humans stolen away by the water-sprite.1

1Den erotiske spelmannen: Näcken i sägen och ballad, from “En värld för sig själv: Nya studier i medeltida ballader”, Byrman,
Gunilla, Växjö Sweden, Växjö universitet, 2008, Pg. 319-337 (English translation by me is 14 pages)
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The image of supernatural beings in Scandinavian lore is present since the earliest times and
was a popular theme in Scandinavian balladry even popping up in many of the historical
ballads. Since the belief in the old gods of Norse mythology and the new god or Christianity
existed side by side with each other for a time during the 9th-12th centuries 2, Christian
preachers in the Middle Ages found ways to use the mythology of earlier times as means of
delivering their message of morality and virtue.3 By hijacking the characters and themes of the
ballads for their own purposes, the message of the new religion could be more easily
understood, much in the same way that today some songs will take familiar tunes that would
be recognised by the masses and put new words to them (eg: filk music). Thus Nøkken (and
other gods and supernatural creatures of Norse mythology) are often equated with the devil
and demons come to corrupt the unsuspecting (such as in “Näcken bortför jungfrun”, another
similar tale involving the Nøkken)4. Both “Nøkkens Svig” and “Heiemo og Nykkjen” can be
recoginsed as just such a morality tale.
Though the details of both tales differ somewhat, the premise of “Nøkkens Svig” and “Heiemo
og Nykkjen” is the same: The water-sprite at home in the water, hears some beautiful music
and is drawn to a celebration on land. He dresses to impress and goes to the party where he
meets a young girl whom he desires. He kidnaps the girl and takes her home with him. The
biggest difference between the two stories is in the ending of each tale: “Nøkkens Svig” sees
the girl (presumably) drowned, while in “Heiemo og Nykkjen” she escapes by killing the
Nykkjen (SEE APPENDICES 4 & 6). Both stories issue much the same warnings: keep
virtuous and pure, be vigilant against influence of wicked and worldly desires, make good
decisions.
In comparison to “Nøkkens Svig”, much of the details of the tale are left out of “Heiemo og
Nykkjen”, leaving only the major plot points as the framework of the piece. As some 14 or so
verses have been excluded from this interpretation, one could conclude that tale had been
around long enough and the intended audience familiar enough with the original tale and the
folklore surrounding it that the details are not needed to clarify the main points of the story.
“Heiemo og Nykkjen” is written in Dano-Norwegian. This suggests it was written between
1534 and 1814, when Denmark and Norway were united, and thus still shared the same
language. Some of the language used is archaic in nature, and in some cases, untranslatable,
which could suggest an origin date prior to that. Additionally, it is written in Dorian mode,
which is typical of the Middle Ages, and combined with the limited range of only seven notes,
this further suggests a Medieval provenance. Of course it is possible the tune was written later
and using “medieval” sounding methods, but later written or modern ballad tunes often have a
wider range and are less modal in nature.

2Legel, Tracy Marie, THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO SCANDINAVIA, ICELAND, AND FINLAND, University
of Louisville, 2006
3Elspeland, Velle, Oral ballads as national literature: The reconstruction of two Norwegian ballads - Printed in ELO.Estudos de
Literatura Oral, 6. Universidade do Algarve 2000
4 Byrman, Gunilla, 2008, Pg. 10 (of the English translation)
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Sea-Gods, Mermen and Water-Sprites in

Mythology and Literature
The concept of water-creatures such as Nøkken
are mentioned in the mythology and religion of
cultures around the world. Greek and Roman
mythology is rife with sea-gods, like Poseidon &
Nereus, nymphs, naiads, and of course the Sirens
of The Iliad & Odyssey. The ancient Sumerians
worshipped a fish god named Oannes (or Ea/Ia)
(see Figure 2). Even the Hindu god, Vishnu, is at Figure 2
times seen as a man/fish creature. European lore
abounds with water-borne beings such as Melusine
(see Figure 5), Undine, Lorelei, and the pair of Nix (Hadeburg & Sigelint) in the
Neibelungenslied (written between 1180-1210AD by an unknown author) who live in the
Danube River in Germany.5 In the epic Anglo-Saxon tale Beowulf (written between the 8th-11th
centuries), the mother of the troll named Grendel, who the titular hero Beowulf has arrived in
Heorot to slay, is described as a “mere-wif” (water-woman or water-witch in
some translations).6 The Celts and Picts of the British Isles also worshipped
the water gods Nechtan and Noden, and of course had their lore of Selkies,
Kelpies and other mermen (see Figures 3 & 4).
In the Norse mythology of the Prose Edda written by Snorri Sturluson
around 1220AD, the greatest of the Norse gods, Odin the All-Father, is
himself known by twelve names in Asgard, two of which are “Nikarr” or
“Hnikar” and “Nikuz”, “Nikud” or “Hnikudar” in the “Gylfaginning”.7 According
to the Viðbótarþulur section of the Prose Edda, Odin is known as “Nökkur”.8
In the Poetic Edda, an anonymous work preserved in the 13th century
manuscript “Codex Regius”, the
“Grímnismál”9 names Odin as “Hnikar”
and “Hnikuth” and in the “Reginsmál”10 he
is known as “Hnicar”. By the time the
Figure 3 - 10th
Cen. Pictish Prose & Poetic Eddas were written, the
Merman symbol concept of, or at least derivatives of the
word “Nøkken”, were clearly ingrained in
Norse society of the Middle Ages.
The term “Nøkken” comes from the old Norse word, “nykr”
which means horse, or more specifically, “water-horse”, a
term also used for “hippopotamus”. (see Figure 4) (It is also Figure 4 - A “Hippocamp” or “Kelpie”
perhaps not a coincidence that in English, the word for the from a floor mosiac at Aquae Sulis
(Bath, England)

5 Sokkvabekkr: Neibelungenlied Characters - http://ladysaga.tripod.com/characters.html

6 line 1519 of “Beowulf”
7Anonymous, (Translated by Henry Adams Bellows), The Poetic Edda - The Mythological Poems, Mineola NY, Dover
Publications Inc, 2004 - Verse 3 of Gylfaginning.
8Anonymous, (Translated by Henry Adams Bellows), The Poetic Edda - The Mythological Poems, Mineola NY, Dover
Publications Inc, 2004 - Viðbótarþulur
9 Sturluson, Snorri & Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, The Prose Edda - Tales from Norse Mythology, Mineola NY, Dover Publications
Inc., 2006 - Grímnismál - Verses 46-47
10Sturluson, Snorri & Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, The Prose Edda - Tales from Norse Mythology, Mineola NY, Dover Publications
Inc., 2006 - Reginsmál- Verses 18-19
 6

sounds a horse makes is “nicker” or “neigh”11). It is also related to the old English word “nicor”,
which also means “hippopotamus” and the old German word “nihhus” which is the word for
“crocodile”, all of which may have come from the Proto-Germanic “nikwus” or “nikwis” or the
Indo-European, “neigw” which means “to wash”.12 It is also notable that the name “Odin”
comes from the Proto-Germanic "Wōdanaz" or "Wōđanaz", which is very similar to the terms
used for water-sprites in the Slavic regions.13 (SEE APPENDIX 9)
It is particularly interesting to compare the names of these various words. When listed side-by-
side, a rather common etymology or etymologies come clear as most cultures, sometimes half
a globe apart and seemingly unrelated, often share strikingly similar name forms. The fact that
Norway, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, the British Isles, Germany, Italy, India,
Japan, Greece, ancient Persia and even some First Nations in the west coast of Canada, all
share a similar term for the “water-sprite” and like beings also attests to a folklore tradition that
reaches well into history. (SEE APPENDIX 9).

