BASIC ENGLISH SKILLS STT04209

Reading exercise Three

REGISTER – APPROPRIACY OF USE

In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social
setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting contrary to an informal setting, an English
speaker may be more likely to use features of prescribed grammar—such as pronouncing words ending
in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. "walking", not "walkin'"), choosing more
formal words (e.g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc.), and refraining from using words considered
nonstandard, such as ain't.

There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use that is determined by differing
situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use language and vocabulary reserve for a boyfriend or
girlfriend when speaking in the classroom. Thus the appropriate language register depends upon the audience
(who), the topic (what), purpose (why) and location (where).

Linguistic varieties that are linked ... to occupations, professions or topics have been termed registers. The
register of law, for example, is different from the register of medicine, which in turn is different from the
language of engineering---and so on. Registers are usually characterized solely by vocabulary differences;
either by the use of particular words, or by the use of words in a particular sense.

One of the most analyzed areas where the use of language is determined by the situation is the formality scale.
Especially in language teaching, the term "register" often forms shorthand for formal/informal style, although
this is an aging definition. Linguistics textbooks may use the term "tenor" instead (Halliday 1978), but
increasingly prefer the term "style" – "we characterise styles as varieties of language viewed from the point of
view of formality" (Trudgill, 1992) – while defining "registers" more narrowly as specialist language use related
to a particular activity, such as academic jargon. There is very little agreement as to how the spectrum of
formality should be divided.

In one prominent model, Martin Joos (1961) describes five styles in spoken English:

Static Register

This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is ―frozen‖ in time and content. e.g. the Pledge
of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble to the US Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic
reference, laws . Frozen: Also referred to as static register. Printed unchanging language, such as Biblical
quotations, often contains archaisms. Examples are the Pledge of Allegiance of the United States of America
and other "static" vocalizations that are recited in a ritualistic monotone. The wording is exactly the same every
time it is spoken.

Formal register: One-way participation; no interruption; technical vocabulary or exact definitions are
important; includes presentations or introductions between strangers. This language is used in formal settings
and is one-way in nature. This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually
impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and
questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements. "Would everyone please proceed
upstairs at once?"
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Consultative register: Two-way participation; background information is provided – prior knowledge is not
assumed. "Back-channel behavior" such as "uh huh", "I see", etc. is common. Interruptions are allowed.
Examples include teacher/student, doctor/patient, expert/apprentice, etc. This is a standard form of
communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure of communications. It is formal and societal
expectations accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when strangers meet,
communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge,
teacher & student, counselor & client,

"Would you all please go upstairs right away?"

Casual register: In-group friends and acquaintances; no background information provided; ellipsis and slang
common; interruptions common. This is common among friends in a social setting. This is informal language
used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is ―group‖ language. One must
be member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to
friends.

"Come on upstairs now."

Intimate register: Non-public; intonation more important than wording or grammar; private vocabulary. Also
includes non-verbal messages. This is most common among family members and close friends. This
communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people. e.g. husband & wife,
boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children.

 "Come up nuh/ Unu naa go up?/ Unu naa forward?"

The language register determines the vocabulary, structure, and some grammar in your writing.
Summary of the Registers

Register Definition Explanation

Wedding vows, Standard Prayers, National
Frozen/Static Language that never or rarely changes
Anthem, Oaths
Speeches, school lessons, academic
Formal Standard English
presentations
News casting, employee to employer,
Consultative Less formal standard English
dialogue between colleagues/strangers
Casual Language between friends and aquaintances Loose sentence structure, vernacular speech
Language between lovers or other close family Pet names, inside jokes, dry humor,
Intimate
and friends vulgarity

The three most common language registers in writing are:

 Formal  Informal  Neutral

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We use different language registers for different types of writing, just as we speak differently to different
people. You would not speak to the President of the United States the same way you would talk to your
brothers.

To your brother: What's up? It's awesome that you came to visit!
To the President: Good morning, Mr. President. We appreciate your visit.
The formal register is more appropriate for professional writing and letters to a boss or a stranger.

The informal register (also called casual or intimate) is conversational and appropriate when writing to friends
and people you know very well.

The neutral register is non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is most appropriate for technical writings.

