Notes for Year 10 Science Mid-Course Exam 2004

COMMUNICATION
 In a communication system, there is usually a:
 Sender: The person with a message or data that needs to be sent to another person
 Encoder: The message is converted into a particular format which allows it to pass through the medium
 Medium: The material or substance that the message is travelling through to reach the receiver
 Decoder: The message is converted back into a format that is understood by the receiver
 Receiver: The person receives the message or data that was sent by the sender
 A wave can be described as a disturbance through a medium from one location to another
 Transverse waves allow particles in the medium to move in a perpendicular direction to the wave
 Examples of transverse waves are light waves and water waves
 Longitudinal/Compression waves allow particles in medium to move in a parallel direction to the wave
 Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves and earthquakes
 Electromagnetic waves are those that are capable of transmitting energy through a vacuum. An
example is light waves
 Mechanical waves are those that are not capable of transmitting energy through a vacuum and require a
medium to travel through. An example is sound waves
 Wavelength is the distance of one oscillation or from one point of a wave to the next identical point on
the wave
 Frequency is the number of complete vibrations or waves passing in a particular point in one second
 Amplitude is the distance from the trough or crest of a wave to the equilibrium or rest position, or
maximum distance that each particle moves from its usual resting position
 Speed [m/s] = Frequency [Hz] x Wavelength [m] (V = f x λ)
 Period of a wave is the amount of seconds per wavelength
 The angle of incidence is the angle between the light ray and the normal before refraction/reflection
 Light is bent through different media because the medium can have a different density to other media
 Lower density media speed up light rays and higher density media slow down light rays
 On a concave surface, light is bent inwards towards a focal point
 On a convex surface, light is bent outwards and spread out
 Refraction of waves involve a change of medium/speed and bend the path of the waves
 Reflection of waves “bounce” off a medium and travel in the opposite direction of the incidence and
on the other side of the normal
 Diffraction is a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in
their path
 If the ray falls exactly on normal onto a new medium, it would pass into the medium in a straight line
 Higher density media have rays bending towards the normal
 Lower density media have rays bending away from the normal
 Optical fibres are used as carriers of laser light, which move along inside them because of internal
reflection
 Fibre optic cables are made of glass that is extremely pure and clear
 Laser lights travel through these cables and are internally reflected until it emerges to the end
 Fibre optic cables are increasingly useful in modern communication systems opposed to copper wires
 They are not affected by electricity and are difficult to tap illegally
 Components of the electromagnetic spectrum are radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays
 In visible light, the colours of its spectrum are red(lowest frequency), orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet
 Current is the measure of the flow of electrons passing a circuit in one direction every second
 Voltage is the measure of potential difference or amount of energy passing in a circuit
 Resistance is the measure of how a load resists or voltage drop in a circuit
 Voltage [V] = Current [A] x Resistance [Ω] (V = IR) / Power[W] = Current [A] x Voltage [V] (P = IV)
 Series circuits provide one path for current to flow
 Parallel circuits provide more than one path for current flow

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MATERIAL SCIENCE
 Some factors than can guide the choice of materials for a particular purpose are:
Availability
Chemical Properties
Physical Properties
Safety
Cost
Environmental factors
 Pure substances are types of matter that cannot be separated by physical means. They have fixed
chemical and physical properties and definite composition. They consist of elements & compounds
 Elements are consisted of only one type of atom and cannot be decomposed
 Compounds are consisted of more than one type of atom and can be decomposed
 Molecules are substances made up of two or more atoms that have been combined or linked by
chemical bonds. They can be of one type of atom or different types
 Mixtures are types of matter that can be separated by physical means. They have no fixed properties
and no definite compositions and are not represented by chemical formulas
 Group numbers on the periodic table indicate how many electrons on the valence shell
 Period numbers on the periodic table indicate the number of electron shells in the atom
 The rule 2n² states the maximum number of electrons in a certain electron shell where ‘n’ is referred to
as the level of energy or the number of the electron shell, this does not apply to the outer shell of atoms
 The octet rule states the valence shell can only support a maximum of 8 electrons
 Group I is referred to as “Alkali Metals” and Group II is referred to as “Alkaline Earth Metals” and
Group VII is referred to as “Halogens” and Group VIII us referred to as “Noble or Inert Gases”
 Acid + Base  Salt + Water
 Acid + Active Metal  Salt + Hydrogen Gas
 Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
 Active Metal + Water  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen Gas
 Anions are negatively charged ions
 Cations are positively charged ions