Figure 5 - Melusine’s secret discovered, from “Le Roman de Melusine”

by Guillebert de Mets, 1410

11 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/nicker
12 fra den trykte ODS' bind 15, udkommet 1934. Retstavning og tegnsætning er bevaret fra den originale tekst og kan være
forskellig fra gældende retskrivning - http://ordnet.dk/ods/ordbog?query=nøkke
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=n&p=11&allowed_in_frame=0
13 http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Odin&allowed_in_frame=0
 7

Scandinavian Ballads: A BRIEF History

The term “ballad” in general has come to mean every kind of narrative song and originally
comes from root French “ballares” (Latin “ballare”, to dance). While it usually refers to songs in
a dance style, the narrative song/story style of the ballad
may have originated in Germany and/or the Nordic regions
and spread through the travels of the minnesingers,
jongleurs, troubadours and trouveres of the Middle Ages.
Though ballads in Scandinavia sometimes resemble
ballads from France and Germany, they are more close in
resemblance to the ballads of England and Scotland
(though less romanticised or idealised than the others).
These ballads are also sometimes dance songs (such as
ballads in the Faroe Islands to this day), however, first and
foremost they are songs that tell a story. In Scandinavia,
the term “ballad” is reserved to describe the very oldest
folk songs; the medieval ballads (“mittelalterballaden” in
Norwegian or “medeltidballad” in Danish). While their
content may have parallels, ballads do not resemble the
form and structure of the old Norse Sagas and other
traditional Nordic poetry at all.
Näcken (Nøkken), sunning himself on a
In European tradition, songs are of one of two types; the rock in the Motala River in Norrköping,
epic narrative and the ballad. With the exception of Finnish June 15, 1599 - From Joen Petri Klintʼs
Järteckensbok - History Library at
14
“Kalevala” which follows the epic narrative type, Linköping, Sweden.
Scandinavian songs follow the European ballad tradition
where the ballad is strophic, the melody married to the
stanza, with a end rhyme and refrain, also known as a ‘burden’ (SEE APPENDIX 11). In this
way, the Nordic Ballad is similar in structure to the French “ronde” style. Ballads are meant to
be sung, accompanied perhaps by folk instruments like the Lyre 15 (SEE APPENDIX 12) or
even unaccompanied altogether.
Ballads, like a lot of Nordic traditional music and folklore, have been carried down the ages
primarily by oral tradition. The use of standard style and common phrases to express certain
ideas makes memorising and passing on these songs easier for the storyteller or singer,
though undoubtedly each will have subtle differences which make it their own, and so a new
variant is born. As a result of this oral tradition, there are hundreds of versions of every tale.
None are more or less correct than the other, but it is this variation that causes scholars to
discount the authenticity of stories and songs passed through oral tradition.16
In combination with the “formulas” in which they were composed, most ballads are generally
“written” with images and language that is both poetic and earthy.17 This suggests that the
ballads were the entertainment of both the nobility and the common folk at the same time.
They were often recorded in vernacular Danish, especially in Norway, rather than the more

14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalevala
15 Kolltveit, Gjermund, The Early Lyre in Scandinavia, University of Oslo, Gauta, 1999
16Solberg, Olav; “The Scandinavian Medieval Ballad: From Oral Tradition to Written Texts and Back Again”, an essay found in
Oral Art Forms and Their Passage into Writing by Else Mundal, 2008
17Harris, Joseph, The Ballad and Oral Literature, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England,
1991
 8

formal Latin of the European Royal courts 18. In the 1500s when ballads were actively collected
and recorded, similar or even identical expressions are found throughout the ballads, even
when later balladeers didn’t perhaps completely understand the meanings of older phrases
when they borrowed them. This suggests a relatively constant ballad tradition in which
performers and composers saw little point in changing the old formulas.19 Many ballads
though, are historical in nature, containing references to actual events and persons in history
(particularly events in around 1263-1300AD), and/or contain references to the supernatural
world of fairies, trolls, dragons, elves and water-sprites.
The famous collector and scholar Svend Grundtvig believed that the ballad came to (or was
born in) the Nordic countries as early as 1100AD.20 Later scholars date the approximate birth
of the ballad in Scandinavia somewhere in the mid 13th century, most likely in Norway, as the
Norwegian court of King Hákon
Hákonarson was a major cultural centre in
Scandinavia at that time and many ballads
directly reference people and events of
that time with great detail.
The oldest extant fragment of written
balladry in Scandinavia “Drømte mig en
Drøm” (I Dreamed a Dream) can be found
Figure 6 - “Drømte mig en Drøm” as seen on the last page complete with melody (which is very
of the “Codex Runicus”, 1300-1320 Denmark. unusual) in a small excerpt of a song
found tacked on to the end of a legal
document called the Codex Runicus, written down in runes (which is also unusual) around the
year 1300-1320AD. (See the fragment above). The oldest complete written balladry from
Scandinavia are dated from around the mid 1500s, however many ballads are considered “old”
songs even by that time. (see Figure 6). The oldest complete ballad text, found in the
Linköping Manuscript from the late 1300s or early
1400s, is a song called “Ridder i Hjortelham” (The
Knight in the Deerskin, TSB43) and it contains 7
stanzas with a refrain or burden.
Another intriguing (and odd) clue to the age of the
ballads is a map (see Figure 7) by Claudius Clavus, a
Danish mapmaker who created a map (circa 1440)
which depicts Greenland and Iceland, but having no
place names for the map, he instead inserted a stanza
of a song, complete with refrain. The original map was
lost but in later copies (of the late 1400s), the verse,
known as the “Grønlandstrofa” (Greenland Stanza) can
be read along the outline of the coast of Greenland,
starting in the north-eastern most portion, traveling
down the south-eastern coast and up again to the north-
western coastline. This verse closely resembles a Figure 7 - The “Grønlandstrofa” as seen on
the map copied from Claudius Clavus, late
1400s.

18For example see the last page of the “Codex Runicus”, a book of Scanian Law, written in Runes, which contains lines from
the oldest written-on-paper ballad, ‘Drømte mig en drøm’, written in Danish in the 13th century.
19Solberg, Olav; “The Scandinavian Medieval Ballad: From Oral Tradition to Written Texts and Back Again”, an essay found in
Oral Art Forms and Their Passage into Writing by Else Mundal, 2008
20 Grundvig, Svend, Dankse Folkeaeventyr, Copenhagen, Trykt Hos J. Jorgenson & Co., 1884
 9

Swedish ballad called “Kung Speleman” (TSB E90).21

Fortunately balladry became very popular in Denmark in the 1500s, and ballads were
voraciously collected by the gentry, thus preserving many that may have otherwise been lost.
Many of the Scandinavian medieval ballads known today survive only because of privately
collected books of poetry like Karen Brahes
Foliohandskrift, and the Scandinavian version of the
“broadside” or (penny papers sold on street corners
containing poems/song and other news of the day)
known as “flyveblad” (flyers) in Denmark and
“skillingtryck” (chapbook) in Sweden22 (see Figure 8).
Unfortunately in most other regions, collection didn’t
begin in earnest until the late 1700s or early 1800s so
many ballads have likely been lost. It is unfortunate too
that early ballad collectors were most interested in
preserving language and literature and were not much
concerned with music and performance. Consequently,
while the texts were painstakingly copied, melodies were
largely ignored likely due to a lack of musical knowledge,
particularly when a collector is faced not only with
needing to write musical notation, but also with finding a
method for notating irregular Nordic tonal singing.
In addition to collecting ballads from all over, many
scholars have created methods and books for
classifying and cross-referencing ballads with other
regions and countries. One of the most important of
these works is the Types of Scandinavian Ballads (TSB)
written in the 1960-1970s by Bengt R. Johnson using
collections like Danmarks Gamle Folkvisor (Denmark’s
Figure 8 - A Danish “broadside” or Ancient Folksongs) by A.I. Ariwidson and Svend
“flyveblad” printed in Copenhagen in Grundvig among others. The TSB, which records some
1582AD. This one apparently contained
the text of one of the oldest ballads, 541 different ballads, greatly eases research tracing
“Folkvor Lovmandson”. origins and similarities between ballads in Scandinavia
and other countries, like those collected by Francis
James Child in his 8 volume work entitled The English & Scottish Ballads. There are many
parallels between the English/Scottish ballad stories and those from Scandinavia.
As outlined in the TSB, ballads in Scandinavia fall into 6 different categories. Both “Nøkkens
Svig” and “Heiemo og Nykkjen” are listed as A48 in the TSB, part of the classification of
“Naturmytiska Visor (Supernatural Ballads)” and it is listed as DgF39 in the Danmarks Gamle
Folkvisor, Denmarks national collection. (SEE APPENDIX 10).

