Cryogenic Techniques Help in Machining PDF

Machining Science and Technology
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How cryogenic techniques help in machining of

nickel alloys? A review
Yogesh Vasantrao Deshpande, Atul B. Andhare & Pramod M. Padole
To cite this article: Yogesh Vasantrao Deshpande, Atul B. Andhare & Pramod M. Padole (2018):
How cryogenic techniques help in machining of nickel alloys? A review, Machining Science and
Technology, DOI: 10.1080/10910344.2017.1382512
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10910344.2017.1382512
Published online: 08 Mar 2018.
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MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
, VOL. , NO. , –
https://doi.org/./..
How cryogenic techniques help in machining of nickel

alloys? A review
Yogesh Vasantrao Deshpande, Atul B. Andhare, and Pramod M. Padole
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Nickel alloys are extensively used in aerospace, automotive, Cryogenic techniques;
marine, nuclear, petro-chemical and food processing industries cutting force; nickel alloys;
due to properties like high strength, resistance to heat, resistance surface roughness; tool-life
to corrosion, etc. However, machining of these alloys pose
many challenges in machining such as: work hardening, high
temperatures at the cutting zone, rapid tool wear, reduced
tool-life, etc. Attempts are made to overcome these challenges
by using various cryogenic techniques. This paper, therefore
discusses different techniques such as cryogenic cooling,
cryogenic treatment of tool and simultaneous use of cryogenic
cooling of tool and heating of workpiece (hybrid technique) and
their effects on machinability of Nickel alloys with the help of
indicators like tool-life, surface roughness, residual stresses, etc. It
is concluded that cryogenic techniques are helpful in improving
the machining performance by way of improvement in tool-life
and surface quality. This happens due to better cooling by
cryogen and improved tool properties after cryogenic treatment.
However, based on the published works, it is not possible to
decide about the following: correct amount of cryogen required
for cooling, appropriate cryogenic tool treatment cycle to be
used and the best parameters for machining of Nickel alloys.
Therefore, future research should focus on these aspects.
Introduction
Nickel is one of the most widely used alloying element for improving the corrosion
resistance and strength in steels. With the increase in percentage of nickel, these
properties go on improving. The Nickel alloys are classified into six different groups:
A, B, C, D-1, D-2 and E. Every group, its characteristics, alloys in that group and
Nickel content are given in Table 1 (Brietzig, 1980; Bassford, 1986). In a superalloy
like Inconel 718, the Nickel percentage is as high as 50% or more (Bassford, 1986).
Due to desirable properties like strength to weight ratio, creep strength, high
corrosion resistance, etc., these alloys are very popular in aerospace, automotive,
marine, nuclear, petrochemical and food processing industries (Arunachalam and
CONTACT Atul B. Andhare abandhare@mec.vnit.ac.in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Visvesvaraya

National Institute of Technology, South Ambazari Road, Nagpur , India.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lmst.
©  Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 Y. V. DESHPANDE ET AL.
Table . Classification of Nickel alloys (Brietzig, ; Bassford, ).

Group name Designation of alloy Group characteristics % of nickel
r Contains caustic alkali.
A 
r Lowest strength and work hardening. .

r Hardened by cold working. .

 r Chemical and electrical applications. .
.
 .
r Contains Ni+ Cu and Ni+ Fe.
B 
r Higher strength than Group-A. .

 r Acidic, corrosive and electrical applications. .
.
Best machining is obtained in cold drawn and
stress relieved conditions.
 .
K .
MS  .
r Contains Ni+Cr and Ni+Cr+Fe.
C 
 r Acidic and high temperature applications. .
.
 .
 .
DS .
 .
 .
 .
HT .
 .
D-  r Consists of limited age hardened alloys in .
 r Easily
solution annealed condition.
machined. .
 .
r D- Alloys (age hardened) in this group.
D- R  (aged)
K  r Contain strong solution strengtheners and .
.
 r Difficult
hard abrasive particles.
to machine. .
 .
G- .
HX .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
MA  .
r A special Alloy , free machining.
E –
r High production of automatic screws on lathe. .
Mannan, 2000; Ezugwu et al., 2003; Ezugwu, 2004, 2005; Pervaiz et al., 2014). In
Figure 1, consumption pattern of superalloy is shown. It is seen that major use is in
aerospace industries.
The properties of Nickel alloys, which are mentioned earlier as desirable, also
pose difficulties while machining. Due to the high strength of the Nickel alloys, cut-
ting tools used for machining need to apply greater forces resulting in high tempera-
ture at the chip tool interface. Due to low thermal conductivity (11.2 W/mK) of these
alloys, more heat gets transferred to the tool causing further rise in tool tempera-
ture (Wang and Rajurkar, 2000). In addition to this, the property of Nickel alloys to
retain hardness at high temperatures coupled with work hardening tendency makes
MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3
Figure . Superalloy consumption (Ezugwu et al., ; Ezugwu, , ).
the machining more difficult. These alloys have fine carbides in the microstructure
which are abrasive in nature. All these result in significantly reduced tool-life. Nickel
alloys also have tendency of built up edge formation which can also lead to reduced
tool-life and poor work finish (Ezugwu et al., 2003; Ezugwu, 2004, 2005).
Microstructure of the workpiece plays an important role on machinability.
Microstructure of Inconel 718, a Nickel-based alloy, consists of gamma and gamma
prime phase in presence of carbides and metal precipitates. Figure 2 indicates a
sample microstructure of the Nickel alloy with these phases. Gamma phase has a
continuous matrix in a Face Centered-Cubic (FCC) structure. It is a nickel-based
phase that consists of a high percentage of disordered solid-solution elements like
Co, Cr, Mo and W. This phase is soft and ductile at all temperatures and its mod-
erate strength decreases with decrease in temperature. Gamma prime is the main
strengthening phase in super alloys like Ni3 (Al, Ti). It is a coherently precipitat-
ing phase, having a regular crystal structure and has long time stability. It is brit-
tle in nature except at a very high temperature. It has a very good strength which
increases with temperature up to 827°C. Along with these phases, there are vari-
ous inter-metallic phases of metals like Iron, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Chromium and
Carbides. The microstructure of the Nickel alloy is strengthened by these phases
(Durand-Charre, 1998).
During machining, plastic deformation and material volume changes occur along
with rise in temperature. This results in large strains, strain rates and temperature
rise causing changes in the microstructure of the Nickel alloys (Thakur et al., 2010;
Zhou et al., 2012; Zhou et al., 2014). Thakur et al. (2010) reported that the amount of
plastic deformation in Inconel 718 is higher as compared to steels with same hard-
ness. They observed equiaxed grains of gamma austenitic phase before and after
turning and reported grain refinement, grain deformation along with deformed twin
Figure . Microstructure of the Nickel alloy (Thakur et al., , ).

bands and slip lines after turning. Zhou et al. (2014) also reported deformation twin
bands and crossed slip bands in machining of Inconel 718. The micro structural
changes are attributed to severe mechanical and thermal loading (Wu et al., 2002;
Bushlya et al., 2012; M’Saoubi et al., 2012).
The severe mechanical and thermal loading during machining of Inconel 718
affects the surface integrity of the machined components. Surface integrity is very
crucial for components subjected to high loads and stresses as in aerospace indus-
tries. Therefore, the study related to the surface integrity factors of Nickel alloys is
critical (Arunachalam et al., 2004; Shaw, 2005; Pawade et al., 2007; Jawahir et al.,
2011; Ulutan and Ozel, 2011; Cai et al., 2014).
So far, the paper has discussed classifications of Nickel alloys followed by dis-
cussion on properties and associated difficulties in machining of these alloys. As
properties of any material depend on the microstructure, a discussion on it is also
included. Remaining part of the paper is organized in the following manner. The
next parts of this paper present discussions on tool wear in machining of Nickel
alloys, different cryogenic techniques used for improvement in machining, mod-
eling techniques used by researchers and the economic aspects involved in using
cryogenic techniques. Later on, the discussion is focused on the results of the use
of cryogenic techniques attempted by various researchers. The results reported by
them are presented in the form of tables and figures for an easy overview. Lastly, the
discussion is concluded and future scope of research is identified.
Tool wear in machining of nickel alloys

