INSTITUTION FOURAH BAY COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

MODULE TITLE TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

MODULE CODE CENG 416

MODULE LECTURER Ing. A. B. SAVAGE

Phone: +232 76 645937;

Emails : badamasi.savage@usl.edu.sl
savagebadamasi@yahoo.com
CONTACTS
LECTURE HOURS - LAB/PRACTICALS-CREDIT HOURS 3-0-3
Examination will account for 70% of the overall grade whilst
continuous assessment will account for 30%. Question sets at the end
of each lecture must be returned for grading one week after receipt
ASSESSMENT of lectures and will account for 10% of the continuous assessment

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MODULE DESCRIPTION
SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCE/MANUALS/WEBSITES
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grade.
Modes of Transportation, their importance and limitations, the
importance of highway transportation. Elements of Traffic
Engineering: Fundamentals of traffic engineering, field studies and data
analysis. Spot speed studies, Volume studies; Travel Time and
Intersection Delay studies. Highway Capacity and level of Service;
Intersection control and Signalization.
Functional Classification of Highways; Design Elements, Cross
Sectional Elements; Stopping Sight Distance, Decision Sight Distance,
Overtaking, Intermediate and Headlight Sight Distance; Intersection
Sight Distance; Horizontal Alignment Design, Vertical Alignment
Design; Highway Alignment
i. Consulting Services Manual 2006: A comprehensive Guide to
the selection of Consultants - A World Bank publication
ii. Traffic and Highway Engineering By Nicholas J. Garber and
Lester A. Hoel; ISBN 0314601767
iii. Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis 2nd
Edition by Fred L. Mannering and Walter P. Kilareski: ISBN
0471130850
iv. Highway Engineering Geometric Design by Telimoye M.
Oguafa: ISBN 9780232060
v. Highway Capacity Manual ; 2000.
vi. A policy on geometric design of Highways and Arterial
 Streets, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, 1973

LECTURE NUMBER 14 – Horizontal Alignment

LECTURE DURATION (HOURS) 02

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING After completing this lesson, student will be able to:
OUTCOMES  Understand the need for using horizontal curves in geometric design
of highway
 Recall the forces acting on a vehicle negotiating a curve and
appreciate the need concept and need to super - elevate curves for
safe vehicle operation
 Design horizontal curves with adequate stopping sight distance and
sperelevation for safe vehicle operation
 Compute obstruction set back distance from a roadway for a given
design speed and superelevation to provide safe vehicle operation.

1. Introduction

The critical aspect of horizontal alignment is the horizontal curve, with the focus on the design of the directional transition of the roadway in a horizontal
plane. Stated differently, a horizontal curve provides a transition between two straights (or tangent) sections of roadway. A key concern in this directional
transition is the ability of a vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve. A highway engineer must design a horizontal alignment to accommodate a variety of
vehicle cornering capabilities that range from nimble sports cars to ponderous trucks.

2. Vehicle Cornering

Figure 1 illustrates the forces acting on a vehicle during cornering. In this figure, α is the angle of incline, W is the weight of the vehicle (in newtons), Wn
and Wp are the weights normal and parallel to the roadway surface respectively, Ff is the side frictional force (centripetal, in newtons), Fc is the centripetal

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force (lateral acceleration x mass, in newtons), Fcp is the centripetal force acting parallel to the roadway surface, Fcn is the centripetal force acting normal
roadway surface and Rv is the radius defined to the vehicle’s traveled path (in meters). Some basic horizontal curve relationships can be derived by noting
that:

Wp + Ff = Fcp .........................................................................................( 1)
From basic physics this equation can be written, with Ff = fs(Wn+Fcn), as

W sin α + fs(W cos α + sin α) = cos α.........................................(2)

Where fs is the coefficient of side friction (which is different from the coefficient of friction term, f, used in stopping-distance computations), g is the
gravitational constant, and V is the vehicle speed (in meters per second). Dividing both sides of Eq. 2 by W cos α give

tan α + fs = (1- fs tan α)......................................................................(3)

The term tan α indicates the superelevation of the curve; it can be expressed in percent and is denoted e (i.e, e = 100 tan α). In words, the
superelevation is the number of vertical meter rise per 100 meters of horizontal distance (See Fig 1). The term fs tan α in Eq. 3 is conservatively set equal
to zero for practical applications due to the small values that fs and α typically assume (this is equivalent to ignoring the normal component of centripetal
force). With e = 100 tan α, Eq. 3 can be arranged so that

Rv = ......................................................................(4)

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 Figure 1: Vehicle Conering Forces
Example 1
A roadway is being designed for a speed of 120 km/h. At one horizontal curve, it is known that the superelevation is 8.00% and the coefficient of side friction
is 0.09. Determine the minimum radius of curve (measured to the traveled path) that will provide safe vehicle operation.

SOLUTION
The application of Eq.4(with 1000/3600 converting km/h to m/s) gives

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 ( )
Rv = = 666.457
. .