21 Colbert, David in, A History of Danish Literature, University of Nebraska Press, 1992, pg. 63
22Solberg, Olav; “The Scandinavian Medieval Ballad: From Oral Tradition to Written Texts and Back Again”, an essay found in
Oral Art Forms and Their Passage into Writing by Else Mundal, 2008
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Ballad Melody, Form and Structure

Most ballads follow a basic simple structure, and the Scandinavian ballads are no different. A
ballad generally opens by briefly describing the scene to acquaint the listener to the situation,
moves to an action or conflict that drives the rest of the story toward the climax and then
resolves the scene, usually with tragic consequences for some or all. Details are often
minimal, relying instead on the audience to fill in the gaps from their own experience or
memory. More often than not the characters in the ballad are sung about, rather than having a
voice of their own (with exceptions), particularly in the case of the “Kämpavisor” or Heroic
Ballads as categorised in the TSB. (SEE APPENDIX 10)
Scandinavian ballads are recognisable from the basic form of the stanza which is both similar
and different from other European ballads. There are 2 distinct forms of ballad stanzas (in the
Scandinavian types): 2 lined and 4 lined. Both types will always contain a “burden” or refrain,
or repeated line called “omkved” in Norwegian. Sometimes this falls in the middle of the stanza
after the first line (called “mellomstev”), sometimes at the end of each stanza (called
“etterstev”). In the 4 line stanza, the burden will come at the end, after the 4th line, although a
few may also contain a “mellomstev” as well. Sometimes the burden consists of phrases
related to the song, sometimes they are completely unrelated or even nonsensical. Often, the
burden was meant for everyone to sing along with, while a leader sings the rest of the verses.
This is particularly true in the Faroese tradition which typically has a very long burden when
compared to ballads of other regions.
The first form of ballad may contain 2 long stanzas (often broken into four lines), and the 2nd
form is short stanzas written in 2 lines. Each stanza line will have a concluding rhyme. The
long line stanza (broken into 4) will only rhyme in the 2nd and 4th lines, however Scandinavian
ballads often utilise internal rhymes and vowel harmony or assonance instead of strict end
rhyme and a few ballads do not seem to rhyme at all. Aural identification of the forms is
sometimes difficult, but in writing the form becomes clear. (SEE APPENDIX 11). Both “Nøkken
Svig” and “Heiemo og Nykkjen” follow the 2 short stanza lines broken up by the 2 lines of the
burden.
There is very little known about how the melodies were sung, especially those of the Middle
Ages. Few scholars documented the melodies. Those who did document them had difficulty
when faced with singers who may have never seen musical notation or heard a well tuned
instrument. Often their concept of melody is much different that what we think of today.
Collectors were also faced with ornamentation, tonality and rhythm unlike anything they’d seen
or heard before (including the dreaded 1/4 tones and other types of scales so often found in
Nordic music). Often that meant they’d simplify the melody and rhythm, thus much of the
original is lost. It was only when audio recording became available that some of those
melodies were preserved in their entirety.
With the exception of Faroese ballads which are still sung as dance tunes (kvaðdansur), most
ballads have a very loose connection between text, rhythm and melody, making them freer and
less regimented than the Faroes ballads or ballads of other regions. Thus text from one song
could be swapped with the melody of another, consequently melody varies more than the text.
It was only after collection began that text and melody were more firmly married to one
another. Unlike modern music where melody generally follows the mood of the words, whether
a melody was melancholy or jovial sounding had nothing to do with the text of the piece partly
due to the interchanging of text/melody. Thus, some lively tunes may be sung over very sad or
dramatic text, while other more melancholy tunes may be sung over songs of great happiness.
 11

APPENDIX 1

Nøkkens Svig - Summary

The story begins with a celebration at the King’s palace where his daughter sings for everyone
there and all the Knights and maidens are dancing. Nøkken, hearing the princess’ voice
wonders if he goes there, if she will dance with him. He then dons his best, brightly coloured
clothes, bridles the horse he conjures with a gilded saddle and rides to the back door of the
garden, where there are dancing and games.
The Princess flirts with Nøkken, asking him to dance with her. He tells her he will, if she will run
away and marry him, and then he offers her a gold ring and a golden crown the likes of which
even her father the King never gave her. The Princess decides to go with him saying she tired
of the prison she is in, guarded by eight strong Knights.
He sets her on his horse and they ride off over the land to the waterside. The Princess,
confused, then asks her betrothed why they are there. Nøkken reveals his treachery and
replies that he is not her betrothed and that he lives in the water. The story ends with the
Princess’ screams being heard from far and wide as she is dragged under the water.
(SEE APPENDIX 6)

APPENDIX 2

Heiemo og Nykkjen - Summary

Heiemo (HIGH-em-oh) is a lovley maiden who possesses a beautiful singing voice. One day
as she is singing, while all of nature listens and sings back to her, the Nykkjen hears her
songs. The Nykkjen, having fallen in love with the voice he heard, orders his
“styringsman” (ship’s steersman) to put the boat to shore in the “Christian lands” where she
lives so that he may go to her.
He changes his form into that of a human, wearing his best clothes and a tall hat and travels
overland to a nearby village where a celebration is taking place. The Nykkjen and all the
neighbours dance late into the night while Heiemo sings. Eventually, all the villagers go home
but Nykkjen isn’t yet ready to leave his love, Heiemo. He decides that he is going to kidnap
Heiemo and take her with him back to his ship.
Heiemo is angered by this as she realises that going with the Nykkjen means certain death for
her, so she fights back. The Nykkjen doesn’t understand her reluctance and feels that Heiemo
should be flattered that she will sleep in the arms of the Sprite that night and tells her not to be
angry. Heiemo, wanting to escape, stabs the Nykkjen in the heart with a knife (or a nail) deep
in his “hjarterot” (heart-root), knowing that steel is a ward against trolls, and it is the only way to
stop him. She then leaves him to die, out “for the ravens and dogs” (a traditional kenning for
death), and goes on her merry way, continuing to sing her songs.
(SEE APPENDIX 3)
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APPENDIX 3

A Comparison of the Major Plot Points of “Nøkkens Svig” & “Heiemo og Nykkjen”

Nøkkens Svig Heiemo og Nykkjen

Nøkken seen in/under the water or ice. Nykkjen seen on the water, in a boat with his
“steersman”

Nøkken hears singing. Nykkjen hears singing.

Nøkken leaves the water to go on land. Nykkjen leaves the water to go on land.

Nøkken transforms himself into a man. Nykkjen transforms himself into a man.

Nøkken dresses in nice clothes of yellow and Nykkjen dresses in nice clothes and a tall hat to
green, symbols of wealth. present himself as a wealthy man.