In any machining operation, cutting tool is the main element and performance of
various tool materials used in machining of Nickel-based alloys is reported in the
literature and discussed in the following paragraphs. As carbide inserts are most
common for machining, most of the published works report about performance of
uncoated or coated carbide tools, and very few have reported the use of High Speed
Steel tools for machining of Nickel alloys.
Liao and Shiue (1996) and Hao et al. (2011) performed dry turning of Inconel 718
using carbide tools. They concluded that Ni and Fe particles from the workpiece tend
to combine with Co from the tool and increase the boundary diffusion of tool that
result in weakening of the bonding strength of binder and the carbides. Thus, the
tool strength was lowered which ultimately increased the tool wear. Obikawa et al.
(2012) also performed turning of Inconel and reported that the cutting temperature
and the stresses near the cutting edge of the tool were very high making it prone to
wear, which reduced the tool-life and surface finish. Hao et al. (2011) analyzed the
dry turning of Inconel 718 using the TiAlN coated cemented carbide insert. They
found that at low speed (20 m/min) the reason for tool wear was adhesion, which
limited tool-life. There was formation of unstable built-up edge which resulted in
tool wear. They also found adhesion wear occurrence at speed of 45–50 m/min, but
the wear occurred in the form of flaking.
Bhatt et al. (2010) observed the effects on uncoated and coated carbide tools with
three varieties of coatings in turning of Inconel 718. For the speed of 50 m/min,
adhesive and abrasive wear were prominent for single coated tool. For triple coated
insert, cracks were formed due to the formation of η-phase in carbide substrate. At
a speed of 100 m/min there were no changes in wear mechanism in single coated
tool. However, it affected the triple layer to cause wear due to diffusion.
Lo Casto et al. (1999) used cemented carbides (WC /TiC /Co) and ceramic
inserts in dry turning of Nickel alloys. It was revealed that at higher cutting
speeds, increased value of cutting forces and reduced tool-life were observed in
coated inserts. The alumina whisker (ceramic) tools could machine Nickel alloys
at high speed and low feed rate. The mixed ceramic tools performed better than
carbide tools even at ten times higher cutting speeds (Choudhury and El-Baradie,
1998). This machining enhancement was due to addition of hard particles of
whiskers in alumina-based matrix material. Aruna et al. (2010) did turning of
Inconel 718 using ceramic tool with alkanolamine salts of fatty acid as a coolant
and observed that at low cutting speeds the performance of ceramic tool was supe-
rior. Zheng et al. (2012) used Sialon—Si3 N4 graded nano composite ceramic tool
for turning and found that nano graded ceramic tool had longer life.
Fernández-Valdivielso et al. (2016) carried out turning of Inconel 718 using an
emulsion type coolant with carbide tool and studied the tool wear. They found that
as the coating disappears, the carbide gets exposed and both crater and adhesion
were the major modes of wear. It was also observed that cutting force increased with
wear and it showed greater increment in the radial component. Residual stresses also
increased with tool wear. Ulutan and Ozel (2013) developed prediction models to
estimate the residual stresses in machining. They stated that residual stresses are
affected by tool geometry and tool wear evolution. It was also observed that the cut-
ting force and surface quality characteristics like surface integrity, surface roughness,
etc. were adversely affected with an increase in tool wear (Fernández-Valdivielso
et al., 2016; Ulutan and Ozel, 2013).
In the study conducted by Thakur and Gangopadhyay (2016) on turning of
Incoloy 825, it is remarkable to note that the PVD coated cemented carbide insert
performed well even in dry cutting and produced lower cutting force, tool wear and
surface roughness than uncoated insert in wet and minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) conditions. The enhancement of tool-life and surface integrity using CVD
coated tool in turning of Incoloy 825 was also reported. Thakur and coworkers have
recommended the use of cutting fluid in high speed machining of Nickel alloy as dry
turning causes rapid wear due to adhesion (Thakur et al., 2012a; Thakur et al., 2014a;
Thakur et al., 2014b; Thakur et al., 2015). Soo et al. (2016) examined different coated,
uncoated and PCBN tools in turning of Inconel 718 and reported 40% increased
tool-life using TiSiN coated tools than uncoated tools at a speed of 200 m/min.
Whereas, there was no significant advantage at high speed of 300–450 m/min using
coated insert.
Ezugwu and Lai (1995) carried out the machining of Inconel 901 with HSS M35
split point 120° spiral point drill using a water-based coolant. The major types of
tool wear observed were attrition, abrasion and adhesion. These wear mechanisms
were affected by drill geometry. Chen and Liao (2003) carried out drilling of Inconel
718 using multilayer (TiAlN) PVD coated tungsten carbide drill. They used coolant
which was free from nitrites, phenols and chlorine. The wear of the tool began with
the coating degradation and excessive chipping of the tool. Nanoparticles in cutting
fluid resulted in reduction in friction and three times improvement in tool-life.
Li et al. (2006) carried out an experimental study for the tool wear and cutting
force in the end milling of Inconel 718 with a coated carbide insert for both up- and
down-milling. The flank wear was more pronounced in up-milling as compared
to down-milling. This is because of the following: Up-milling begins with mini-
mum cutting thickness and ends with maximum. Nickel alloys have a tendency of
work hardening because of which in case of up-milling, there is rubbing action and
hence severe work hardening occurs in front of the tool. The consequence of this
work hardening effect is the flank wear. The peak value of the cutting force was
found to be uniformly increasing, which led to tool wear after a definite range. Le
Coz and Dudzinski (2014) studied the change in temperature generated while car-
rying out dry milling of Inconel 718 and correlated tool wear to the temperature
change. The influence of cutting speed on the temperature gradient was investigated.
A large temperature gradient was observed from surface to subsurface. At high cut-
ting speed, more tool wear along with adhering chip was observed. They concluded
that increase of cutting speed was directly associated to the increase of cutting edge
temperature and tool wear.
From the above, it is observed that while machining of Nickel alloys, the main
causes of tool wear are very high temperatures at the point of cutting, work hard-
ening and in some cases formation of unstable built up edge. HSS tools wear by
attrition, abrasion and adhesion. Whereas, the carbide tools wear out by adhesion
and diffusion. In case of coated carbides, degradation of coating is the first stage of
wear. The type of wear mechanism is governed by the cutting speed used. Among the
various tool materials used, ceramic tools give the least tool wear (highest tool-life),
followed by coated carbides, uncoated carbides and HSS tools. Also, the use of cut-
ting fluid is recommended to improve the tool-life as compared to dry machining.
Therefore, the following paragraph discusses the role of coolant in machining.
Role of coolant in machining

Selection of appropriate coolant and its way of application affects the quality of work
part and tool wear. The use of appropriate cutting fluid ensures better quality of the
machined surface by preventing the overheating of the cutting area and carrying the
chips away from the machining zone (Tazehkandi et al., 2015). Major drawback of
water-based fluids is that these fluids can propagate the growth of microorganisms.
Use of antibacterial agents reduce such growth, but liberate gases due to high
temperature and these are harmful for the human being. The repeated use of the
cutting fluid alters its chemical and physical properties which can be detrimental
to machining process (Kuram et al., 2013; Tazehkandi et al., 2015). The usage of
water-based fluid is also marred by low viscosity index, inadequate thermal stability
and cooling capacity. Therefore, such fluids are ineffective for the machining of
Inconel. Biodegradable vegetable oils are popular choice over the water-based fluids
as they retain their properties at elevated temperature. Davoodi and Tazehkandi

(2014) used biodegradable vegetable oil as a cutting fluid in turning of Inconel 738.
The quantity of the vegetable oil used for the machining can be reduced by using
it with MQL approach (Tazehkandi et al., 2015) but it pollutes the workplace. Fur-
thermore, to improve the machinability during machining of the Nickel alloys and
to enhance the tool-life, various techniques like cryogenic machining, cryogenic
treatment of tools and use of effective cutting fluids, nano-fluids, tool coatings,
plasma heating of workpiece, etc. are used. The reviews on cryogenics in manu-
facturing processes for machining of different materials are presented by Jawahir
et al. (2016a), Benedicto et al. (2017), Kaynak, (2014), Shokrani et al. (2013), Yildiz
and Nalbant, (2008). This paper focuses on machining of Nickel alloys and the
use of cryogenic techniques such as cryogenic machining using cryogen like liquid
Nitrogen (LN2 ) at the point of cutting, cryogenic treatment of tool materials and
combination method involving cryogenic cooling combined with plasma heating
of workpiece at the time of machining.
Use of cryogenic techniques in the machining of nickel alloys
Cryogenic machining
The use of cryogen like liquefied Nitrogen as a coolant during metal removal
operation is termed as cryogenic machining. The usage of low temperature cutting
fluids such as liquid Carbon dioxide (−78.5°C) and liquid Nitrogen (−196°C) has
been attempted recently (Machai and Biermann, 2011; Jerold and Kumar, 2012;
Pusavec et al., 2014a). The properties of liquid Nitrogen such as the latent heat of
vaporization (199.1 kJ/kg), specific gravity (0.8) and low boiling point temperature
−196°C are ideal to spray it as a cooling medium at cutting zone for heat removal
and lubrication (Blaszczak-Boxe, 2014). Researchers have preferred liquid Nitrogen
for machining as it gives the most sustainable machining which does not hamper
the environment (Kaynak, 2014; Pusavec et al., 2014a). The interaction between
the workpiece and the cutting tool depends on the temperature of the cryogen
and the chemical reactivity of the tool and workpiece decreases with decrease in
temperature.
Cryogenic cooling methods in machining