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 Notes for Year 10 Science Final Exam 2004
MATERIAL SCIENCE
 Factors that affect the rate of reaction:
- Concentration: The more reactants, the faster the reaction
- Surface Area: If surface area increases the reactants mix more easily
- Temperature: Heating a substance causes particles to collide more rapidly and thus react faster
- Mixing: This allows more kinetic energy in particles causing them to collide more rapidly. Also, any
friction caused by mixing produces heat and therefore speeds up reactions
- Catalyst: Contains enzymes that help speed up the reaction although still present after reaction
 Radioisotopes are atoms of the same element that differ on neutrons
 In medicine, commonly used for obtaining internal information of a patient
 In industry, commonly used for improving productivity and analysing obtained information
 Radioactivity is the result of an unstable nucleus of an atom or atoms attempting to become stable due
to nuclear energy fusing protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.
 As an unstable nucleus decays, it may release alpha, beta particles or gamma rays in order from
weakest to strongest penetrating power
 Alpha particles contain 2 protons and two neutrons, are relatively slow and heavy and can be stopped
with a sheet of paper
 Beta particles have a charge of –1 and the mass of an electron (1/2000 of proton), they are fast and
light and can be stopped by a sheet of Aluminium or plastic
 Gamma rays are not particles and have neither mass nor charge, and can be stopped by a thick sheet of
metal such as lead
 Radioactive decay is not affected by external conditions
 Spectator ions are ions that are soluble and a precipitate is formed by insoluble chemical reactions
 Some solubility rules to remember:
- All nitrates are soluble
- All sodium and potassium compounds are soluble
- All chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble EXCEPT silver, lead, and mercury chlorides
- All sulfates are soluble EXCEPT strontium, silver, calcium, barium, and lead sulfates
- All carbonates are insoluble EXCEPT sodium, potassium, ammonium and lithium carbonates
- All hydroxides are insoluble EXCEPT sodium, potassium, barium, ammonium, lithium, barium,
calcium and in some cases strontium hydroxides
 In a net ionic equation, the spectator ions are excluded
 Acid + Base  Salt + Water (NEUTRALISATION)
 Acid + Active Metal  Salt + Hydrogen Gas (ACID ON ACTIVE METAL REACTION)
 Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide (ACID ON CARBONATE REACTION)
 Active Metal + Water  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen Gas
 Hydrocarbon + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water (COMBUSTION)
 Corrosion is when a metal is ‘eaten’ away by substances such as air and water
 Organic substances are those derived from living organisms (e.g. Hydrocarbons)
 Inorganic substances are those derived from abiotic sources
 Polymer is a synthetic material with very large molecules which consist of many repeating units called
monomers
 Co-polymer is formed from 2 different types of monomers
 Monomers are small molecules which repeat to form a monomer
 Polythene is a polymer of ethene
 Plastic is an easy to mould substance
 Possible steps of extract some metals from their ores
- Crushing, grinding; physical techniques
- Heating/Melting (furnace) or Filtration
- Acidic reactions or chemical separation
- Electrolysis or further chemical reactants
- Distillation/Evaporation