Formal Language Register

A formal register is neither colloquial nor personal and is the register that is mostly used in academic writing. It
is a register where strong opinions can be expressed objectively, it does not break any of the rules of written
grammar and often has a set of rules of what not to do when using this register
Formal writing is probably the most difficult type of writing. It is impersonal, meaning it is not written for a
specific person and is written without emotion.
Some kinds of writing are always written in formal English.

Formal writing includes:

 Business Letters  Reports  Professional emails
 Letters of complaint  Official speeches
 Some essays  Announcements
There are many rules for writing in formal writing. We will discuss some of the most common rules here. When
in doubt, check the rules in an APA style guide.

Rules of the formal language register:

1. Do not use contractions

Contractions are not usually used in formal writing, even though they are very common in spoken English.
In formal writing, you should spell out contractions.

Examples:
In formal writing, you should use:
cannot instead of can’t will not instead of won’t is not instead of isn’t
have not instead of haven’t could not instead of couldn’t
These are just a few examples of contractions. See more contractions by following the contraction link above.

Contractions CAN be used if you are quoting someone’s exact words in your writing.
Example:
―Two-thirds of my eighth grade students can’t read at grade level,‖ the professor stated.
Keep in mind that an apostrophe does not always make a contraction.

Apostrophes are also added to nouns to show ownership. These are used in all language registers, including
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formal.
Examples:
children’s classroom professor’s report elephant’s trunk
2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred
Examples:
nineteen seventy-eight
twenty-two six
3. Write in third person point of view
In formal writing, we usually do not use first person or second person unless it is a quote.
Avoid using:
I We
You Us
Examples: The bone was eaten by the dog.
You can purchase a car for under $10,000. The research was completed by the students in
One can purchase a car for under $10,000. 2009.
OR Active sentences:
A car can be purchased for under $10,000. The dog ate the bone.
You will probably see an elephant on an African The students completed the research in 2009.
safari. In 2009, the students completed the research.
One may see elephants on an African safari. For example, in a rule above I wrote, ―Apostrophes
are also added to nouns to show ownership.‖
OR I wrote this sentence in a passive voice.
To make it active, I could write:
Elephants are a common sight on African safaris. ―Additionally, add an apostrophe to a noun to show
We decided to invest in the company. ownership.‖
The group decided to invest in the company. OR
4. Avoid using too much passive voice ―Use apostrophes with nouns to show ownership.‖
In formal writing it is better to use an active voice.

Passive sentences:
5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés
Slang is common in informal writing and spoken English. Slang is particular to a certain region or area.

Examples of slang:
awesome/cool check it out
okay/ok in a nutshell
A cliché is a phrase that is overused (said too often).

Common clichés:
too much of a good thing Time is money. Beauty is only skin deep.
moment of truth Don’t push your luck.
6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms
If you use an acronym or abbreviation, write it out the first time
When using acronyms, write the entire name out the first time it appears, followed by the acronym. From then
on, you can use the acronym by itself.
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Examples:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)
For abbreviations, write the complete word the first time, then use the abbreviation.

Examples:
influenza => flu
United States of America => U.S.A or USA
tablespoon => tbsp.
Kansas => KS
Do not use slang abbreviations or symbols that you would use in friendly emails and texts.
Examples:
LOL (laugh out loud) & w/ (with)
ttyl (talk to you later) b/c (because)
 w/o (without)

7. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also
Here are some good transition words and phrases to use in formal writing:
Nevertheless However As a result of
Additionally In addition Although
8. Always write in complete sentences.
9. Write longer, more complex sentences.

Informal Language Register

Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. We use informal writing when we are
writing to someone we know very well.

Some kinds of writing can be written in an informal style.

Informal writing includes:
Personal e-mails Short notes Most blogs
Phone texts Friendly letters Diaries and journals

There are no major rules to informal writing.

With informal writing, you can include things such as:
Slang and clichés First person, second person, and third person
Figurative language Paragraphs or no paragraphs
Symbols and abbreviations Jokes
Acronyms Personal opinions
Incomplete sentences Extra punctuation (Hi Bob!!!!!!!)
Short sentences Passive and active voice

Neutral Language Register

We use the neutral language register with non-emotional topics and information.
Neutral writing is not necessarily formal or informal. It is not usually positive or negative. A neutral register is
used to deliver facts.
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Some writings are written in a neutral register. This means they are not specifically formal or informal.