Researchers have used different methods for cooling by using cryogen (LN2 ) in
machining. These methods are: cooling at cutting region, workpiece cooling and
indirect cooling of cutting tool (Yildiz and Nalbant, 2008).
In the method of cooling at cutting region, different systems are employed to force
the coolant into the cutting zone with the purpose to disperse the heat, cool down
the tool, modify the coefficient of friction and avoid changes in the properties of
workpiece. By considering the economic aspect of cryogen, two methods are used
to spray it. One involves use of an external nozzle (Nalbant and Yildiz, 2011) and
the other involves moderate alteration in the tool or tool holder to direct flow of
cryogen at the exact location (Hong and Ding, 2001). Apart from this, to super cool
the cutting region, Wang et al. (2017) have used a Teflon basin at the cutting zone
for LN2 bath. However, the immersion of cutting region in LN2 results in more heat
dissipation and can cause severe work hardening.
The second method of cooling the workpiece with cryogen before or through-
out the cutting operation is a popularly used technique. This technique is mainly
used for improvement in machinability by modifying the properties of workpiece.
Generally, two methods are practiced, which are known as cryogenic spray and bath.
However, according to Nalbant and Yildiz (2011), workpiece cooling method causes
over-hardening of workpiece.
In the third method of indirect cooling, heat produced while machining is dis-
sipated by conduction through the tool. A chamber is designed above or below the
cutting tool for delivery of cryogenic liquid. This coolant absorbs the heat generated
at cutting zone by conduction through the tool and gets evaporated. This evapo-
rated cryogenic liquid is then set free in the atmosphere from the chamber through
an outlet. This technique cools the tool without direct contact between cryogenic
coolant and the workpiece and thus avoids problems associated with direct cooling
(Wang and Rajurkar, 2000). Wang et al. (1996) had developed a tool cover positioned
above the tool with the purpose to flow the cryogen over the back face of cutting
tool. The same system was adopted by Dandekar et al. (2010) and Wang et al. (2003)
in plasma assisted turning of Inconel 718 and laser assisted machining of titanium
alloy, respectively. Rozzi et al. (2011) developed a heat exchanger and employed it
below the cutting tool for transmitting the heat from tool to LN2 in the exchanger.
Ahmed et al. (2007) designed the turning tool holder to carry LN2 under the
tool.
Effect of cryogen on friction and lubrication in machining
The coefficient of friction between tool and workpiece material affects tool-life, sur-
face quality and cutting forces. An apparatus same as pin-on-disc structure was
developed by Hong (2006) for studying effects on coefficient of friction due to the
use of various cryogenic techniques. Additional study of the effect of cryogenic
coolant on tribological behavior showed that cryogen varies material properties
and surface hardness leading to low coefficient of friction (Hong et al., 2002; Hong,
2006). It was also reported that LN2 generates a lubrication film between gliding
surfaces, ensuring low coefficient of friction. However, it was also commented that
lubricated boundary as provided by conventional lubricants, cannot be provided by
LN2 . This is because of quick evaporation of LN2 unlike conventional lubricants.
Courbon et al. (2013) showed that (Figure 3) with the increase in sliding veloc-
ity, the friction coefficient decreases for Inconel 718. They also noticed that LN2
decreases the friction and adhesion and also proved that LN2 phase offers a low
coefficient of friction than gas phase of Nitrogen. Shokrani et al. (2013) also agreed
that the hydraulic cushion developed among the two contact surfaces is due to quick
evaporation of LN2 at cutting region. A proper spraying pressure of LN2 provides
Figure . Effect of cryogenic cooling on friction coefficient (Courbon et al. ).
the lubrication effect with hydraulic cushion at sliding surfaces which carries nor-
mal loads (Hong and Ding, 2001; Hong et al., 2002). It can be concluded that at high
speed, LN2 spray is more effective, while at low speed the workpiece material gets
hardened due to low temperature with excess LN2 effect. Pusavec et al. (2016) have
commented that prediction of minimal but sufficient flow rate of LN2 in preferred
fluid phase at the delivery is important for accomplishing sustainable machining.
The features like high specific heat and dynamic viscosity of LN2 may release more
heat than gas (Courbon et al., 2013; Pusavec et al., 2014b) because the gas film has
a low ability to evacuate heat (Bermingham et al., 2012).
Thus, the removal of boundary film depends upon the velocity along with LN2
pressure at the outlet of the nozzle (Qi et al., 2007). This was also reported by Hong
and Ding (2001) and Shokrani et al. (2013). At the nozzle exit, the cryogenic coolant
can be either gas, liquid or a mix, which makes it difficult to quantify heat transfer
coefficient at machining interface. Therefore, to distinguish the cryogenic coolant
phase, Pusavec et al. (2016) developed optical phase sensor. They reported the novel
findings in variations of cooling phases of LN2 along with prediction and control
of cryogenic machining to achieve desired performance. They showed that liquid
phase of coolant possess higher cooling capability while machining of Inconel 718
with lower friction. Besides this, quiet short contact length was observed in cutting
region under these conditions.
From the various reported works, it is concluded that the use of cryogen (LN2 )
reduces the coefficient of friction between the tool and chip. However, the cryogen
is evaporated quickly. Hence, using appropriate flow of the cryogenic fluid is very
essential to reduce the coefficient of friction and also to avoid excessive cooling of
workpiece which can cause work hardening. The system developed by Pusavec et al.
(2016) is an effective way for maintaining cutting temperature and preventing the
workpiece from excessive cooling.
Effect of cryogenic cooling on machinability
To study the effects of cooling on machinability, the analysis of cutting forces, sur-
face roughness, cutting temperature and tool-life are crucial as these are indicators
of machinability. In recent years, the researchers (Yildiz and Nalbant, 2008; Shokrani
et al., 2013; Kaynak et al., 2014a; Jawahir et al., 2016a) evaluated the effects of the
use of cryogenic cooling on surface integrity, cutting force, cutting temperature and
tool-life and compared the performance with dry, MQL and conventionally cooled
machining. It has been found that the use of cryogenic cooling technique is an effec-
tive way to improve the overall machinability of ferrous, titanium and Nickel alloys
along with aluminum composites, polymer and ceramic materials. Only few studies
are available related to the use of cryogenic machining of Nickel alloys. Some works
on the use of LN2 for improving machinability of Nickel alloys are discussed in the
next section.
Effect on surface quality characteristics of Nickel alloys

Nickel alloy components in aircraft industry with high quality of machined sur-
face and sub-surface. These universal necessities relating to the surface integrity
and their requirements in aircraft industry are described in a CIRP keynote paper
(Jawahir et al., 2011). In evaluating the quality and reliability of a machined compo-
nent in service life, the surface integrity is the most vital factor (Kenda et al., 2011;
Ulutan and Ozel, 2011). The surface integrity can be evaluated by the analysis of
residual stress and surface roughness in machining (Zurecki et al., 2003; Pusavec
et al., 2011; Ulutan and Ozel, 2011; Umbrello et al., 2012). In machining, surface
quality can be influenced by machine tool, cutting process, cutting parameters, cut-
ting conditions, etc. (Benardos and Vosniakos, 2003). Machining of difficult to cut
alloys is accompanied with high cutting forces along with high vibrations which
affect the surface finish of the workpiece (Çelik et al., 2016; Sahu and Andhare,
2017). Optimization of machining parameters is required to achieve desired sur-
face roughness with minimum tool wear, as cutting parameters have a substantial
role in surface quality. Surface quality also depends on tool geometry. Manufactur-
ing cost is largely affected by surface roughness as it is very intricate and method
oriented.
Various strategies are established by researchers for better surface roughness as
it plays an important role in controlling friction, wear and fatigue of the machined
parts (Blau, 2008; Babu et al., 2016). Pusavec et al. (2011) proved that cryogenic
cooling decreases the surface roughness in comparison with dry and MQL machin-
ing. The same result is reported by Kaynak et al. (2011) in machining of NiTi
alloy while using cryogenic cooling. The study by Aramcharoen and Chuan (2014)
on milling of Inconel 718 with LN2 sprayed as a coolant demonstrated that the
temperature in cutting zone was reduced with the use of LN2 due to improved
coolant accessibility through the tool chip interface as compared to conventional
coolant. However, higher forces were observed in primary shear zone while using
LN2 , because at low temperature, the work material has high strength. The surface
integrity analysis showed plastic deformation caused due to softening in the work
part at elevated temperature. Similar trends have also been reported by Kaynak
et al. (2014a) and Pusavec et al. (2011). Some researchers (Kaynak et al., 2011, 2015;
Kaynak et al., 2013b; 2014a) have concluded that cryogenic machining has severe
effects on the surface integrity characteristics of NiTi alloys.
Truesdale and Shin (2009) performed milling of Udimet 720 (Nickel-based
super alloy) using coated tungsten carbide inserts using oil-based coolant which
reduced the tool-life. In cryogenic milling, an increase of material removal rate
and decrease of machining cost with an increase in tool wear and tool change cost
were noticed than the oil-based system. The smearing and plucking were decreased
and were confirmed from microstructure of work part. However, increase in tool
wear rate occurred due to lack of lubrication and thermal softening compared to
oil-based process. The occurrence of high dislocation density and residual stresses
in the machined layer was observed and performance of LN2 was compared with
dry machining (Kaynak et al., 2014b). Pusavec et al. (2011) observed significant
improvement of compressive residual stresses with cryogenic machining along
with increase in hardness. Kenda et al. (2011) also reported 60% reduction in the
stress beneath the machined surface and an improvement of 185% in the compres-
sion zone below the surface while using cryogenic cooling on Inconel 718. Also,
hardness improvement of 60% was observed for cryogenic machining. Basically,
residual stresses are affected by mechanical and thermal loads (El-Wardany et al.,
2000; Ezugwu, 2004; Outeiro et al., 2004). This effect is very much dominant while
machining of super alloys like Inconel. Paul and Chattopadhyay (1995) have also
demonstrated the reduction in residual stresses of machined part due to use of
cryogenic cooling. Kumar and Choudhury (2008) have commented on the system
for supply of cryogenic liquid developed by Zurecki et al. (2003). It was said that
unwanted cooling of other areas of the workpiece could result in increase of cutting
forces and affect the quality of the surface produced. Some researchers (Pusavec
et al., 2014a, 2015) have used combined effect of cryogenic cooling with MQL
and optimized the machining parameters. They found reduction in cutting forces
and tool wear which enhanced the quality of the machined surface compared to
other conditions used. Kaynak (2014) independently studied the cryogenic cooling
of Inconel 718 and compared it with dry and MQL conditions. MQL conditions
demonstrated significant reduction in cutting forces as compared to dry and
cryogenic cooling at low speeds of about 60 m/min. However, at higher speed
of about 120 m/min cryogenic cooling resulted in minimum forces amongst the
three conditions used. Surface quality improvement was attributed to reduced tool
wear and reduced thermal distortion obtained because of cryogenic cooling. The
research reveals that use of cryogenic machining results in enhancement of surface
characteristics.
Effect on cutting temperature and tool wear