This value is the minimum radius, because radii larger than 666.457 m will generate centripetal forces lower than those capable of being safely supported by
the superelevation and the side frictional force.

In the actual design of a horizontal curve, engineers must select appropriate values of e and fs. The value selected for superelevation, e, is critical because
high rates of superelevation can cause vehicle steering problems on the horizontal curve. Furthermore, in cold climates, ice on the roadway can reduce fs
such that vehicles traveling less than the design speed on an excessively superelevated curve could slide inward off the curve as a result of gravitational forces.
AASHTO provides general guidelines for the selection of e and fs for horizontal curve design, as shown in Table 1. The values presented in this Table are
grouped by five values of maximum e. The selection of any one of these five maximum e values depends on the type of road (e.g., higher maximum e’s are
permitted on Freeways relative to Arterials and local roads) and local design practice. Limiting values of fs are simply a function of design speed. Table 1 also
presents calculated radii (given V. e, and fs) by applying Eq. 4.

Table 1: Minimum Radius Using Limiting Values of e and fs

Design Maximum Limiting Calculated Rounded
Speed e Values of Total Radius, Rv Radius, Rv
(km/h) % fs e/100+fs (Meters) (Meters)

30 4.00 0.17 0.21 33.7 35

40 4.00 0.17 0.21 60.0 60
50 4.00 0.16 0.20 98.4 100
60 4.00 0.15 0.19 149.2 150
70 4.00 0.14 0.18 214.3 215
80 4.00 0.14 0.18 280.0 280
90 4.00 0.13 0.17 375.2 375
100 4.00 0.12 0.16 492.1 490

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110 4.00 0.11 0.15 635.2 635
120 4.00 0.09 0.13 872.2 870

30 6.00 0.17 0.23 30.8 30

40 6.00 0.17 0.23 54.8 55
50 6.00 0.16 0.22 89.5 90
60 6.00 0.15 0.21 135.0 135
70 6.00 0.14 0.20 192.9 195
80 6.00 0.14 0.20 252.0 250
90 6.00 0.13 0.19 335.7 335
100 6.00 0.12 0.18 437.4 435
110 6.00 0.11 0.17 560.4 560
120 6.00 0.09 0.15 755.9 755

30 8.00 0.17 0.25 28.3 30

40 8.00 0.17 0.25 50.4 50
50 8.00 0.16 0.24 82.0 80
60 8.00 0.15 0.23 123.2 125
70 8.00 0.14 0.22 175.4 175
80 8.00 0.14 0.22 229.1 230
90 8.00 0.13 0.21 303.7 305
100 8.00 0.12 0.20 393.7 395
110 8.00 0.11 0.19 501.5 500
120 8.00 0.09 0.17 667.0 665

30 10.00 0.17 0.27 26.2 25

40 10.00 0.17 0.27 46.7 45
50 10.00 0.16 0.26 75.7 75
60 10.00 0.15 0.25 113.4 115
70 10.00 0.14 0.24 160.8 160
80 10.00 0.14 0.24 210.0 210
90 10.00 0.13 0.23 277.3 275
100 10.00 0.12 0.22 357.9 360
110 10.00 0.11 0.21 453.7 455
120 10.00 0.09 0.19 596.8 595

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30 12.00 0.17 0.29 24.4 25
40 12.00 0.17 0.29 43.4 45
50 12.00 0.16 0.28 70.3 70
60 12.00 0.15 0.27 105.0 105
70 12.00 0.14 0.26 148.4 150
80 12.00 0.14 0.26 193.8 195
90 12.00 0.13 0.25 225.1 255
100 12.00 0.12 0.24 328.1 330
110 12.00 0.11 0.23 414.2 415
120 12.00 0.09 0.21 539.9 540
Note: In recognition of safety considerations, use of emax = 4.00% should be limited to urban conditions.
Source: American Association Of State Highway and Transportation Officials, “A Policy On Geometric Design Of Highways And Street, “Washington, DC, 1994.

3. Horizontal Curve Fundamentals

In connecting straight (sections of roadway with a horizontal curve, several options are available. The most obvious of these is the simple curve, which is just
a standard curve with a single, constant radius. Other options include compound curves, which consist of two or more simple curves in succession, and
spiral curves, which are curves with a continuously changing radius. For this course we focus on simple curves
Figure 2 shows the basic elements of a simple horizontal curve. In this Figure, R is the radius (usually measured to the centerline of the road), PC is the
point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal curve), T is the tangent length, PI is the point of tangent intersection, Δ is the central angle of the curve,
PT is the point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal curve), M is the middle ordinate, E is the external distance, and L is the length of curve.
A geometric and trigonometric analysis of Fig. 2 reveals the following relationships:
∆
T = R tan .....................................................(5)

E=R
(∆/ )
− 1 ...................................................................(6)

∆
M = R (1- cos ) ................................................(7)

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 L= RΔ .....................................................................(8)

It is important to note that horizontal curve stationing, curve length, and curve radius (R) are typically measured with respect to the centerline of the road
(for a two-lane road). In contrast, the radius determined on the basis of vehicle forces (Rv in Eq. 4) is measured from the innermost vehicle path, which is
assumed to be the midpoint of the innermost vehicle lane. Thus, to be truly correct, a slight correction for lane width is required when equating the Rv of
Eq. 4 with the R in Eqs. 5 to 8

EXAMPLE 2
A horizontal curve is designed with a 725m radius. The curve has a tangent length of 140m and the PI is at station 3 + 103.000. Determine the stationing of
the PT.