PARAGRAPHS AND COMPOSITIONS

Paragraphs

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic.

Importance of good paragraphs

Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision
stages.

Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic
ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve
your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a
new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a
new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also
have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single
points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is
the route to go.

Elements of a paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic
Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to
your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.

Unity

The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of
discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence

Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence
in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.
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Logical bridges

 The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence

 Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges

 Key words can be repeated in several sentences

 Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
 Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
 Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

Exercise: list common transition words

 whenever Exemplification or
Common transition words  meanwhile Illustration
 sometimes
Addition  in the meantime  to illustrate
 during  to demonstrate
 furthermore  afterwards  specifically
 moreover  now, until now  for instance
 too  next  as an illustration
 also  following  e.g., (for example)
 in the second place  once  for example
 again  then
 in addition  at length
 even more Comparison
 simultaneously
 next  so far
 further  in the same way
 this time
 last, lastly  by the same token
 subsequently
 finally  similarly
 besides  in like manner
Place
 and, or, nor  likewise
 first  in similar fashion
 here
 second, secondly, etc.  there Contrast
 nearby
Time  beyond
 yet
 wherever
 while  and yet
 opposite to
 immediately  nevertheless
 adjacent to
 never  nonetheless
 neighboring on
 after  after all
 above, below
 later, earlier  but
 always  however
 when  though
 soon  otherwise
 on the contrary
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 in contrast Qualification  to sum up
 notwithstanding  in short
 on the other hand  almost  in summary
 at the same time  nearly
 probably Conclusion
Clarification  never
 always  in conclusion
 that is to say  frequently  to conclude
 in other words  perhaps  finally
 to explain  maybe
 i.e., (that is)  although Demonstratives acting as
 to clarify transitions
 to rephrase it Intensification
 to put it another way  this
 indeed  those
Cause  to repeat  these
 by all means  that
 because  of course
 since  doubtedly Pronouns serving as links to
 on account of  certainly clearly refer to a specific word
 for that reason  without doubt
or phrase
 yes, no
Effect  undoubtedly
 in fact  his
 surely  its
 therefore
 in fact  theirs
 consequently
 it
 accordingly
 their
 thus Concession
 your
 hence
 her
 as a result  to be sure
 they
 granted
 our
Purpose  of course, it is true

 in order that Summary

 so that
 to that end, to this end  to summarize
 for this purpose  in sum
 in brief

A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal
with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can
occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy
way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the
beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only
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way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily
summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this
varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should be wary of
paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed
if it is that short.

Some methods to make sure your paragraphs are (adequately) well-developed:

 Use examples and illustrations

 Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
 Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
 Use an anecdote or story
 Define terms in the paragraph
 Compare and contrast
 Evaluate causes and reasons
 Examine effects and consequences
 Analyze the topic
 Describe the topic
 Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

STAGES IN PARAGRAPH WRITING PRACTICE

CHOOSE A TOPIC RELATING TO STATISTICS OR EASTC.

A. PRE-WRITING
1. Write down information and ideas relating to that topic. Once you have a clearer idea of what you
want to address in your paragraph, you can start organizing your thoughts by writing down your ideas on
a notepad or word document. There's no need to write out full sentences just yet, just jot down some key
words and phrases. Once you see everything on paper, you may get a clearer idea of which points are
essential to include in your paragraph, and which points are superfluous.

 At this point, you may realize that there's a gap in your knowledge and that it will be necessary to look
up some facts and figures to support your argument.
 It's a good idea to do this research now, so you will have all the relevant information easily at hand when
it comes to the writing stage.

2. Decide what the main topic of the paragraph is going to be. Before you begin writing your
paragraph, you must have a clear idea of what the paragraph is going to be about. This is because a
paragraph is essentially a collection of sentences that all relate to one central topic.Without a definite
idea of what the main topic is, your paragraph will lack focus and unity. In order to pin down the exact
topic of your paragraph, you should ask yourself a number of questions:

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 What is the prompt I have been given? If you are writing a paragraph as a response or answer to a
particular prompt, such as "You have decided to donate money to charity. Which charity do you choose
and why?" or "Describe your favorite day of the week," you will need to think carefully about that
prompt and make sure you are directly addressing it, rather than going off topic.
 What are the main ideas or issues that I need to address? Think about the topic you are being asked
or have decided to write about and consider what the most relevant ideas or issues relating to that topic
are. As paragraphs are usually relatively short, it is important that you try to hit on all of the main ideas,
without going off topic.
 Who am I writing for? Think about who the intended readership of this paragraph or paper is going to
be. What is their prior knowledge? Are they familiar with the topic at hand, or will it require a number
of explanatory sentences?
 If your paragraphs are part of a larger essay, writing an essay outline can help you define the major ideas
or goals of each paragraph.