Nøkken prepares his horse with a gold gilt saddle Nykkjen orders his steersman to put to shore in
and ride to the village. the “Christian land”.

There is a celebration at the Kingʼs palace. There is a celebration in the village.

Nøkken lies and calls himself “Mr. Alfast” a son of Nykkjen not named.
a King.

Woman identified only as a “Princess” Woman named “Heiemo” but not identified as a
“Princess”

Nøkken watches the dancing. Nykkjen dances.

“Princess” sings. Heiemo sings.

Princess flirts with Nøkken and asks him to dance.

Nøkken agrees only if she will marry him. Nykkjen plans to kidnap Heiemo.

Nøkken bribes her with gold. Nykkjen tries to convince Heiemo to not be
angry but flattered.

“Princess” agrees to go with him willingly but says Heiemo realises the danger she is in but no-one
she is guarded by 8 Knights. helps her

They ride away on his horse.

“Princess” is confused why they have stopped at Heiemo stabs Nykkjen in the heart and
water side and questions Nøkken. escapes.

Nøkken reveals his treachery and his true identity.

“Princess” is dragged underwater and drowns, Nykkjen is left for dead.

screaming.
 13

APPENDIX 4
Heiemo og Nykkjen - Text & Translation
Original text
(2nd & 4th lines Translation Comments to translation
repeat every verse)
Heiemo kvad, det song i li.
Heiemo sang her poem, it was
- vakna dikko ædelege Kvad = solemn poem, old form. It
singing in the hillside
drengje – was singing, It may be the nature
- wake up you noble youngsters-
Det høyrde nykkjen, på havet singing back Drengje = young
The Water spirit heard it, striding on
skrid, men
the sea,
- For de hev sove tidi for Skrida = a solemn way of walking
- Because you now have overslept -
lengje.-
Heiemo sang her poem, it was
Heiemo kvad, det song i lund Perhaps that is “hound of hell”
singing in the hillside
Det høyrde nykkjen, den rather than “pagan dog” as some
The Water spirit heard it, the pagan
hei'inghund other translations suggest?
dog.
The Water spirit spoke to his
Nykkjen tala til styringsmann:
helmsman:
Du styre mitt skip på kristne
You steer my ship upon christian
land!
land!
Eg vil meg på kristne land gå, I will go upon christian land,
Jomfru = virgin, young girl
Den vene jomfruva vil eg få. the beautiful maid I will have.
Stove = small country house. In
Så gjeng han seg i stova inn He then enters her house
other cases it may be read as
med håge hatt og blomekinn with high hat and rose cheek
living room.
Nykkjen han dansa, og
The Water spirit danced and Heiemo
Heiemo kvad, Stogunne may be plural for stogu
sang her poem
det gledde alt folket i = stove = small farm house.
it pleased all folks in the houses
stogunne var
No må kvor gange heim til
Now every one has to go to his own
seg,
home,
Heiemo tek eg på skipet med
Heiemo I bring with me on the ship.
meg.
Heiemo, Heiemo, still di
Heiemo, Heiemo, quiet your wrath,
harm, Harm (poetic) = grief, anger,
you should sleep on water spirit's
du skapo sove på nykkjens sorrow, indignation
arm.
arm.
Ho stakk til nykkjen i She stabbed the water spirit in his
holamot, chest, odd = knife, nail or sword
odden han rann i hjarterot the nail ran into the root of his heart.
"naked to the raven" is a type of
Her ligg du, nykkjen, fyr ravn Here you lay, naked to raven and “kenning” —a symbol of death …
og hund dog Kvedartrong - a desire for singing;
enno hev eg min kvedarlund Still I have my singing need. a need and joy of singing; Singing
is hard to hold back.
 14

APPENDIX 5
 15

APPENDIX 6

Nøkkens Svig - Text & Translations

Nøkkens Svig Nøkkens Svig Nøkken’s Fraud The Knavish Merman

(Karen Brahes (Karen Brahes (Karen Brahes (Modern English Poetic
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Translation from “Danish
1583) - Original 1583) - Modern Danish 1583) - English Ballads - Primary Source
Transcription. Translation Translation. Edition” by E.M. Smith-
Dampier, 1920

1. Der gonger dantz vdi 1. Der ganger dans udi The times dancing Gay went the dance in
kongens gaard, kongens gård outside king's farm the kirkyard there.
- Vnder lidden - - under liden - [palace]. On the lea
Der dantzer mør med Der danser møer med - under hill There danced maidens
vdslagen haar. udslagen hår There dancing maidens with unbound hair.
- Meg tegtis, thett, er - Mig tykkes, det tungt at with unbound hair Methinks ‘tis hard to ride
tongtt att riidde. ride. - I think it hard to ride. away.

(liden - bakken)

2. Der dantzer mørr med 2. Der danser møer med The dancing maidens There danced maidens
vdslagenn haard, udslagen hår with unbound hair with unbound hair.
Der dantzer rider med Der danser ridder’ med There dance knights with There danced Knights
dragenn suerd. dragen sværd. dragon sword. with swords-blades bare.

3. Der dantzer rider med 3. Der danser ridder’ med There dance knights with There danced knights
dragenn suerd, dragen sværd dragon sword with swords-blades bare.
Kongenns datter hun for Kongens datter hun for King's daughter she sings The King’s daughter
dem querr. dem kvæ’r. for them. sings for them there.

(kvæ’r = kvæder, kvad,

synger)

4. Stallt war denn iumfrw, 4. Stalt var den jomfru, Proud was the virgin, she Proud was the maiden,
hun kuai saa: hun kvad så; sang so; sweet was her song.
Det hørrde hand nøkenn, Det hørte han nøkken, That he heard Nix, under That heard the Merman
vnder isenn laa. under isen lå ice was. the billows among.

5. Op stuod necken, och 5. Op stod nøkken, og Up stood nix, and Up stood the Merman,
kelde hand sieg: klædte han sig: dressed himself: thus spake he,
“Monne icke den stalt “Monne ikke den stalt "[I wonder if] not the “Perchance the King’s
iumfrw wild haffue meg?” jomfru vild’ have mig?” proud virgin will have/ Daughter shall wed with
want me?" me!”

6. Hand skabber seg 6. Han skaber sig klæder He makes himself clothes Garments he shaped all
kleder buode gulle och både gule og grønne, both yellow and green, golden and green.
grøne, han kalder sig hr. Alfast, He calls himself Mr. He calls himself Mr.
Hand kalder seg her kongens søn. Alfast, King’s Son Alfast, son to the Queen.
Allfast, kongens sønn.

7. Hand skabber sin hest 7. Han skaber sin hest He makes his horse both He shaped him a steed
buod suortt och huid, båd’ sort og hvid, black and white, so black and bold.
I forgyldene saadell saa I forgyldene sadel så In gilded saddle so he He rode like a Knight in a
rider hand did. rider han did. rides there. saddle of gold

(did = derhen)