In machining, cutting temperature is the most significant factor along with cutting
forces which cause tool wear, which result in high consumption of power and
affect the quality of surface. Researchers (Paul and Chattopadhyay, 1995; Truesdale
and Shin, 2009; Shokrani et al., 2013; Kaynak et al., 2014a; Pusavec et al., 2014a)
Figure . Liquid Nitrogen spray with nozzles A and B at rake and flank face (Kaynak et al. b).
revealed that the use of LN2 in machining is an appropriate method to disperse

and minimize cutting temperature which result in the reduction of tool wear. Due
to low thermal conductivity of Nickel alloys, the heat at the cutting area is not
easily dissipated through the work part and results in high temperatures at tool
and chip interface. At high cutting speed, high temperature is developed which
reduces the tool-life according to Taylor’s equation (Shokrani et al., 2013). Though,
the conventional coolant vaporizes quickly, it fails to provide lubrication into the
tool chip interface in high speed machining. However, higher temperatures might
soften the work part which help to improve machinability (Kumar and Choudhury,
2008; Truesdale and Shin, 2009). Shokrani et al. (2012a) stated that maintaining low
cutting temperatures causes minimum tool wear but it results in low productivity.
Shokrani et al. (2012b) reported 33% improvement in surface quality and decrease
in the tool-life in cryogenic milling of Inconel 718. They reported chipping and
catastrophic failure of tool edge for which they recommended further studies on
cutting parameters and tool geometry. Bermingham et al. (2012) reported enhanced
tool-life with the use of LN2 . This happened due to increase in tool hardness and
decrease in the chemical reactivity of the work part and cutting tool in machining
of difficult to cut alloy. Some researchers have studied combined effect of LN2 and
MQL in machining Inconel (Kopac, 2009; Pusavec et al., 2011, 2014a; Kaynak et al.,
2014b) by spraying the liquid coolant on the flank and rake face, respectively, as
shown in Figure 4. This method was efficiently used for reduction of flank and crater
wear ensuring extended tool-life. Pusavec et al. (2010a) stated that the use of LN2 in
machining of Inconel 718 using coated WC inserts decreased the machining time
by 63% which was due to the high resistance to tool wear and resulted in enhanced
tool-life. Pusavec et al. (2011) measured the cutting temperatures in immediacy of
0.5 mm from the tool cutting interface for four machining conditions and reported
better performance with cryogenic machining than dry, conventional coolant and
MQL conditions in turning of Inconel 718. 60% enhancement in tool-life was
achieved with cryogenic machining. Wang and Rajurkar (2000) examined the effect
Figure . Tool flank wear at nose region after  mins of cutting (Kaynak et al. b).
of cryogenically cooled cutting insert in machining of Inconel 718. Cryogenic cool-

ing resulted in improved tool-life and surface finish. Kaynak et al. (2013a, 2013b)
investigated the cryogenic machining of NiTi alloy in terms of tool wear, cutting
forces and surface roughness and compared with dry and MQL conditions. There
was low flank wear with WC inserts in cryogenic machining as shown in Figure 5.
From the various works discussed above, it is found that cryogenic machining
considerably improves the machining performance of the Nickel alloys by reducing
the tool wear, cutting force and surface roughness. However, there is one report of
reduction in tool-life while using cryogenic cooling in machining (Shokrani et al.
2012b).
Cryogenic bath treatment

Cryogenic treatment of tool or cryogenic bath treatment is also termed as cryogenic
processing. It is the process of prolonged quenching similar to the heat treatment
cycle (Shokrani et al., 2013). In this method, the tool is treated at cryogenic tem-
perature for improving the properties. The tool material is cooled to cryogenic
temperature in a cryogenic bath or chamber and then maintained for sufficient
amount of time at the same temperature. Then, the tool is brought back to the room
temperature at a pre-defined rate. The liquefied gases like Helium, Neon, Oxygen
and Nitrogen can also be used in cryogenic treatment (Balasubramanian et al., 2012;
Akıncıoğlu et al., 2016). But, the atmosphere contains about 78.03% of Nitrogen
and hence, it is universally used in cryogenics (Thakur et al., 2008; Akincioğlu et al.,
2015). The scheme of a using LN2 with temperature controller is shown in Figure 6.
In the process of cryogenic treatment of tool, researchers have used cryogenic
cycle after quenching and before tempering (Alexandru et al., 1990; Molinari et al.,
2001). Cryogenic treatment can be successfully applied for steel and carbide inserts.
In the case of steel tools, the retained austenite is transformed into martensite form
after cryogenic treatment. Cryogenic treatment modifies the physical properties of
tungsten carbide inserts. Hence, this treatment is used to modify the properties of
materials to improve their performance (Thakur et al., 2008). However, some addi-
tional stresses are developed and micro-cracks are formed. These cracks can result
in tool wear and hence tempering is used. The selection of appropriate method and
Figure . Schematic of cryogenic treatment system (Gill et al. a).
time for the cycle varies with different tool materials. Gill et al. (2009) commented
that separate study is required for each tool material based on the requirements of
cutting process; because, the rate of cooling, soaking and heating are the influencing
factors modifying the metallurgical and mechanical properties of tools.
In case of steel tool, the entire duration of the cryogenic process varies approx-
imately from 36 to 72 h depending on the type and weight of material used (Kalia,
2010). Researchers have used different cryogenic cycles for altering properties of
tool steel. These methods are discussed below:
Alexandru et al. (1990) studied the effect of different routes of cryogenic cycles
onto the material properties of steels. They used different combinations of quench-
ing at 1230°C, tempering and double tempering at 560°C. The cryogenic treatment
was limited to −70°C. Different routes and their effects on the retention in per-
centage of austenite, martensite, carbides and the tool-life were found out. Using
various routes of cryogenic treatment it was found that there was a decrease in the
percentage of retained austenite from 42.6% to 0.9% and rise in martensite from
66.6% to 81.7%. The carbide content steadily increased from 6.9% to 17.4% and
the amount of carbide smaller than 1 µm also increased. It was confirmed that
cryogenic treatment done after quenching and before tempering leads to increased
tool-life. Molinari et al. (2001) reported performance of HSS tool using different
cryogenic treatment cycles. Low tool wear was observed when cryogenic treatment
was performed before tempering. However, they concluded that the highest wear
resistance in tool steels might be attained if cryogenic treatments were performed
after the quenching and tempering. Cryogenic bath treatment results in better wear
resistance and tool-life of HSS tools in machining. Sometimes, it can even double
the service life of HSS tools (Chatterjee, 1992; Collins and Dormer, 1997; Dong
et al., 1998; Da Silva et al., 2006; Firouzdor et al., 2008; Ramji et al., 2010). However,
performance of milling cutters was reported to be inferior after cryogenic treatment
(Da Silva et al., 2006). Therefore, one can say that cryogenic treatment of HSS tools
do not necessarily guarantee better machining performance.
The tungsten carbide (WC) tools are mostly used in machining of difficult to
cut alloys. The composition of tungsten carbide tool is shown in Figure 7. The
performance of these tools using various treatment cycles is described in the
following paragraphs.
Figure . Composition of WC tool material (Gill et al. a).
Yong et al. (2006) used a cryogenic chamber having temperature gradient from
room temperature to −184.1°C for cryogenic treatment of inserts. The inserts were
maintained at low temperature for 18 h, then cooled to room temperature using
similar gradient and then tempered. Reddy et al. (2009) and SreeramaReddy et al.
(2009) used deep cryogenic treatment cycle at a temperature of −176°C for 24 h
and then gradually back to room temperature at the rate of 0.5°C/min. Gill et al.
(2012a) investigated performance of WC inserts by treating in three ways: deep
cryogenic treatment, shallow cryogenic treatment and without any treatment. In
deep and shallow cryogenic treatment, the inserts were exposed for 38 h at −196°C
and 18 h at −110°C, respectively. The two tempering cycles were used to release the
stresses induced by cryogenic treatment (Gill et al., 2009, 2012a). Figure 8 shows
cryogenic treatment cycles used by Gill et al. (2012a) for WC inserts. They used
rate of 0.5°C/min to avoid thermal shocks which may occur due to rapid cooling
or heating. Few researchers (Thakur et al., 2012b; Deshpande et al., 2017) preferred
deep cryogenic treatment of WC insert in machining of Inconel 718. The specimen
were subjected to controlled reduction in temperature from room temperature to
cryogenic temperature (−196°C). The specimen were preserved at this temperature
Figure . Cryogenic treatment cycles for WC tools (Gill et al. a).

for 24 h and then brought back to room temperature at the same rate (0.5°C/min).
Subsequent to the cryogenic cycle, the specimens were tempered to release the
stresses developed. Effects of the tool treatments discussed above are presented in
the following sections.
Effect of cryogenic treatment on tools properties
Effect on microstructural behavior