3. Figure out how you want to structure your paragraph. Now that all of your thoughts, ideas, facts and
figures are laid out clearly in front of you, you can start to think about how you want to structure your
paragraph. Consider each of the points you wish to address and try to arrange them in a logical order -
this will make your paragraph more coherent and easier to read.

 This new order may be chronological, may put the most important information first, or may just make
the paragraph easier and more interesting to read - it all depends on the topic and style of the paragraph
you wish to write.
 Once you have decided where you want everything to go, you can rewrite your points according to this
new structure - this will help to make the writing process a lot faster and more straightforward.

B. WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT

1. Write the topic sentence. The first sentence of your paragraph needs to be the topic sentence. A
topic sentence is an introductory line that addresses what the main idea or thesis of the paragraph
is going to be. It should contain the most important and relevant point you wish to make
regarding your topic, thus summarizing the paragraph as a whole.

 Every other sentence you write should support the topic sentence and provide further detail and
discussion of the issues or ideas it raises. If any sentence you write cannot be directly related to the topic
sentence, it should not be included in this particular paragraph.
 More experienced writers can include their topic sentence at any point in the paragraph; it doesn't
necessarily need to be the first line. However, writers who are new or less comfortable with paragraph
writing should stick with having the topic sentence first, as it will help to guide you throughout the rest
of the paragraph.
 Your topic sentence should not be too broad or too narrow. If your topic sentence is too broad you will
not be able to discuss its ideas adequately in your paragraph. If it’s too narrow, you won’t have enough
to discuss.

2. Fill in the supporting details. Once you have written and are happy with your topic sentence,
you can start to fill in the rest of your paragraph. This is where the detailed, well-structured notes
you wrote earlier will come in handy. Make sure that your paragraph is coherent, which means
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that it is easy to read and understand, that each sentence connects with the next and that
everything flows nicely as a whole. To achieve this, try to write clear, simple sentences that
express exactly what you want to say.

 Link each sentence with transition words which form a bridge between one sentence and the next.
Transition words can help you compare and contrast, show sequence, show cause and effect, highlight
important ideas, and progress smoothly from one idea to the next. Such transition words include
"furthermore", "in fact" and "in addition to". You can also use chronological transitions, such as
"firstly", "secondly" and "thirdly"
 The supporting sentences are the meat of your paragraph, so you should fill them with as much evidence
to support your topic sentence as possible. Depending on the topic, you can use facts, figures, statistics
and examples or you can use stories, anecdotes and quotes. Anything goes, as long as it is relevant.
 In terms of length, three to five sentences will usually be enough to cover your main points and
adequately support your topic sentence, but this will vary greatly depending on the topic and the length
of the paper you are writing. There is no set length for a paragraph. It should be as long as it needs to be
to adequately cover the main idea.

3. Write a concluding sentence. The concluding sentence of your paragraph should tie everything
together. A good concluding sentence will reinforce the idea outlined in your topic sentence, but
now it has all the weight of the evidence or arguments contained in your supporting sentences
behind it. After reading the concluding sentence, the reader should have no doubt as to the
accuracy or relevance of the paragraph as a whole.

 Don’t just reword the topic sentence. Your concluding sentence should acknowledge the discussion that
has come before it and remind your reader of the relevance of this discussion.[6]
 For example, in a paragraph dealing with the topic "Why is Canada a great place to live?" The
concluding sentence might look something like "From all the evidence provided above, such as Canada's
fantastic health care provisions, its top-notch education system and its clean, safe cities, we can conclude
that Canada is indeed a great place to live."
4.
Know when to move on to a new paragraph. Sometimes it can be difficult to tell where one
paragraph should end and another begin. Luckily, there are a number of guidelines you can
follow which can make the decision to move on to a new paragraph an obvious one. The most
basic guideline to follow is that every time you start to discuss a new idea, you should move on
to a new paragraph. Paragraphs should never contain more than one central idea. If a given idea
has multiple points or facets, then each individual aspect of the idea should be given its own
paragraph.