Nøkkens Svig
(Karen Brahes
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 -
1583) - Original
Transcription.
8. Der hand kaam till
borrig-lied,
Enn bedde-dantz den
gick der-wed.
9. Hand bantt sinn hest
wed kierke-knap,
Hand gick y dantz, till
wisenn slap.
10. Thennd iumfrw
recker hun haand
fraa seg:
“Well y, her Allfast, dantz
housz [meg]?”
11. “Ieg well icke dantze
housz theg,
For-vdenn du wilt følge
meg.
12. Hør y, stallt iumfru,
well y føllge meg,
Enn krom aff guld saa
giffuer ieg theg.
13. Ieg giffuer eder saa
gott ett guld-boen:
Der kaam aldrig sliggett
paa eders land.
14. Edders fader er kong
offuer allt thette land:
Hand gaff eder alldrig
sliggett guldboenn.
15. Eders fader er kong
offuer alltt thette rige:
Hand gaff eder aldrig enn
guldkronn slig.”
16. “Huor-lunde daa
skaall ieg føøllge
theg?
Ther holde saa sterke
wogtter paa meg.
Nøkkens Svig
(Karen Brahes
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 -
1583) - Modern Danish
Translation
8. Der han kom til
borgeled,
En bededans den gik
derved.
(borgeled = lågen til
gårdspladen)
(bededans = en sangleg)
9. Han bandt sin hest ved
kirkeknap,
Han gik i dans til visen
slap.
(slap = holdt op)
10. Den jomfru rækker
hun hånd fra sig:
“Vil I, hr. Alfast, dans’ hos
mig?”
11. “Jeg vil ikke danse
hos dig,
foruden do vilt følge mig.”
(foruden = hvis ikke)
12. Hør I, stalt jomfru, vil
følge mig
En kron’ af guld så giver
jeg dig.
13. Jeg giver Eder så
godt et guldbånd,
Der kom aldrig slig et på
Eders land.
14. Eders fader er kong’
over alt dette land;
Han gav Eder aldrig slig
et guldbånd
15. Eders fader er kong’
over alt dette rige;
Han gav Eder aldrig en
guldkron’ slig.”
16. “Hvorlunde do skal
jog følge dig?
Der holde så stærke
vogter’ på mig.
Nøkken’s Fraud
(Karen Brahes
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 -
1583) - English
Translation.
There he came to [the]
backdoor of [the] garden
place.
A singing game/asking
dance, it was so.
He tied his horse by
Church button(?),
He went by to dance to
the song kept up.
The maiden reached her
hand out to him:
"Will you, Mr. Alfast,
dance with me?"
"I will dance with you,
If you will follow me. "
Listen you, proud virgin,
will follow me
A crown of gold so I give
you.
I give to you so good a
gold band,
There was never like that
on your land.
Thy father is King all over
this land;
He gave you never like
that a gold band.
Thy father is king of all
this kingdom;
He gave you never a gold
crown like that. “
"How do I follow you?
They hold so strong
guards on me.
16
The Knavish Merman
(Modern English Poetic
Translation from “Danish
Ballads - Primary Source
Edition” by E.M. Smith-
Dampier, 1920
Into the Kirk the Merman
hied
And all the holy images
they turned their heads
aside.
He bound his steed
where the shade was
mirk.
Withershins went he
round the kirk.
The Princess smiled ‘neat
the scarlet fine:
“Would to God that the
Knight were mine.”
“Harken, proud Princess,
and love thou me,
A crown of gold will I give
to thee.”
Over three kingdoms my
father was King
But ne’er did he give me
so fair a thing.

Nøkkens Svig
(Karen Brahes
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 -
1583) - Original
Transcription.
17. Meg wogtter fader
och moder,
Der-till otte rider [guode].”
18. “Allt om deg wogtett
nu allt din iett,
Tha skall y meg følge,
thett haffuer y iett.”
19. Saa wenn daa haffde
hannd fuolle, wor
spaag,
Hand satte den iumfrw
wed sinn baag.
20. Hannd ridder sieg
offuer hiede:
Hans guld thett skienner
saa widde.
21. Thj redd igienem
stuoff och stauffn,
Hans hest stander wed
saa wilt ett wand.
22. “Hør y, her Allfast,
min festemand,
Huad well y housz thette
wilde wand?”
23. “Ieg er icke her
Allfast, din festmand,
Mitt hiem thett er y thette
wand.”
24. Met fyrre skuoff och
XV søm,
Den iumfrw sanck neder
for striden strøøm.
Nøkkens Svig
(Karen Brahes
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 -
1583) - Modern Danish
Translation
17. Mig vogter fader og
moder,
dertil otte ridder’ gode.”
18. “Alt om dig vogted al
din æt,
Da skal I mig følge, det
haver I jæt.”
(æt = slægt)
(jæt = lovet)
19. Så væn do hvade han
fole, var spag,
han satte den jomfru ved
sin bag.
(væn - dejlig)
(fole = ung hest)
(spag = fredelig)
20. Han rider sig over
hede;
Hans guld det skinner så
vide.
21. De red igennem stub
og stavn,
Hans hest stander ved så
vildt et vand.
(stavn = stubbe)
22. “Hør I, hr. Alfast, din
fæstemand,
Hvad vil I hos dette vilde
vand?”
23. “Jeg er ikke hr. Alfast,
din fæstemand,
Mit hjem det er i dette
vand.”
24. Med fyrre sko og
femten søm
Den jomfru sank neder
for striden strøm.
17
Nøkken’s Fraud The Knavish Merman
(Karen Brahes (Modern English Poetic
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Translation from “Danish
1583) - English Ballads - Primary Source
Translation. Edition” by E.M. Smith-
Dampier, 1920
My guardian father and
mother,
there eight knights good.
"
"Everything about you
guard all your kin,
Then shall you follow me,
and have [what] I
promised. "
So nice he had a He wrapped her in his
Springer young horse, cloak of blue.
was peaceful, Forth from the kirk they
He put the maiden at [on] stole, they two.
his back.
He rides over heath; They met upon the wold,
His gold it shines so The steed with saddle of
wide. gold.
They rode through the As they rode o’er the lea
stump and stubble/sticks, He became a troll so foul
His horse stand by the to see.
wild water.
"Hear you, Mr. Alfast, “Sir Alfast, thou art
your betrothed, christened man,
What do you want in this What wilt thou with this
wild water? " water wan?”
"I'm not Mr. Alfast, your “No knight am I nor
betrothed, christened man.
My home is in this water. My home is in this water
" wan.”
With forty shoes and And when they reached
fifteen nails the midmost sound
The maiden sank down in Fifteen fathoms they sank
the strong stream/current. to ground.
 18

Nøkkens Svig Nøkkens Svig Nøkken’s Fraud The Knavish Merman

(Karen Brahes (Karen Brahes (Karen Brahes (Modern English Poetic
Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Foliohaandskrift, Nr. 4 - Translation from “Danish
1583) - Original 1583) - Modern Danish 1583) - English Ballads - Primary Source
Transcription. Translation Translation. Edition” by E.M. Smith-
Dampier, 1920

25. Thett matte mand 25. Det måtte man høre It may be heard as from Long heard the fishers
hørre saa langtt aff lie: så langt af led, far away, with dread and dree
- vnder lynden - - under liden - - under hill How the King’s daughter
Huor den iumfrw vnder Hvor den jomfru under Where the virgin sobbed under the sea.
wandit skrieg. vandet skreg. underwater screamed.
- Meg teckis, thett er - Mig tykkes, det tungt at - I think it hard to ride.
tungt att ridde. ride.

(langt af led = langt væk)

 19

APPENDIX 7

Karen Brahe’s Folio:

The Ballad Collection Containing the Ballad Tale, “Nøkkens Svig”

Karen Brahe (1657-1736) was born into Danish nobility. She was well educated as many noble
women were in Denmark and had a voracious appetite for books and reading. When Karen’s
aunt Anne Giøe died in 1681, she inherited some 1000 books of various Danish literature.
Karen then added to this collection, swelling it to over 3400 books and documents including
her great-Grandfather Jens Bille’s ballad book. Many of the books contain notes in her
handwriting in the margins indicating that she actually did read them.
Karen donated her entire library, founding Denmark’s only private 17th Cen. library, to the
Convent at Odense, where a properly outfitted library was built specifically to house the
collection. In 2010, the Braheske Foundation moved the entire thing to a new home at
Roskilde Monastery and it remains there in good condition.
One of the most famous books in the collection is the one known as “Karen Brahes
Foliohandskrift” or “Karen Brahes Visebog”. The name is a bit of a misnomer in that Karen
Brahe did not write this book or any of the entries in it despite the fact that it now carries her
name. It is named after her only because she was the last person to own it. It was previously
owned by Margrethe Lange (died 1622), but whether it was she who wrote and/or preserved
the poems is unknown.
The folio is a collection of ballads and also a couple of lyrical poems not considered ballads,
which were hand-written between 1570-1583AD. It is the largest of such collections, which
were made by various members of the nobility who were avid collectors of the time. It contains
more than 200 such ballads, including “Nøkkens Svig” and its close cousins, “Harpens
Kraft” (#78) and “Marsk Stigs Døttre” (#25), all of which are stories of Nøkken. “Nøkkens Svig”
is entry #4 in the folio making the time of its writing close to 1570.