Due to cryogenic treatment of tools there are certain changes in microstructure
as reported in the literature. In tungsten carbide tools, the alloying elements are
present in four distinct phases. They are alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ ) and eta (η)
phases as shown in Figure 9; its detailing is given in Table 2. Because of cryogenic
treatment the tungsten carbide is reformed into a soft and stable part, which is the
most durable and stress free crystallographic formation. This fine carbide precip-
itate acts as filler to form a dense coherent matrix. The crystal structure in both
hard and soft binder part changes due to cryogenic treatment which is responsible
for increased wear resistance and hardness. Gill et al. (2012a) and SreeramaReddy
et al. (2009) presented SEM images for analyzing the microstructure changes for
untreated and cryogenically treated inserts as shown in Figures 10 and 11. These
changes are also described in Table 2. Researchers have reported the densification of
cobalt phase which increase gripping of carbide particles and result in enhancement
Figure . XRD analysis of (a) untreated and (b) cryogenically treated WC tool (Gill et al. a).
Table . Microstructure Changes in Tungsten Carbide Tool after Cryogenic Treatment (Seah et al., ; Gallagher et al., ; Reddy et al., ; Gill et al., a).
Microstructure before cryogenic
Phases Contents treatment Microstructure after cryogenic treatment Effect on properties
α-phase Tungsten carbide (WC) r Makes bulk of material. r Continuous structure through the r Relatively stress free crystallographic
sample. configuration.
r Distribution not clearly identifiable. r Volume fraction of carbide is higher. r Lower risk of stress induced fracture.
r Grain contiguity is low. r Absolutely stable and optimum phase. r Increased alpha phase improves
overall thermal conductivity and wear
resistance of the treated tool.
β-phase Cobalt metal binder (Co) r Shows white spots through the entire r Significant drop in number and size of r Crystals rearrange in relatively stable
matrix. particles. HCP configuration.
r Reduced chemical deterioration of the r Alpha phase rearrange in a relatively
beta phase at elevated temperatures. stable pattern.
r Reduced beta phase improves overall
thermal conductivity.
r Relives stresses during production.
γ -phase Carbide of a cubic lattice (TiC, TaC, NbC) r Shows light yellowish brown, with r Decrease in gamma phase after r Not significant phase.
rounded shape particles. cryogenic treatment.
η-phase Carbides of tungsten and at least one r Two types of η-carbide phases: MC r Precipitation and distribution of r Increased η-phase particles, reduced
metal binder (CoWC) and MC (CoWC). η-phase fine carbide particles (MC) transverse rupture strength, larger
r The composition of the latter is forms a dense coherent and tougher resistance to chipping and plastic
somewhat constant and former is matrix material. deformation and lower fracture
varying. r Slight increase in grain size, therefore toughness.
r During the sintering process the MC minor improvement in toughness. r Improvement in hardness and wear
content nucleates and grows, making r Improved flank wear resistance properties with eta phase carbide.
the structure brittle.
17
Figure . Microstructure of untreated carbide inserts by (a) Reddy et al. () and (b) Gill et al.
(a).
Figure . Microstructure of deep cryogenically treated carbide inserts by (a) Reddy et al. () and
(b) Gill et al. (a).
in wear resistance (Thakur et al., 2008). Priyadarshini (2007) also reported decrease
in flank wear of cryogenically treated HSS and carbide tools by 19.2% and 17.18%,
respectively, in comparison to untreated tools.
Effect on thermal conductivity

Due to cryogenic treatment, the thermal conductivity increases because of reduced
bonding in carbide tools caused by cryogenic treatment. Also, the increase in unit
size of carbides contributes to increase in the thermal conductivity. SreeramaReddy
et al. (2009) reported decrease in cutting temperature of cryogenically treated tool
due to the increase of heat distribution ability achieved due to enhancement of
thermal conductivity. SreeramaReddy et al. (2009) and Reddy et al. (2009) described
improvement in the electrical conductivity of the cryogenically treated P-30 and
P-40 WC inserts than untreated inserts as shown in Table 3.
Table . Electrical Resistivity and Electrical Conductivity of the P- and P- Tools.
Electrical resistivity (ohm-m) Electrical conductivity (ohm-m)−
Tool P- P- P- P-
Untreated . × − . × − . .

Cryogenically . × − . × − . .
treated
Figure . Rockwell hardness vs cryogenic treatments (Gill et al. a).
Effect on hardness
There are improvements reported in the red-hardness of cryogenically treated
inserts, which results in low flank wear (Reddy et al., 2009; SreeramaReddy et al.,
2009). There was also enhancement in tool-life by 27%. Similar study by Gill et al.
(2012a) reported 4.75% increase in hardness value in shallow cryogenically treated
(SCT) insert than untreated (UT) insert and 0.21% increase in deep cryogenically
treated (DCT) insert than shallow treated insert as shown as in Figure 12. To sup-
port these results, they also conducted tribology tests at different loads. It was found
that the deep treated inserts performed better than shallow treated inserts, showing
improvement by 7%, 9.5% and 14.5% at three loads as shown as in Figure 13. They
observed nonlinear relation between wear rate and hardness.
From the various cryogenic treatment cycles followed by different researchers,
it can be seen that the treatment temperatures vary significantly from −110°C
to −196°C. Also, the overall cycle of treatment has lot of variations. The optimum
cryogenic temperature for WC may improve the hardness which is reported only by
Gill et al. (2012b). As a result of cryogenic treatment, the scientific studies showed
improvement in the metallurgical, thermal and mechanical properties of tools
which affect machining. The effects are described by various researchers and are
discussed in subsequent section.
Figure . Wear rate Vs applied load for UT, SCT and DCT WC tool materials (Gill et al. a).
Effect of cryogenic treatment on the machinability
From the various cryogenic treatments reported and performed on WC inserts, the
following observations are made. In machining of Inconel 718, lower cutting forces
are generated while using cryogenically treated inserts than untreated inserts.
Similarly, degree of the work hardening is lesser with increase in cutting speed
to 60 m/min and feed to 0.2 mm/rev while using cryogenically treated inserts.
This is because, cryogenically treated tungsten carbide tools offer significantly
larger resistance to chipping as compared to the untreated tools. As a result, the
cryogenically treated tools have more tool-life as compared to untreated tools
at higher speeds (Thakur et al., 2012b). The increase in the tool-life and wear
resistance were recorded using cryogenically treated inserts in different operating
conditions (Seah et al., 2003; Stewart, 2004; Yong et al., 2006; Yong et al., 2007). The
reduction of chipping and flank wear in treated tool was observed for interrupted
machining, whereas in continuous machining the treated tool lose its features due
to high cutting temperature (Yong et al., 2006). Cryogenically treated carbide drill
bits generated better quality of holes as compared to the untreated carbide tools.
However, reduction in tool-life along with improvement in hole quality has been
reported while using cryogenically treated carbide drills (Kim, 2004). Gill et al.
(2009) have reported better performance of cryogenically treated tool in wet and
interrupted machining conditions. This is due to low cutting temperature using
coolant which consequently assisted in limiting tool flank wear. Thus, resulting
in enhancement of surface finish compared to continuous machining. Figure 14
shows the improvement of tool-life in cryogenically treated inserts used in dry and
wet conditions as reported by Gill et al. (2009) and Yong et al. (2007). It is obvious,
as use of cutting fluid provides cooling and lubrication resulting in reduced cutting
forces, wear, temperature and surface roughness. Same effect on performance can
also be observed while using cutting fluids during machining by any other tool.
Researchers have used different cryogenic cycles for the coated tungsten carbide
inserts. Gill et al., (2011) found better performance of inserts subjected to shallow
Figure . Comparison of cryogenically treated tool in dry and wet conditions (Gill et al.,  and
Yong et al., ).
Table . Tool-life and Percentage Improvement for Untreated and Cryogenically Treated P- and
P- WC Inserts (Reddy et al., ; SreeramaReddy et al., ).
Cutting speed
(m/min)    
Tungsten carbide P- WC P- WC P- WC P- WC P- WC P- WC P- WC P- WC
inserts
Tool-life (mins) . . . . . . . .
untreated insert
Tool-life (mins) . . . . . . . .
cryogenically
treated insert
% improvement in . . . . . . . .
tool-life
cryogenic treatment over untreated inserts. The deep cryogenic treatment showed
disparaging effect on inserts, especially at low cutting speeds. Though, at higher
cutting speeds, minor gains in tool-life could be obtained. However, as soon as
the speed and feed were increased, tool-life reduced regardless of the cryogenic
treatment (Yong et al., 2007). In the study conducted by Reddy et al. (2007) and
Gill et al. (2012a), the improvement in tool-life of deep treated inserts is reported.
They concluded that precipitation and distributions of the η-phase, post cryogenic
treatment, increased the hardness and wear resistance. Also, the refinement of grain
size improved the toughness of treated insert. However, the occurrence of η-phase
particles can affect the mechanical properties of material. Therefore, the evolution
of η-phase particles through the material must be controlled (Seah et al. 2003).
The refinement and uniform distribution of carbides in treated tool leads to lesser
amount of distortion of the cutting edge of tool. This further results in reduced
cutting forces, tool wear and surface roughness with the deep cryogenically treated
tools than untreated tools. Hence, it is found that cryogenic treatment makes
progressive influences on the wear resistance and tool-life of uncoated and coated
carbide and HSS inserts (Bal, 2012).
Reddy et al. (2009) and SreeramaReddy et al. (2009) reported that in all the
cutting conditions used for turning, the cryogenically treated inserts performed
better than untreated inserts and observed better wear resistance for treated inserts.
They also reported increase in tool-life by a factor of 1.27. This was said to be
because of increase in thermal conductivity and reduction in tool tip temperature.
They also found enhancement in hot hardness. The enhancement of machinability
in terms of tool-life, cutting forces and surface roughness was observed while using
cryogenically treated inserts between the speed of 200 m/min and 350 m/min.
Speedy wear was observed at last, probably due to a total wear out of the coating
material. In such a case, the substrate material of tool directly touches the work-
piece in machining. Table 4 shows the comparison and percentage improvement
in tool-life using P-30 and P-40 WC untreated and cryogenically treated inserts
(Reddy et al., 2009; SreeramaReddy et al., 2009). The improvement of tool-life in
P-40 inserts was more in all cutting conditions compared to P-30 cryogenically
treated inserts as shown in Figure 15.
Figure . Performance improvement in tool-life using P- (Reddy et al., ) and P- (Sreera-
maReddy et al., ) WC inserts.
Most of these studies have revealed the extensive use of cryogenically treated
tungsten carbide tools in machining of different materials because of its cost-
effectiveness. Only Thakur et al. (2012b) reported performance of cryogenically
treated WC tools in machining of Inconel 718. Therefore, one can say that very
limited investigation is done so far to evaluate the performance of cryogenically
treated WC tools in machining of Nickel alloys.
Hybrid technique
Lauwers (2011) has defined Hybrid Manufacturing processes as simultaneous and