You should start a new paragraph when:

 When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an
extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own
paragraph.
 To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different
points in an argument, or any other difference.
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 When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short "break" for your
readers—adding these in will help your writing be more readable. You would create a break if the
paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
 When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and
concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have
multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
 If you’re writing fiction, you need to start a new paragraph in dialogue to show a new speaker.

C. Reviewing Your Paragraph

1. Check your paragraph for spelling and grammar. Once you have finished writing, it is essential that
you re-read your paragraph two or three times to check it for misspelled words and poor grammar.
Spelling mistakes and bad grammar can significantly impact the perceived quality of your paragraph,
even if the ideas and arguments it contains are of a high quality. It is very easy to overlook small
mistakes when writing, so don't skip this step, even if you're in a rush.
o Ensure that each sentence has a subject and that all proper nouns are capitalized. Also make sure
that all of the subjects and verbs agree with each other and that you use the same tense across the
entire paragraph.
o Use a dictionary to double-check the spelling of words that you are unsure about, don't just
assume that they are correct. You can also use a thesaurus to find synonyms for words, if you
feel like you are using the same term too much. Just remember to look up whatever word you
choose from the thesaurus in the dictionary to make sure you know the precise meaning of it.
Thesauruses group words very loosely, and they don’t all mean the same thing. For example, the
thesaurus gives ―chirpy,‖ ―ecstatic,‖ and ―merry‖ as synonyms for ―happy,‖ but each of those
words has its own connotation, or particular shade of meaning, that can change the tone and even
meaning of your sentence if you aren’t careful.
o Check your paragraph for the proper use of punctuation, making sure that you use marks such as
commas, colons, semicolons and ellipses in the correct context.
o
2. Check your paragraph for coherency and style. Not only should the technical aspects of your writing
be spot on, but you should also try to achieve clarity in your writing, as well as stylistic flow. You can
do this by varying the length and format of your sentences and by using transitional words and a varied
vocabulary.
o The point of view of your writing should remain consistent throughout the paragraph, and
indeed, the entire paper. For example, if you are writing in the first person (e.g., "I believe
that...") you should not switch to a passive voice ("it is believed that") halfway through.
o However, you should also try to avoid beginning every sentence with "I think..." or "I contend
that..." Try to vary the format of your sentences, as this will make the paragraph more interesting
for the reader and help it to flow more naturally.
o For beginner writers, it is better to stick to short, to-the-point sentences which clearly express
your point. Long, rambling sentences can very quickly become incoherent or fall victim to
grammatical errors, so try to avoid them until you gain more experience as a writer.

A Note on Formality: In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs (and multi-
paragraph essays, which will be topic of another lesson) are different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter
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writing) in that certain kinds of expressions are not allowed. For example, in formal essays, you should not use
contractions such as don't or aren't. Instead, you should write out the words in full, for example, do not and are
not.

3. Decide if your paragraph is complete. Once you have re-read the paragraph and fixed any
grammatical or stylistic errors, you should have one more glance over it to determine whether it is
complete. Try to look at the paragraph objectively and decide whether it sufficiently supports and
develops your topic sentence, or whether it needs a few more details or additional evidence to back up
your claims.
o If you feel that the main claim of your topic sentence is sufficiently supported and well-
developed by the contents of the rest of your paragraph, then your paragraph is probably
complete. However, if any important aspect of the topic remains unexplored or unexplained or if
the paragraph is shorter than three sentences, it probably needs a little more work.
o On the other hand, you may decide that your paragraph is too long and contains superfluous or
tangential content. If this is the case, you should edit the paragraph so it contains only the most
relevant information.
o If you feel that all of the content is necessary to your point, but the paragraph is still too long,
you should think about breaking it up into several smaller, more specific paragraphs.

C: WRITING THE FINAL DRAFT.

Transitions and signposts

Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are internal aids to assist
readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has covered and
where the article will be going.

Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be
used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.