**After many months of trying to track the folio down and being bounced from one library and
museum and cloister to the next, I finally was put in contact with the Chamberlain at Roskilde
Monastery, Søren Lyder Jacobsen, who very kindly and carefully photographed the pages of
“Karen Brahes Folio” containing the ballad “Nøkkens Svig” and sent me the pictures via email.
I owe him many Thanks!
 20

APPENDIX 8
Karen Brahe’s Folio, 1570-1583
Front placket and the 2 pages containing “Nøkkens Svig”, entry #4.
Many Thanks to Søren Lyder Jacobsen, Chamberlain at Roskilde Monastery in Roskilde, Denmark who
kindly took these photos for me. Due to extensive restoration, it is somewhat difficult to read.
21
22
 23

APPENDIX 9
Water Sprites, Water Trolls, Mermen/Mermaids
& Other Water Creatures Around the Globe
Ireland – Nigth, Nechtan, Nodens,
Norway - Nykkjen, Nixie, Nix, Nicker, Nuckalevee, Nigther, Merrow, Murdhuacha,
Havmanden, Båckahåsten, Strömkarlen, Grim, Moruadh, Moruach, Muir-Gheilt,
Fosse-Grim, Sjörå, Havsfru Samhghubha, Suire, Libhan, Each Uisge
- Old Norse - Nykr (Aughisky), Dobhar-chú, Murúch, Murrough,
Selkie
Denmark - Nøkken, Nøkk Scotland – Kelpie, Mhorag, Muc-sheilche,
- Old Danish – Nikke Each Uisge (Aughisky)
Danish Isle of Rugen – Nickel England - Old English – Neck, Nicor
Iceland – Nykur, Nickur, Noni, Nennir, Ninnir,
Hnikur, Heikur Isle of Man – Nikyr
-Old Icelandic – Nykr, Njörðr
Sweden – Nåcken, Nick, Nek, Nekken Orkney Isles – Nuggle, Noggelvi, Selkie,
- Old Swedish - Neker Silkie, Sechie
Finland - Nøkken, Nøkk, Nåkki, Nåkkineito, Wales – Morgan, Llamhigyn Y Dwr, Glaistyn,
Vetehinen, Vesihiisi Glashan, Ceffyl Dwfr
Germany – Nix, Necker, Niebelungen,
Loreley, Lorelei, Rheintochter,
Greenland – Margygyr - Old High German – Nihhus
- Nickwus or Nickwis (Common
Germanic)
Lappland – Saivo-Neita France / Gaul – Melusine
Italy – Neptune, Nereid, Nereus,
Holland - Nicker
Hippocampus
Faroe Islands – Nickar Estonia – Nökk, Nåkki, Nåkineitsi, Nåkineiu
Wendland (Vendland) – Nykus, Wodny muz, Russia – Rusalka, Berehynia, Bereginya,
Wodna zona Vodyanoy
Shetland Islands – Njugl, Njogel, Nygel,
Ukraine - Vodyanoy
Neuggle, Nuggie, Nuggle, Shoopiltee, Tangi
Czechoslovakia – Vodnik, Wodjanoj, Wila Israel – Leviathan or Livijatan
Ancient Sumer / Mesopotamia – Ea/Ia,
Poland –Wodnik, Korowoldy
Oannes, Avgal
Serbia – Vila Chile – Glyryvilu
Thailand - Makara USA - Shawnee Nations – Manetuwi
Canada
Japan – Ningjo, Kappa, Gataro, Kawako – BC - Nogle, Naitaka (Shushwap
Nation)
India / Burma – Nokekti, Naga, Nagini, Nyan, Greece - Nizo, Nipto, Neptune, Nymph,
Avagrah, Apsaras Naiad, Siren, Poseidon
Persian - Apam Napat Mali (Niger) - Nommo
Etruscan - Nethuns Proto-Indo-European - Neig
 24

APPENDIX 10

TYPES OF MEDIEVAL SCANDINAVIAN BALLADS (TSB)

There are 6 main categories of Scandinavian Ballads. Within each category there are upwards
of 539 different types of ballads identified by A.I. Ariwidson and Svend Grundvig in the
“Dansmark Gamle Folkevisor” of 1853, and continued (and revised) by later Ballad collectors
like F.J. Child (ie: Child Ballads). In all of these ballads are found variations in one or more of
the Scandinavian languages of Norwegian (NMB), Swedish (SMB), Icelandic (IF), Danish
(DgF) and Faroese (CCF), and even the ancient (and extinct) language, Norn.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Bengt R. Jonsson and colleagues set about classifying the
Scandinavian ballads in English, a work they then called “The Types of Scandinavian
Ballads” (TSB for short). They used previous works by people such as Francis James Child
and Sven Grundtvig as a starting point, and the following are the categories by which the
Scandinavian ballads were classified. Each ballad is given a letter and number, and a
descriptive series of letters which tells researchers the basic motifs of the ballad without
actually having to read the whole ballad. Using this system, all Scandinavian Ballads are
catagorised according to the ballad type and is then given a TSB letter and number which
corresponds to the basic articles of the story (ie: A48 is Nøkkens Svig, A47 is “Agnete og
Havmanden”, A50 is “Harpens Kraft”).

Balladtyper i TSB (Ballad Types in TSB):

A - Naturmytiska Visor (Supernatural Ballads) - 75 Types
Also known as “Trollvisor”, these ballads deal with forces of a supernatural nature: sorcery,
witchcraft, magic, omens, supernatural beings such as trolls, sprites, spirits, ghosts,
werewolves, elves, or those who are transformed into supernatural beings. Usually these
beings are all powerful and more often than not, the humans who encounter them do not fare
well.

B - Legendvisor (Legendary Ballads) - 37 Types

Legendary Ballads are a small group of ballads that are influenced by Christian themes and
legends, such as miracles and miraculous signs, saints like St. Olav/Olaf or St. Stephen, Mary
Magdalene, the Virgin Mary and Jesus, or with local clergy, men and women.

C - Historiska Visor (Historical Ballads) - 41 Types

This type of ballad typically refers to ones that contain reference to actual historical events,
where source material confirms events within the ballad, though hundreds of year of oral
tradition will have likely changed the story, particularly when retold by those not interested in
historical accuracy. Many of these types of ballads refer to events that happened around the
year 1300 (particularly in the Norwegian ones), such as the ballad “Falkvor Lommannsson”
which chronicles the abduction of Lady Ingrid Svantepolksdotter in March 1288.
Some ballad of the supernatural may also contain references to history or historical figures, but
only those in which there is written historical record can be classified under “Historical
Ballads”.
 25

D - Riddarvisor (Chivalric Ballads) - 441 Types

These ballads chronicle the life and times of the nobility, usually with much dramatic effect.
Like French “Trouvere” songs, most of these are about love, though unlike their french
cousins, these generally have tragic outcomes for the subjects. They are often full of conflict,
death, danger, and do not hide from themes dealing with murder, jealousy, rape, incest and
adultery.
This is the largest grouping of ballads, though some ballads are classified here only because
they do not easily conform to the other categories.