controlled interaction of process mechanisms and/or energy sources/tools having a
significant effect on the process performance, in the keynote address of CIRP 2011.
Here, simultaneous and controlled interaction means the sources of energy in the
particular machining zone must interact at the same time. So, the above formulated
definition excludes various types of hybrid machines in which processes performed
are still in sequence. Minimizing the possible drawbacks and improving the mere
benefits found in singular techniques should be the motivation for application and
growth of hybrid process. In the present case, hybrid technique basically involves
making simultaneous use of cryogenic cooling at chip tool interface and heating of
the workpiece to make it soft for machining. Some works using this technique and
their findings are described below.
Wang et al. (2003) used the hybrid machining for turning of Inconel 718 with a
WG 300 insert. They compared results of conventional machining of Inconel with
plasma enhanced turning accompanied with cryogenic cooling of the tool. A cap was
positioned on the ceramic insert with the purpose to cool the cutting region of tool
using LN2 . Figure 16 shows the experimental setup of the arrangement of hybrid
machining used by them. They compared surface finish on workpiece, cutting
forces and tool-life. The study indicated that with respect to the normal machining,
hybrid machining resulted in an improvement of 250% in the surface roughness and
reduction of 156% in the cutting forces. In hybrid machining, resistance to thermal
Figure . Hybrid machining of Inconel  (Wang et al. ).
and mechanical shock was improved and higher value of fracture toughness was
observed. The improvement in machining was because of the following reasons:
1. Plasma heating decreased the workpiece hardness.
2. Nitrogen cooling decreased the cutting tool temperatures, reduced friction
between the tool flank and the newly produced work surface and produced
superior surface finish.
Feyzi and Safavi (2013) worked on Inconel 718 using CBN tool insert by combin-
ing three techniques: plasma heating, cryogenic cooling of tool tip and ultrasonic
vibrations for machining. Ultrasonic vibrations were used to lower the cutting force
and improve dynamic stability. It was observed that the force components were
reduced by 9–14% as compared with conventional machining at all the cutting
speeds used. Whereas, this reduction was 7–11% for the feed values used. The tool
wear was linear for the increasing feed rate for the hybrid machining. The tool wear
rate also decreased from about 0.3 mm to 0.05 mm for hybrid machining at a cutting
speed of 10 m/min. There was hardly any change in the surface roughness for hybrid
machining as compared to conventional machining. It was inferred that hybrid
machining was the most suitable method to achieve high quality finish for Inconel
718. Venkatesan and Ramanujam (2016) studied the influence of cutting conditions
in Laser Assisted Hybrid Machining (LAHM) for Inconel 718. The results were
compared with conventional machining. The cutting speed, feed, approach angle
and input power to the laser were varied. The effective heat affected depth during
the laser preheating was determined and the cutting conditions were optimized
using Taguchi method. LAHM resulted in 33%, 42% and 28% reduction in feed
force, thrust force and cutting force, respectively. The surface finish was improved
by 28% and the tool wear was found reduced by 50% with respect to conventional
machining. There was no change in the hardness of the machined surface. From
the above works, it is found that Hybrid machining can be successfully employed
in machining of Nickel alloys.
Modeling in the use of cryogenic techniques for machining
In machining operations, modeling confirms the relationship of input and

output parameters with their association as the process of fitting together
(Markos et al., 1998). Hence, the machining operation can be simulated, optimized
and validated by modeling. Modeling also helps to reduce the time for conducting
costly and extensive experiments along with optimizing the intricate process as in
the field of cryogenic machining. Optimization of machining parameters is required
to achieve desired surface quality parameters (Arunachalam and Mannan, 2003;
Homani et al., 2014). The statistical and computational modeling techniques are
used to estimate the surface quality parameters in cryogenic machining (Vanhove
et al., 2016). Very few researchers have modeled the machining process while using
cryogenic techniques (Childs et al., 1988; Sozbir et al., 2003; Jawahir et al., 2011;
Arrazola et al., 2013). In recent years, methods based on regression modeling,
response surface methodology (RSM), artificial neural networks (ANN), etc. are
used by researchers in machining of Nickel alloys in different cooling conditions like
dry, MQL and cryogenics. Such works are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Pusavec and co-authors have established performance-based models for estimat-
ing tool wear, cutting forces and surface roughness using RSM (Pusavec et al., 2014a;
Pusavec et al., 2015). They evaluated the combined effect of cryogenic cooling with
MQL and optimized the machining parameters. This improved the quality of the
machined surface compared to other conditions. Thakur et al. (2012b) suggested a
regression model for minimum work hardening, tool wear and cutting forces while
using cryogenically treated tool in the machining of Inconel 718. Deshpande et al.
(2017) established a regression model for estimating the surface roughness using
untreated and cryogenically treated insert. Homami et al. (2014) modeled dry turn-
ing of Inconel 718 with coated insert using ANN and reported the optimum cutting
condition for accomplishing minimum surface roughness and flank wear using
genetic algorithm (GA). Researchers have used finite element modeling (FEM)
software such as ABAQUS Explicit and DEFORM, which are based on the principle
of Johnson–Cook material model in machining of Inconel 718. The estimated
responses such as strain and stress distributions, cutting force, cutting temperature,
power consumption and tool stress are in good agreement with experimental results
(Outeiro et al., 2008; Ozel et al., 2011; Ucun et al., 2016; Vijayaraghavan et al., 2016).
Qian et al. (2014) generated 2D simulation model using ABAQUS FEM software
in cryogenic machining of magnesium alloy. They reported influence of cutting
parameters on cutting temperature, forces and residual stresses. They observed that
lower cutting speed, high value of nose radius and high cutting thickness proves
beneficial for increased compressive residual stresses. It can be observed that no
study is reported using FE modeling in cryogenic machining of Nickel alloys. If such
techniques are used then it would be beneficial for reducing the costly experiments
of difficult to cut alloys.
Economic aspect
Economic aspect is a key factor for the use of any machining method in industries.
With the purpose of using inexpensive and effective technique, Figure 17 (Pušavec
et al., 2010b) compared cryogenic machining with conventional flooded machining
Figure . Production costs comparison in machining of Inconel  (Pusavec et al. b; Jawahir
et al. a).
in terms of overall production cost. Conventional machining is more costly than

cryogenic machining in terms of machining cost, tooling cost and high cleaning
cost. However, conventional machining is found to be cheapest at low cutting
speed. Therefore, sustainable machining like cryogenic machining can be used for
improving the productivity. Aramcharoen and Chuan (2014) used coated carbide
tool in cryogenic machining of Inconel 718. They reported better tool-life and sur-
face integrity than dry and conventional cooling. They also examined different tools
like CBN, diamond and ceramic. They reported that carbide tools are economical
for machining using cryogenic techniques. Hence, it can be concluded that the use
of cryogenic techniques in machining using WC inserts can prove to be beneficial
even though the initial setup and installation cost is higher.
Discussion, findings and future direction

The machining of Nickel alloys without cryogenic media is discussed in the first part
of the paper. The use of cutting tools such as carbide, ceramics, PCBN, PVD and
CVD coated in machining of Nickel-based superalloys are summarized in Table 5.
It is seen that carbide tools are most widely used. This is because, the carbide tools
are reasonably cheap than other tools. Effective removal of heat from cutting zone
is the main aspect. Furthermore, Nickel alloys also have the tendency of built-up
edge formation while using carbide tools which generally leads to reduced tool-life
and poor surface finish (Ezugwu et al., 2003; Ezugwu, 2004, 2005).
Cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen spray at the tool chip interface
The effects of cryogenic machining in machining of Nickel alloys are summarized

in Table 6. It is noticed that cryogenic cooling results in better lubrication and
26
Table . Machining of Inconel without Cryogenic Media.