1. My hometown is famous because it is located by Pangani

River, which is very wide and deep, and because it is built
near the Tanga-Arusha Railway sub-station
2. There are two reasons why some people like to buy cars
with automatic transmission and two reasons why others
like cars with manual transmission.
3. Clouds are white.

The problem with sentence #1 is that it contains too many details. Topic sentences are general, and details
should appear later in the paragraph. A better topic sentence would be like the one mentioned above, My
hometown is famous for several amazing geographical features.

Sentence #2 is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions two topics, not just one. Paragraphs are
usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences should also be about only one main thing.

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The problem with sentence #3 is that it is too general. It is also very boring! Would you like to read a paragraph
with this topic sentence? Most people would not.

We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the following ways to make it better:

 There are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic transmission.

OR (in a different paragraph)

 There are two reasons why some people like cars with manual transmission.
 The shapes of clouds are determined by various factors.

Supporting Sentences

Consider again the above-mentioned, short paragraph:

My hometown, Pangani, is famous for several amazing features. First, it is noted for the
Pangani River, which is very wide and deep. Additionally, it is located along the Tanga-
Arusha railway substation.

When a reader reads a topic sentence, such as My hometown, Pangani, is famous for several amazing features,a
question should usually appear in the reader's mind. In this case, the question should be like, "What are the
features that make Pangani famous?" The reader should then expect that the rest of the paragraph will give an
answer to this question.

Now look at the sentences after the topic sentence. We can see that the second sentence in the paragraph, First,
it is noted for the Pangani River, which is very wide and deep, indeed gives an answer to this question. That is,
the second sentence gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is a famous town. Similarly, we can see
that the third sentence also gives some explanation for the fact that Pangani is famous by giving another
example of an "amazing feature," in this case, Arusha-Tanga railway substation.

The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called "supporting" because they
"support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have
more than two supporting ideas. The paragraph above is actually a very short paragraph. At minimum, you
should have at least five to seven sentences in your paragraph.

The Concluding Sentence

In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph which summarizes the
information that has been presented. This is the concluding sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence
as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.

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You can understand concluding sentences with this example. Consider a hamburger that you can buy at a fast-
food restaurant.* A hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, and other elements in the
middle of the hamburger, and a bottom bun. Note how the top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top
bun, in a way, is like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding sentence. Both buns "hold" the
meat, onions, and so on. Similarly, the topic sentence and concluding sentence "hold" the supporting sentences
in the paragraph. Let's see how a concluding sentence (in bold font) might look in our sample paragraph about
Wheaton:

My hometown, Pangani, is famous for several amazing features. First, it is

noted for the Pangani River, which is very wide and deep. Additionally, it is
located along the Tanga-Arusha railway substation.Another amazing feature is
the Amboni caves which attract a lot of tourists to my hometown. These three
landmarks make Pangani a famous place.

Notice how the concluding sentence, these three landmarks are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous
place, summarizes the information in the paragraph. Notice also how the concluding sentence is similar to, but
not exactly the same as, the topic sentence.

Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very short. However,
if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence.

DETAILS IN PARAGRAPHS

The short paragraph in this lesson is a fairly complete paragraph, but it lacks details. Whenever possible, you
should include enough details in your paragraphs to help your reader understand exactly what you are writing
about. In the paragraph about Pangani, three landmarks are mentioned, but we do not know very much about
them. For example, we could add a sentence or two about Pangani river concerning HOW wide and deep it is,
and the consequences of these. Consider this revision:

My hometown, Pangani, is famous for several amazing features. First, it is noted

for the Pangani River, which is very wide and deep. The almost 1 km width and
50m depth of the Pangani makes it a habitat for Crocodiles and hippos which can
be viewed lazing along its banks. Additionally, it is located along the Tanga-
Arusha railway substation. This is where all the Sisal from Pangani is loaded onto
carriages for inland carriage. Another amazing feature is the Amboni caves which
attract a lot of tourists to my hometown. Beautiful cave paintings and the sheer
size of these caves have fuelled the curiosity of many visitors and created many
return visits. These three landmarks are truly amazing and make Pangani a famous
place.

Why are details important? Consider the example of the hamburger, mentioned above.* If the hamburger
buns are the topic and concluding sentences, then the meat, the cheese, the lettuce, and so on are the supporting
details. Without the food between the hamburger buns, your hamburger would not be very delicious!
Similarly, without supporting details, your paragraph would not be very interesting.