E - Kämpavisor (Heroic Ballads) - 167 Types

These ballads could be called the “fairy tales” of balladry. Their characters are often
exaggerated and idealistic: uncommonly strong, fearless, tall, beautiful/handsome, heroic in all
aspects.
The main character rarely “speaks” in the ballad, but rather the tale is sung ABOUT them
through dramatic narrative.
Many Heroic Ballads are similar to earlier Nordic “sagas” for their romantic and fantastic
themes. Parallels can be found in other European ballad traditions, such as in France and
Germany, but this type of ballad is only found in Scandinavia (with one Scottish exception,
“Kemp Owain”, which took its inspiration from an Icelandic saga).

F - Skämptvisor (Jocular Ballads) - 77 Types

These ballads are the “pop” songs of their day, being popular due to their humourous, erotic
and base themes. They often made fun of gender roles, not shying from unsavoury subjects of
rape, emasculation and humiliation.
They also often gave human characteristics to animals and other flora and fauna, which are
still popular with children.
These were largely ignored by the gentry, censored and rejected by those who collected
ballads during the 1700s and 1800s as they were not felt to bolster national pride which was
important at the time of collection. Thus many of these ballads have been lost.
 26

APPENDIX 11
Examples of Ballad Forms

2 Line, single burden

(Norwegian) (Swedish)
Grisilla ho sat i gullveven sò fin. Två systrar gingo neder till strand
Sò kom hennar moer sjov gangandes inn. Att hemta der vatten på snöhvitan sand
A, ja... Du ädela ros: Du ädela rosens blomma

(Faeroese)
Í Noreg býr ein menskur mann,
Ólavur Trygvason eitur hann.
Noregs menn,dansið væl í stillum;
stillið tykkum allar,
riddarar, Noregs men,
dansið væl í stillum.

2 Line, internal & final burden

(Danish)
Der kom to spillemænd gangende:
Træd saa let over den grønne vold!
De saae, den jomfru drev til land.
Maatte den jomfru følge med!
(Norwegian)
Heiemo kvad, det song i li.
Vakna dikko ædelege drengje
Det høyrde nykkjen, på havet skrid,
For de hev sove tidi for lengje.

(Icelandic)
Systir talar vid systir gód
í landenu so vída
gangum vid útá sjáfar flód
vel má herinn af Danmörk út rída.
(Swedish)
Där bode en torpare vid en å
Nu er sommaren kommen
Han hade de rar döttrarne två
Alt meden du reder och spinner.

(Icelandic)
Ólafur reið með björgunum fram,
villir Hann, stillir "Hann,
hitti hann fyrir sér álfarann, þar rauði loginn brann,
Blíðan lagði byrinn undan björgunum,
blíðan lagði byrinn undan björgunum fram.

4 Line, single burden

(Norwegian) (Norwegian)
Han rende bratt og han rennde flatt Høyre do Rikar Århus hòtt eg no seie deg,
og skia dei mone fljote. kvi gjenge do i skogjen sò alleine?
Sò vart han vare de bergje blått, Hòrr æ din høkur, å hòrr æ din hund?
all kola dei mone roke. Hòrr æ alle dine små drengjir?
De va Hermod den Unge han konne Der gjel eit ørn i Bøyarlunden sò
på skio renne. lengje.
 27

(Danish) (Faeroese)
Drømte mig en drøm i nat Viljið tær nú lýða á
om silke og ærlig pæl, Meðan eg man kvøða
bar en dragt så let og glat Um teir ríku kongarnar
i solfaldets strålevæld Sum eg vil nú um røða
Nu vågner den klare morgen Grani bar gullið av heiði
Brá hann sínum brandi av reiði
Sjúrður vá á orminum
Grani bar gullið av heiði

4 Line, internal & final burden

(Norwegian)
Søstrenen tele te Søstrenen sin,
Diben dal falder ind.
Nu vil vi gå te skjødestrand,
og vaske vore ben så hvite
Så vi kan bli to søster så lige
Strengen var af rode guld stilles mitt hele liv.
 28

APPENDIX 12
Lyres in Scandinavia
The Lyre was (and is) an important folk instrument in Scandinavia since the 5th century. While
in most countries, the lyre fell out of favour around the 11-12th centuries, in Scandinavia it
continued to be popular into at least the late 14th century. It is commonly known as a “harpe”,
but this was also a term used for most plucked stringed instruments, including the more
modern “Kantele” (harpuu). In Finland, a type of bowed Lyre, called a “Jouhikko” has been
popular since the 14thC.
The Lyre is a popular motif in Scandinavian art with depictions of lyres seen in wood and rock
carvings from the 5thC well into the 14thC. The Prose Edda story “Atlakviða” from the 13thC.
mentions a tale of “Gunnar”, who while tied up in a snake pit and unable to use his hands,
plucked the “harpe” with his toes, as seen in the wood carving below.
The Kravik Lyre (late 14thC?), is one of the oldest surviving Lyres in Scandinavia. Piece of
lyres (bridges and tuning pegs mainly) have been found all over but the Kravik Lyre, from
Kravik, Numedal Norway, survives nearly intact, though it is missing the sound board.

Gunnar playing the “Harpe” with his toes -

from the carved door frame of the Hylestad
Stave Church, c. 1200AD

The Kravik Lyre of the late 14thC (left) and a modern reproduction
owned by my friend, Øyonn Groven-Myhren, a Norwegian
balladeer and folklorist.
A Finnish “Jouhikko”, a bowed Lyre.
 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonymous, (Translated by Henry Adams Bellows), The Poetic Edda - The Mythological Poems, Mineola NY,
Dover Publications Inc, 2004
Arvidsson, Adolf Ivar, Svenska Fornsånger, Stockholm, Trykt hos P.A. Norstedt & Soner, Kongl Boktryckare,
1834
Bennet, Philip E. & Richard Firth Green, The Singer and the Scribe: European Ballad Traditions and European
Ballad Cultures, Rodopi, 2004
Borrow, George, & William Brown, The Power of the Harp and Other Ballads, London, ?? 1913
Bronson, Bertrand Harris, The Ballad As Song, Berkley & Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1969
Bugge, Sophus, Gamle Norske Folkviser, Kristiana, Trykt paa Feilberg & Landmarks Forlag, Hos Carl C. Werner
& Co. 1858
Colbert, David; The Birth Of the Ballad: The Scandinavian Medieval Genre; Svenskt Visarkiv, Stockholm,
Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri, Uppsala, 1989
Delaat, Sophia, The Mermaid’s Tail, Bloomington ID, Balboa Press, 2012
Geijer, Grif Gustaf & Arvid August Afzelius, Schwedische Volkslieder der Vorzeit, Leipzig, F.M. Brodhaus, 1857
Grundvig, Svend, Dankse Folkeaeventyr, Copenhagen, Trykt Hos J. Jorgenson & Co., 1884
Grundvig, Svend, Danmarks Gamle Folkviser - Trylleviser, Copenhagen, Thieles Boctrykkeri, 1856
Harris, Joseph, The Ballad and Oral Literature, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts & London,
England, 1991
Heiner, Heidi Ann, Mermaids and Other Water Spirit Tales From Around the World, USA, CreateSpace
Independent Publishing Platform, 2011
Henderson, T.J., The Ballad in Literature, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012
Jamieson, Robert, Popular Ballads and Songs from Traditions, Manuscripts and Scarce Editions with
Translations of Similar Pieces from the Ancient Danish Language, Edinburgh, Cadell and Davies, 1806
Jonsson, Bengt R., Svale Solheim and Eva Danielson; The Types of Scandinavian Medieval Ballad; A
Descriptive Catalogue; Universitetsforlaget, The Institute for Comparitive Research in Human Culture, Oslo,
Norway, Edgar Hogfeldt A/S Kristiansand S., 1978
Karen Brahe’s Folio, Denmark, 1570-1583 - A list of the book’s contents, in the order in which they appear, and
with their classification and/or TSB number. There is no publisher as this is a handwritten book.
Keightley, Thomas, The Fairy Mythology Illustrative of the Romance and Superstition of Various Countries,
London, H. G. Bohn, 1870
Ling, Jan, A History of European Folk Music, Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 1997 (“Europas
Musikhistoria” originally published in Swedish by Akademiförlaget 1988)
Magnus, Olaus, Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, Printed in Rome in 1555. (GoogleBooks)
Olrik, Axel, Danmarks Gamle Folkviser, Copenhagen, Otto B. Wrobleskis Bochandel Fr. Bagges Boctrykkeri,
1904
Prior, R.C. Alexander, Ancient Danish Ballads Translated from the Originals, London, Willams & Norgate, 1860
Rossel, Sven Hakon, A History of Danish Literature, University of Nebraska Press, 1992
Solberg, Olav; The Scandinavian Medieval Ballad: From Oral Tradition to Written Texts and Back Again, an
essay found in “Oral Art Forms and Their Passage into Writing” by Else Mundal, ??, ??, 2008
Smith-Dampier, E.M., Danish Ballads, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1920
Steenstrup, Johannes C. H. R (translated from Danish by Edward Godfrey Cox), The Medieval Popular Ballad,
NYC, Ginn & Company, 1891/1914
Sturluson, Snorri & Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, The Prose Edda - Tales from Norse Mythology, Mineola NY, Dover
Publications Inc., 2006
 30