Authors Work sample Tool material Cooling lubrication fluid Machining process Effect
Liao and Shiue () Inconel  K  and P  carbide No fluid Turning r Grain boundary diffusion of tool at speed of
 m/min.
r Tool wear occurred due to weakening of
bonding strength.
Hao et al. () Inconel  PVD coated cemented No fluid Turning r The optimum temperature is °C.
Y. V. DESHPANDE ET AL.
carbide
r Tool-life curve with different cutting speeds
showed  mins of tool-life at speed of
m/min.
r mins of tool-life at speed of  m/min.
Aruna et al. () Inconel  Ceramic Flooded Turning r Superior performance of ceramic tool at lower
cutting speeds.
Zheng et al. () Inconel  SiN-graded nano No fluid Turning r Nano graded ceramic tool had longer life.
composite ceramic
Fernández-Valdivielso Inconel  Carbide Flooded Turning r Crater and adhesion are the major modes of
et al. () wear.
r The cutting force and its radial component
increased with wear.
r Surface roughness, adversely affected with
tool wear.
Soo et al. () Inconel  Five types of coating and Flooded Turning r % increase of tool-life with TiSiN coated tool
PCBN than uncoated tool.
r No benefits showed over high speed of
– m/min with coated tools.
r Surface roughness between . and . µm
and cutting forces less than  N.
r CBN contents (%) tool developed
compressive residual stresses ( MPa) than
low CBN contents (%) tools.
Bhatt et al. () Inconel  Coated and uncoated No fluid Finished turning r High wear resistance found in triple coated
tungsten carbide tool at speed of  m/min.
r At speed of  m/min, uncoated tool
performed well.
r At speed of  m/min, single coated tool
performed better than others.
Obikawa et al. () Inconel  CVD coated cemented No fluid; flooded; air jet Air jet assisted (AJA) r Tool-life and surface finish decreases due to
carbide assisted; N -air jet assisted turning high temperature and stress at cutting edge.
r AJA enhanced tool-life by –% than wet
machining.
Li et al. () Inconel  Coated carbide No fluid Milling r Dominant tool wear mechanisms are flank
wear resulting in gradual chipping of the tool.
r Constantly increasing peak variation of the
cutting force.
Le Coz and Dudzinski- Inconel  Tungsten carbide (TiAlN- No fluid Milling r A large temperature gradient.
PVD)
Cai et al. () Inconel  Multi-coated cemented No fluid Milling r Cutting speed is most significant on surface
carbide roughness.
r Better surface roughness at high cutting speed
( m/min).
Chen and Liao () Inconel  Tungsten carbide (TiAlN- Flooded; nano-modifier fluid Drilling r Wear of the tool with degradation of coating
PVD) leads to excessive chipping of the tool.
r Nano particles in cutting fluid reduce friction
and % increase in tool-life.
Thakur and Gangopadhay Incoloy  Uncoated and multi-coated No fluid; Flooded; MQL Turning r Multicoated tool (dry) performed well than
() cemented carbide uncoated tool (wet and MQL).
r Machinability measured in terms of cutting
force tool wear and surface roughness.
Ezugwu and Lai () Inconel  HSS M Flooded Drilling r Major tool wears were attrition, abrasion,
adhesion and plastic deformation.
Lo Casto et al. () Nickel alloys CBN coated tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r Increased value of cutting forces and tool wear
at higher cutting speeds.
27
Davoodi and Tazehkandi Inconel  Coated carbide Flooded Turning r Low surface roughness and cutting forces at
() high cutting speed, low feed and depth of cut.
28
Table . Machining of Inconel with Cryogenic Cooling.

Machining
Authors Work sample Tool material Cooling lubrication fluid process Effect
Kaynak Y. () Inconel  Carbide No fluid; MQL; LN Turning r At lower cutting speeds ( m/min) MQL performed better as
compared with cryogenic cooling.
r Cryogenic cooling recommended for speed about  m/min.
r Surface quality improvement attributed to reduced tool wear
and thermal distortion.
Pusavec et al. (, a, Inconel  Carbide No fluid; MQL; LN; LN Turning r Increased hardness and compressive residual stress.
) +MQL
r Reduction in average surface roughness and tool wear.
JaniKenda et al. () Inconel  Carbide No fluid; MQL; LN; LN Turning r % reduction in the stress beneath the machined surface.
+MQL
r An improvement of % in the compressive zone beneath the
surface and % improvement in hardness for the tool.
Aramcharoen and Chuan Inconel  Tungsten carbide (TiN) No fluid; flooded; LN Milling r Minimum plastic deformation and surface defects.
()
r Reduced friction and hence smaller secondary deformation
zone.
Shokrani et al. () Inconel  Solid carbide (TiAlN) No fluid; LN Milling r –% reduction in Ra and Rz and .% increase in power
consumption compared to dry machining.
r Tool failure due to chipping and facture of tool nose.
Kaynak et al. (a, b, NiTi shape PVD coated (TiB ) No fluid; MQL; LN Turning r Improved surface quality at high cutting speed.
a) memory r Reduced tool wear, cutting force and surface roughness
alloys compared to preheated, dry and MQL machining.
Truesdale and Shin () Udimet  Coated tungsten carbide Flooded; LN Milling r Increase in material removal rate, decrease in machining cost
by % up to a speed of  m/min compared to oil base
cooling.
r Increase in tool wear rate.
reduced friction between the tool and chip interface (Aramcharoen and Chuan,
2014). Increasing penetration of the coolant improves the removal of heat, resulting
in reduced temperature at the cutting zone. These two phenomena increase the
tool-life (Wang and Rajurkar, 2000; Pusavec et al., 2010a, 2011; Kaynak et al., 2013a,
2013b, 2014b). There is an agreement amongst several researchers that cryogenic
cooling improves the surface quality of the work part (Kaynak et al., 2013a, 2013b,
2014b; Kaynak, 2014).
Cutting speed is an influencing parameter when cryogenic cooling is utilized,
because there are certain instances where low cutting speed along with cryogenic
cooling resulted in poor surface finish and higher cutting force as compared to
cryogenic cooling at higher cutting speed. An adverse effect is also observed due
to additional cooling on the amount of required cutting force. It is because, in
certain cases unwanted cooling led to increased cutting force, which affected the
surface quality (Zurecki et al., 2003; Kumar and Choudhury, 2008). There are some
instances when cryogenic machining showed significant enhancement of compres-
sive residual stresses (Pusavec et al., 2011). However, most of the researchers agree
on the fact that cryogenic cooling reduces the compressive residual stresses (Paul
and Chattopadhyay, 1995; El-Wardany et al., 2000; Ezugwu, 2004; Outeiro et al.,
2004).
Cryogenic coolant eliminates the cost of cleaning after machining, usually
required in flood or oil-based coolant. Hence, the possibility of infection in living
tissues can be neglected due to sustainable machining. Thus, machined materials
can be safely used in biomedical implants (Jawahir et al. 2016b).
Cryogenic treatment of tool

From the various cryogenic treatment cycles, such as shallow and deep treated
cycles followed by different researchers, it can be seen that the treatment temper-
atures may significantly vary from −110°C to −196°C. Also, the overall cycle of
treatment has lot of variations. More specifically, the instant cooling proves more
economical but it would make the microstructure of the tool unstable due to ther-
mal shock. Hence, slow cooling rate is preferred for higher tool performance. This
points toward the importance of optimum soaking period which can reduce energy
consumption. The treatment time for tools is about 24 h. This period would change
according to the different materials being used as tools for machining, which can
be seen in the previous studies conducted in this area. Hence, it can be said that the
optimum cycle parameters would definitely help to improve the performance of the
tool. The use of tempering cycle has shown improvement in tool performance by
reliving the stress developed just after cryogenic treatment.
The increase in the tool-life, wear resistance and improved surface quality are
recorded using cryogenically treated inserts in different operating conditions (Seah
et al., 2003; Stewart, 2004; Yong et al., 2007; Gill et al., 2009). Some research results
have revealed that the use of deep cryogenic treatment (−196°C) can be beneficial
for better wear resistance of carbide inserts and further use of tempering cycle
(+196°C) removed the stresses developed in the cryogenic cycle. Appropriate
cooling rate in cryogenic treatment cycle is essential to prevent thermal shocks
from rapid cooling, which results in possible damage in microstructure of carbide
inserts (Reddy et al., 2007; Gill et al., 2009; Reddy et al., 2009; SreeramaReddy et al.,
2009; Gill et al., 2011). Effects of cryogenic treatment on WC inserts reported by
various researchers are summarized in Table 7. Mainly, it improves the metallurgical
and thermal properties of cutting tools such as improvement in different phases of
WC, uniform distribution of carbides, transformation from austenite to martensite
in steel, increase in toughness and hardness, wear resistance, thermal and electrical
conductivity. This results in reduction of cutting forces, improvement of tool-life
and surface finish (Da Silva et al., 2006; Yong et al., 2006; Yong et al., 2007; Vadivel
and Rudramoorthy, 2009; Singh and Singh, 2011; Gill et al., 2012b; Kalsi et al.,
2014). Also, in the case of both coated and uncoated WC tools, the cryogenic
treatment improves the machinability, not only in difficult to cut materials but also
for traditional materials (Akincioğlu et al., 2015). Therefore, there is a scope to
study the performance of cryogenically treated inserts using appropriate MQL and
LN2 as a coolant.
It is observed that most of the studies are done using uncoated and coated (PVD
and CVD) carbide tools. This technique helped to improve tool performance with
minimum production cost. However, in some instances, the tool coatings were
affected by cryogenic treatment. Hence, the performance of cutting tool can be
improved if cryogenic treatment is done before final processing of tool i.e. before
hardening and coating. Hence, there is a scope for investigating the performance of
cryogenically treated tools like ceramics, PCBN, etc. The remarkable enhancement
in machinability, machining economy and sustainability accompanied with the
overall cost of cryogenic treatment would provide long term benefits in shop floor
activities.
Hybrid technique
In the case of hybrid technique, it is clear from the Table 8 that employing cryogenic
cooling along with the preheating of the workpiece results in measurable improve-
ment in the surface roughness, as well as reduction in wear of the tool accompanied
by the reduction in the cutting forces. In addition to this, the ultrasonic vibration
of the tool has also shown reduced tool wear.
The use of cryogenic cooling, cryogenic treatment of tools, tool coatings,
plasma heating of workpiece, etc. are some of the techniques used for improv-
ing the machining of Nickel alloys. Lowering of cutting temperature along with
moderate friction at tool chip interface, and improvements in properties of
tool and workpiece, results in improving the machinability of material. As a
result, machining of Nickel-based superalloy leads to significantly reduced tool
wear.
Table . Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Tools.
Cooling lubrication Machining
Authors Work sample Tool material fluid process Effect
Thakur et al. Inconel  Tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r –% reduction in the cutting force and % reduction in
(b) residual stresses.
r Reduction in work hardening and uniform tool wear.
Seah et al. ASSAB  plain Co- Tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r Increase in wear resistance and tool-life.
() carbon steel
r Improved strength of Co binder which relieved stresses
occurred in sintering.
Reddy et al. AISI  Steel Coated Tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r Tool-life is increased by %, cutting forces decreased by %
() ISO P- and surface roughness by % compared to untreated inserts
for speeds between  and  m/min.
r Enhancement in hot hardness.
Reddy et al. Steel Coated Tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r .% and .% enhancement in tool-life of normal and deep
() ISO P- cryogenically treated inserts respectively.
r Precipitation and distributions of the η-phase after cryogenic
treatment enhanced the wear resistance.
r Refinement in grain size enhanced the toughness.
Gill et al. () Steel Tungsten carbide No fluid; Flooded Turning r .% increase in tool-life in dry interrupted turning and
.% in tool-life in wet interrupted turning.
r Continuous turning was done. There was .% increase in
tool-life in wet continuous turning and .% increase in
tool-life in wet interrupted turning as compared to dry turning.
(Continued on next page)
31
32
Table . Continued.
Cooling lubrication Machining
Authors Work sample Tool material fluid process Effect
Reddy et al. Steel C- Coated Tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r Better wear resistance during machining, a fair wear rate at the
() ISO P- middle of machining.