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A Note on Formality. In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs (and multi-
paragraph essays, which will be topic of another lesson) are different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter
writing) in that certain kinds of expressions are not allowed. For example, in formal essays, you should not use
contractions such as don't or aren't. Instead, you should write out the words in full, for example, do not and are
not. Also, in formal essays you should avoid the first and second person. That is, do not use the pronouns I or
you. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in formal essays in some major fields, but in general you
should not use these unless you are certain that they are customary in your field and/or your lecturers allows
them. It is safer simply to use the third person.

The metaphor of the hamburger is adapted from Reid, J.M. (1994). The Process of Paragraph Writing
(2nd Ed.)

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COMPOSITIONS

The word 'composition' may mean different things in different circumstances. It could be a personal narrative, a
short work of fiction or prose, an essay, a dramatic work or a poem. Each of these works has its own set of
rules. Know your purpose: What type of composition is this going to be? Make sure you understand the
expectations on what you are to write. Ask your instructor if you have questions.

ESSAYS
Essays are written compositions about anything, usually used in academic settings to test the language and
comprehension skills of students. In essay writing, it is easier to write about what you believe in. Practically
every essay topic can be approached from multiple perspectives. When writing essays, choose a topic and take a
stance; your essay must seek to convince readers of the legitimacy of your stance. Choose something that is
important to you.

Essay structure

There are three main types of paragraphs in an academic essay:

The introductory paragraph(s) provides the reader with any necessary background information before leading
into a clear statement of the writer's point of view. The point of view, or thesis statement, is a brief but very
specific statement of the position the writer will take in the essay. The introductory paragraph may also present
an overall plan of the way the essay's argument will be developed, as well as any limits the writer will place on
the topic.

The body paragraphs all flow logically from the introductory paragraph. They expand on the thesis statement
and each in turn is clearly focused on a single issue with plenty of supporting detail or evidence from concrete
and relevant examples, or from the reading which the writer uses to support the point of view. Arguments by
other writers against the point of view taken by the essay writer should also be presented (and argued against) in
the body paragraphs. The body paragraphs carefully build up the writer's point of view in detail.

The concluding paragraph(s) summarizes the points made, repeats the overall point of view, and explains why
the writer took the position held. It may also indicate wider issues not covered in the essay but of interest and
relevant to the point of view.

The concluding and introductory paragraphs are usually best written last when the writer is clear about
the point of view and the structure of the entire essay.

The process
1. Plan and organize the essay i. e. decide how many paragraphs, focus or theme, voice, etc.
2. Write your introduction: For every essay you will need to introduce either your topic or position

1. Develop the 'body' of your work:

Brainstorm a list of 10 points you want to make about your topic. Jot down ten details or ideas that will support
the point you are making. These may be facts, examples, data, statistics, quotes from a source, or just common
sense ideas.

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Group the 10 points into three groups. Organize your list of details into three categories based upon similarity.
Like the bicycle, these will be the supporting 'spokes' of your topic.

Label the three groups. The labels will ultimately become the topic sentences for each body paragraph of your
essay. The three or four details in each group will be the supporting sentences. Using this outline, you will have
the meat of your essay.

Write your three paragraphs: Write the main points and details into complete sentences. Remember to keep
each organized and follow your outline. This will form the body of your essay. If you are required to make your
essay 200 words long, you should have more than enough already. If it needs to be longer, make each of the
three topics into two paragraphs.

2. Write your conclusion: This simply wraps up what you have said in your composition. It can basically
restate what you said in your introduction .If your composition is longer, you can sum up your main points.
Try to phrase them a little differently so it will not sound repetitive.

3. Edit/ Reread your work. Look for spelling, grammar, and content problems. Every good piece of writing
goes through two or more revisions.

4. Rewrite your final copy.

This technique can be summarized by the acronym: P-O-W-E-R: This is one of the best writing techniques
whereby you P-plan, O-organize, W-write then finish with E-edit and R-revise.

References
Montano-Harmon, M. R. ―Developing English for Academic Purposes‖ California State University, Fullerton
West C., 2002, Recycling Advanced English, Jersey, Georgian press

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