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BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Biotechnology is the application of scientific knowledge and use of biotic resources for industrial,
medical or commercial purposes
 Glossary:
Allele: Different forms of the same gene
Amino Acid: Any of various organic acids that link together to form proteins
Asexual: Non-sexual reproduction
Chromosome: A threadlike strand that holds the DNA and other associated proteins
Diploid: Having a pair of each type of chromosome (in humans: 46)
D.N.A: Deoxyribonucleic acid that carries genetic information
Dominant: Of or relating to or being an allele that produces the same phenotype effect whether inherited
with a homozygous or heterozygous allele
Double Helix: A long thread-like shape of a rope ladder twisted into a spiral pattern
Gamete: Sex cells (also called germ cells)
Gene: A hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that determines characteristics
Genome: Total genetic content contained in a single chromosome
Genotype: The genetic makeup as distinguished from physical appearance of an organism(s)
Haploid: Having the half the number of chromosomes as a somatic cell (in humans: 23)
Heredity: The genetic transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring
Heterozygous: Having different alleles of a particular gene locus
Homologous: Having the same chromosome pairs of particular characteristics
Homozygous: Having the same alleles of a particular gene locus
I.V.F: In-vitro fertilisation in which surrogate mothers hold another couple’s embryo
Karyotype: An image of the chromosomes and its complements in ordered pairs
Locus: The chromosomal position of a gene (in the chromosome)
Mutation: A change of DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of an organism resulting in the
creation of a new characteristic or trait
Phenotype: The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism as determined by both
genetic makeup and environmental influences
Recessive: Of, relating to or designating an allele that does not produce a characteristic affect when present
with a dominant allele
R.N.A: Ribonucleic acid consisting of strand of alternating phosphate with its bases
Selective Breeding: To artificially breed certain types of animals or plants to obtain a frequent or stronger
desired characteristic
Species: A group of similar organism capable of interbreeding
Trait: A distinguishing or genetically determined characteristic or condition
Transgenic: Of, or relating to an organism whose genome has been altered by transfer or insertion of genes
Zygote: Fertilised egg
 The nitrogen base pairs of DNA are Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) and Guanine (G)
 Millions of nucleotides in DNA are arranged in a double helix structure
 Mitosis is cell division for growth and repair
 Meiosis is cell division for reproduction
 For cell division to occur, DNA replication must be done
 The steps of replication are:
1. Separation or ‘unzipping’ of the molecule into 2 separate single strands of DNA by a specific enzyme
called DNA helicase
2. Free nucleotides floating in the nucleus pair to the DNA template by another enzyme called DNA
polymerase
3. The nucleotides connect from new strands, each new half strand attaches itself to a complement of the
old strand and there are 2 identical copies of DNA.
 During mitosis the cell undergoes prophase, metaphase and telophase
 Autosomal means relating to chromosomes that not sex-related
 Males have XY sex-linked chromosomes and females have XX sex-linked chromosomes
 In a punnett square, the male parent is shown on the upper part horizontally and the female parent is
shown on the side vertically

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 In dominance of phenotypes, dominant alleles express the phenotype over any recessive alleles
 In partial dominance or incomplete dominance, the phenotype expressed by the 2 heterozygous alleles
are mixed together, (e.g. red and white alleles make pink for phenotype)
 In co-dominance, the 2 heterozygous alleles’ phenotypes are both present and expressed (e.g. red and
white fur colour together by a white fur and red fur allele)
 In sex-linked chromosomes, the gene can operate as a single allele or phenotype
 In non-disjunction (errors in meiosis) the chromosomes do not separate properly and both go to one
end, resulting in gametes having too many or too few chromosomes
 Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk used pea plants to study each characteristic of inheritance
 Some genetic abnormalities in humans include Down Syndrome (47 chromosomes; extra chromosome
21), Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY sex chromosomes), Turner’s Syndrome (45 chromosomes), ‘Super’
males (XYY sex chromosome) and ‘Super’ females (XXX sex chromosomes)
 In a pedigree affected people are often shaded or labeled differently to unaffected people of a particular
gene. Males are often labeled with squares and females often with circles
 Mutation is a permanent change in DNA sequence of a gene. They can be inherited or acquired by
environmental agents (mutagens) or when mistakes occur as a cell copies DNA prior to cell division
 Some causes of mutation include modification of nucleotide bases, breaking the phosphate backbone
and mutations created during DNA replication
 Four main mechanisms involved in mutation are deletion (removal/loss of genetic material),
addition/duplication (adding extra genetic material), translocation (movement of genetic material from
1 chromosome to another non-homologous chromosome) and inversion (genetic information inverts)
 A transgenic organism is one that is formed by insertion of foreign genetic material into the
reproductive cells of an organism
 Cloning can be done by embryo splitting (e.g. twins) or nuclear transfer (unfertilised egg without
nucleus is electrically bonded with a cell with a nucleus from another similar animal and cell division
starts to form an identical embryo of the animal of the original cell)
 Watson and Crick construct structure of DNA in 1953
 Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins used X-ray diffraction crystallography to conclude that the
DNA molecule is helical
 The phenotype of an organism is determined by both genetic inheritance and environmental agents
 These environmental effects can include temperature, altitude and effects of other organisms
 Ethical issues that arise in biotechnology include morality, human rights and legality, religious beliefs
and personal beliefs
 Genetic fingerprinting is a technique to distinguish between individuals of the same species
 The process used for obtaining DNA for genetic fingerprinting (DNA testing) is by gel electrophoresis
 The DNA is inserted into a gel and run on high voltage to allow DNA to move
 Bands that are obtained in the gel are the lengths that the DNA has reach

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