r Speedy wear rate was observed at last.
Gill et al. () Steel stock Coated Tungsten carbide No fluid Turning r The maximum tool-life enhancement is .% for shallow
(C-) cryogenically treated tools.
r The deep cryogenic treatment showed disparaging effects on
inserts, mainly at low cutting speeds.
r At higher cutting speeds, marginal improvement in tool-life.
Yong et al. Medium carbon Carbide No fluid Turning r –% reduction in flank wear.
() steel
r Increased tool-life . and . times compared to untreated
tool.
Yong et al. Medium carbon Tungsten carbide No fluid; Flooded Milling r Improvement of tool-life by .% and .% in dry and wet
() steel cutting conditions, respectively.
Stewart () Medium density Tungsten carbide (% Co) No fluid Turning r Reduction in tool wear.
fiberboard r Changing the crystal structure of Cobinder which is retained
during turning.
Kim and Thermo-plastic Tungsten carbide No fluid Drilling r Better quality of holes in cryogenically treated tools.
Ramulu composites r Better wear resistance in conventional carbide tools.
()
Table . Hybrid Techniques in Machining of Inconel Alloys.
Heating/Cooling, lubrication
Authors Work sample Tool material fluid Machining process Effects
Wang et al. () Inconel  WC inserts No fluid; Plasma heating; Plasma enhanced turning r % improvement in the surface roughness and % reduction
Plasma heating + LN in the cutting forces.
r Improved thermal and mechanical shock handling capacity with a
higher value of fracture toughness.
Feyzi and Safavi () Inconel  CBN inserts No fluid, Plasma heating + Plasma enhanced turning r Force components were reduced by –%.
LN and ultrasonic vibrations
r Decreased tool wear from . mm to . mm for a cutting speed
of  m/min.
Venkatesan and Ramanujam Inconel  Carbide inserts No fluid; Laser heating Laser assisted turning r Approx. %, %, % reduction in feed force, thrust force and
() (TiAlN-PVD) cutting force, respectively.
r % improvement in surface finish with % reduction in tool
wear.
r No change in hardness value for the machined surface.
33
Conclusions
In this paper, an attempt is made to identify the different cryogenic techniques and
their effects on the machining performance of difficult to machine Nickel alloys.
Use of cryogenic techniques in machining is few decades old. However, till date,
no established procedure is available to ensure success in terms of improvement in
machining. The application of cryogenic techniques in machining is divided into
three categories: cryogenic machining, cryogenic treatment of tools and hybrid
technique.
The first technique of cryogenic machining involves use of cryogenic coolant
like LN2 to cool the tool and work piece interface. It helps in enhancing the surface
quality characteristics, which boost the product life and its functionality along
with reduced tool wear. The machining improves because of reduced temperature
at the tool chip interface. A majority of published works have reported about
improvement in machining by using cryogenic cooling. However, there are cer-
tain works reporting negative impact of this method on machining. The initial
cost involved in using cryogenic cooling is higher than conventional machining.
However, enhancement in the product quality and tool-life along with significant
sustainability benefits makes this technique more profitable.
The second technique involves cryogenic treatment of tool using a specific cycle
of treatment. The cycle temperatures vary significantly from −110°C to −196°C.
The metallurgy of the tool material along with mechanical and thermal properties
are generally improved by cryogenic treatment of the tool. This results in enhance-
ment of tool-life and better surface quality in machining. However, for a particular
tool and workpiece combination, the best cryogenic treatment cycle needs to be
established. Very little studies have been done in machining of Nickel alloys using
treated tungsten carbide tools.
The third technique actually is a combination of simultaneous use of cryogenic
cooling and workpiece heating. It tries to use benefits of workpiece softening
by heating and cryogenic cooling at the chip tool interface. Therefore, maxi-
mum improvement in machining is reported by using this technique. However, this
method needs an additional source like plasma or laser for preheating the workpiece.
From the various works reported, it can be concluded that use of cryogenic
techniques results in a definite improvement in machining. However, one cannot
decide about the amount of cryogen for cooling, the cryogenic treatment cycle to
be used and the appropriate parameters required for machining of Nickel alloys.
Therefore, there is a definite scope to investigate the above aspects. Also, using
modeling techniques in such investigations would be beneficial for reducing the
costly and time consuming experimentation. Cryogenic techniques can provide a
meaningful solution to the rising need of sustainable machining of difficult to cut
materials like Nickel alloys.
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Machining Science and Technology

ISSN: 1091-0344 (Print) 1532-2483 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lmst20

How cryogenic techniques help in machining of

Yogesh Vasantrao Deshpande, Atul B. Andhare & Pramod M. Padole

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10910344.2017.1382512

Published online: 08 Mar 2018.

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How cryogenic techniques help in machining of nickel

CONTACT Atul B. Andhare abandhare@mec.vnit.ac.in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Visvesvaraya

Table . Classiﬁcation of Nickel alloys (Brietzig, ; Bassford, ).

D-  r Consists of limited age hardened alloys in .

Figure . Superalloy consumption (Ezugwu et al., ; Ezugwu, , ).

Figure . Microstructure of the Nickel alloy (Thakur et al., , ).

Tool wear in machining of nickel alloys

Role of coolant in machining

as they retain their properties at elevated temperature. Davoodi and Tazehkandi

Use of cryogenic techniques in the machining of nickel alloys

Cryogenic cooling methods in machining

Effect of cryogen on friction and lubrication in machining

Figure . Eﬀect of cryogenic cooling on friction coeﬃcient (Courbon et al. ).

Effect of cryogenic cooling on machinability

Effect on surface quality characteristics of Nickel alloys

Effect on cutting temperature and tool wear

revealed that the use of LN2 in machining is an appropriate method to disperse

of cryogenically cooled cutting insert in machining of Inconel 718. Cryogenic cool-

Cryogenic bath treatment

Figure . Schematic of cryogenic treatment system (Gill et al. a).

Figure . Composition of WC tool material (Gill et al. a).

Figure . Cryogenic treatment cycles for WC tools (Gill et al. a).

Effect of cryogenic treatment on tools properties

Eﬀect on microstructural behavior

Eﬀect on thermal conductivity

Untreated . × − . × − . .

Figure . Rockwell hardness vs cryogenic treatments (Gill et al. a).

Effect of cryogenic treatment on the machinability

Lauwers (2011) has defined Hybrid Manufacturing processes as simultaneous and

Figure . Hybrid machining of Inconel  (Wang et al. ).

Modeling in the use of cryogenic techniques for machining

In machining operations, modeling confirms the relationship of input and

in terms of overall production cost. Conventional machining is more costly than

Discussion, findings and future direction

Cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen spray at the tool chip interface

The effects of cryogenic machining in machining of Nickel alloys are summarized

Table . Machining of Inconel without Cryogenic Media.

Table . Machining of Inconel with Cryogenic Cooling.

Cryogenic treatment of tool

() ISO P- middle of machining.

Mechanical Engineers, V004T006A056–V004T006A056, Buffalo, New York, USA, 17–20

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