Solution
Equation 5 is applied to determine the central angle. Δ:
∆
T = R tan
∆
140 = 725 tan
Δ = 21.860

So, from Eq. 8, the length of the curve is

L= RΔ

.
L= 725(21.86) = 276.609 m

Given that the tangent is 140 m,

Stationing PC = 3 + 103.000 – 0 + 140.000 = 2 + 963.000
Since horizontal curve stationing is measured along the alignment of the road,
Stationing PT = Stationing PC + L
= 2 + 963.000 + 0 + 276.609 = 3 + 239.609

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 Figure 2: Elements of a simple horizontal curve
4. Stopping-sight distance and horizontal curve design

As was the case for vertical curve design, adequate stopping-sight distance must be provided in the design of horizontal curves. Sight - distance restrictions on
horizontal curves occur when obstructions are present as shown in Fig. 3. Such obstructions are frequently encountered in highway design due to the cost
or right-of-way acquisition and/or the cost of moving earthen materials (e.g. Rock out croppings). When such an obstruction exists, the stopping-sight
distance is measured along the horizontal curve from the center of the traveled lane (the assumed locations of the driver’s eyes). As shown in Fig. 3, for a
specified stopping distance, some distance, Ms (the middle ordinate of a curve that has an arc length equal to the stopping distance), must be visually cleared
so that the line of sight is such that sufficient stopping-sight distance is available.
Equations for computing stopping-sight-distance (SSD) relationships for horizontal curves can be derived by first determining the central angle, Δs, for an arc
equal to the required stopping-sight distance. (See Fig. 3 and note that this is not the central angle, Δ, of the horizontal curve whose arc is equal to L.)
Assuming that the length of the horizontal curve exceeds the required SSD (as shown in Fig. 3), we have (as with Eq. 8)

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 SSD = RvΔs .......................................................(9)

Where Rv is the radius to the vehicle’s traveled path, which is also assumed to be the location of the driver’s eyes for sight distance, and again is taken as the
radius to the middle of the innermost lane; and Δs is the angle subtended by an arc equal to the SSD length. Rearranging terms gives
Δs = .............................................................(10)
Substituting this into the general equation for the middle ordinate of a simple horizontal curve (Eq. 7) gives

Ms = Rv(1- cos ).........................................(11)

Where Ms is the middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping-sight distance, as shown in Fig. 3. Solving Eq. 11 for SSD gives:

∆
SSD = .................................(12)

Note that Eqs. 9 to 12 can also be applied directly to determine sight-distance requirements for passing. If these equations are to be used for passing,
distance values given in Table 4 of Lecture No. 13 would apply and SSD in the equations would be replaced by PSD.

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Figure 3: Stopping- sight - distance considerations for horizontal curves

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EXAMPLE 3.
A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed with a 700-m radius, 3.6-m lanes, and a 100-km/h design speed. Determine the distance that must be
cleared from the inside edge of the inside lane to provide sufficient sight distance for desirable and minimum SSD.

Solution
Because the curve radius is usually taken to the centerline of the roadway, Rv = R – 3.6/2 = 700 – 1.8 = 698.2 m, which gives the radius to the middle of the
inside lane (i.e., the critical driver location). From Table 1 of Lecture No. 13, the desirable SSD is 205 m, so applying Eq. 11 gives

Ms =Rv (1 – cos )

( )
= 698.2 [1 – cos ] = 7.513m
( . )

Therefore, 7.513 m must be cleared, as measured from the center of the inside lane, or 5.713 m as measured from the inside edge of the inside lane.
Similarly, the minimum SSD is 157 m (Table1 of Lecture No. 13), and the application of Eq.11 gives Ms = 4.408 m. Thus, for minimum SSD, 2.608 m must be
cleared from the inside edge of the inside lane.

Question Set
1. You are asked to design a horizontal curve for a two lane road. The road has 3.6 m lanes. Due to expensive excavation, it is determined that a
maximum of 9 m can be cleared from the road’s centre line toward the inside lane to provide for stopping – sight distance. Also, local guidelines
dictate a maximum superelevation of 8.00%. What is the highest possible design speed of the curve?
2. A horizontal curve on a single – lane highway has its PC at station 1+ 346.200 and its PI at station 1+ 568.700. The curve has a superelevation of 6.0%
and is designed for 120 km/h (desirable). What is the station of the PT ?

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