Syndergaard, Larry E., English Translations of the Scandinavian Medieval Ballads, Turku, The Nordic Institute of
Folklore, 1995
Stykket, Sigrid Aksnes, Dei Sigler Med Fløy: Ballade Gjennom Tid Og Rom, Olso, Universitet i Olso, 2007
Vedel, Anders Sørensson (Edited by P.P. Syv), It Hundredeudvalde Danske Viser, Copenhagen, Bogtrykkerie av
J.J. Hopffner, 1695/1739 (originally printed in 1591)
Warme, Lars G., History of Swedish Literature, USA, University of Nebraska Press, 1996
Wigström, Eva, Skanska Visor, Sagor och Sägner, Lund, Fr. Berlings Boktryckeri och Stigjuteri, 1880
Whyte, William H., Traditional Music in the Faroe Islands, Estra, Føroya Skúlabókagrunnur, 1996
??, Dansk Haandordbog, ??, Bianco Lunos KGL, Hof-Bobtrykkeri, ?? (most of this page was impossible to read in
the scanned version that I have).

ARTICLES
...all for his maiden fair - The Norwegian Ballads, Espeland, Velle, Oslo, Publisert i et pensumkompendium
Universitetet I Oslo, 2004
Dei Sigler Med Fløy: Ballade Gjennom Tid Og Rom, Stykket, Sigrid Aksnes, Olso, Universitet i Olso, 2007
Den erotiske spelmannen: Näcken i sägen och ballad, from “En värld för sig själv: Nya studier i medeltida
ballader”, Byrman, Gunilla, Växjö Sweden, Växjö universitet, 2008, Pg. 319-337
Folk Narrative and the History of Culture, Lene I. Jørgensen - http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol37/jorgensen.pdf
Historisk Overblik: Fra Islandsk Saga Til Moderne Gennembrud - Nøkkens Svig - Author Unknown, Date Unk.,
(Article contains scans and commentary from an old book, but I don’t know what book that is or who is the
author of the article or the book.)
“How I Sing the Ballad”, Pedersen, Rita, Nordic Women’s Literature Online - www.nordicwomensliterature.net
Näckens dödliga dop: Manliga vattenväsen, död och förbjuden sexualitet i det tidigmoderna Sverige, Mikael
Häll, HISTORISK TIDSKRIFT (Sweden), 2011
Nøkkens Svig, Ahle, Thomas Dybdahl, 20/12/2008
Scandinavian Balladry and the Old Norse Legacy, Mitchell, Stephen A., Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard
University, ??
”Spegel spegel på väggen där...”, Eriksson, Emma & Christina Henriksson, Växjö, Institutionen för pedagogik
Växjö universitet, 2005
The Danish ballad tradition history with examples of oral, written and printed tradition, Pederson, A., Denmark,
Syddansk Universitet, ??
The Early Lyre in Scandinavia, Kolltveit, Gjermund, University of Oslo, Gauta, 1999
Harpan i ormgropen – om källor till vikingatida stränginstrument ["The Harp in the Snakepit - on the Sources of
Viking Stringed Instruments"] - Lonnert, Lia - 2006.

DICTIONARIES
Davis, Prof. J.R. Ainsworth, McLaughlin’s Dictionary of the Danish-Norwegian & English Languages, Philadelphia,
David McKay Co., no date.
Anon., Hippocrene Comprehensive Dictionary - Swedish-English, NYC, Hippocrene Books, 1996
Zoëga, Geir T., Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2004

ONLINE RESOURCES
Balladdatabasen - Norsk Visearkiv - Ballads in Norway - www.edd.uio.no/perl/balladen/
balladen_register.prl
 31

Sweden’s Medieval Ballads - http://www.visarkiv.se

http://www.dokpro.uio.no/ballader/lister/tsbalfa_titler/titler_a.html
http://www.forn-sed.no/folkesagn/index.html
http://www.forn-sed.no/folkesagn/folkesagn/folkeviser_kvad/kvad5.shtml
Gylfaginning - http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/pre04.htm
Grímnismál - http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe06.htm
Reginsmál - http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Poetic_Edda/Reginsmál
Poetic Edda - http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Poetic_Edda
Prose Edda - http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Prose_Edda
Viðbótarþulur - https://notendur.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/thul4b.html
http://www.forn-sed.no/folkesagn/folkesagn/Nøkken/index.shtml
http://www.etymonline.com
http://danskestudier.dk/materiale/1995.pdf
http://danskestudier.dk/materiale/1970.pdf
http://danskestudier.dk/materiale/1978.pdf
http://www.studieportalen.dk/Opgaver/Nøkkens-Svig-15534.aspx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neck_(water_spirit)
http://fc.nrsbgym.dk/~lf/f000159a1/svig.html
http://www.spinserpent.com/2012/08/mermaids-of-legend.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ægir
http://nordic-aputsiaq.blogspot.ca/2013/06/the-neck-nkken.html
http://users.skynet.be/fa023784/trollmoon/TrollBlog/files/tag-fossegrimen.html
http://cyclopediabritannica.net/index.php/Mermaid
http://www.archive.org/stream/olausmagnusochh00ahlegoog/olausmagnusochh00ahlegoog_djvu.txt
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nix
http://www.pantheon.org/articles/l/lorelei.html
http://www.monstropedia.org/index.php?title=Nixie
http://www.norwaves.com/brief-history-norwegian-language-summary-1500-years.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagon
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/423478/Oannes
http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/melusina.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melusine
Sokkvabekkr: Neibelungenlied Characters - http://ladysaga.tripod.com/characters.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibelungenlied
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heer_Halewijn
http://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/~dumfries/files/layer2/glasgow_broadside_ballads/introduction_broadside_ballads_.htm
http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm056.htm
http://runeberg.org/fornsang/1/0131.html
http://index.scandinavianstudy.org/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hávamál
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalevala