SECX1038 - OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

(Common to ECE & ETCE)

UNIT II - SIGNAL DEGRADATION AND OPTICAL SOURSCES

Attenuation- Absorption, Scattering Losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding Losses.
Signal distortion in Optical waveguides- Material Dispersion, Waveguide Dispersion.

Optical sources - Semiconductor Device Fabrication, LED and LASER diode - Principles
of operation, concepts of line width, phase noise, switching and modulation characteristics

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Signal Degradation
Signal attenuation is also known as fiber loss or signal loss. The attenuation also
determines the number of repeaters required, maintaining repeater is a costly affair.

Another important properly of optical fiber is distortion mechanism. As the signal pulse
travels along the fiber length it becomes broader and creates distortion. Hence the distortion
limits the information carrying capacity of fiber.

2.1 Attenuation
Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as
light pulses propagate through the length of the fiber.

In optical fibers the attenuation is mainly caused by two physical factors absorption and
scattering losses. Absorption is because of fiber material and scattering due to structural
imperfections within the fiber.

As attenuation leads to a loss of power along the fiber, the output power is significantly
less than the coupled power. Let the coupled optical power is P (0) at the origin Z=0

The power at distance z is given by

p z
P(z)  P(0)e ---- (2.1)

 p  - Fiber attenuation constant

1  P(0) 
p  ---- (2.2)
z  P(z) 
ln

1
 1  P(0) 
(dB/ Km)  10 log   ----- (2.3)
z  P(z) 

Attenuation is also a function of wavelength and is shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Attenuation verses wavelength

Solved Problem

1. A low loss fiber has average loss of 3dB/Km at 900 nm. Compute the length over which a)
power decreases by 50%

Given

α = 3dB/Km

a) Power decreases by 50%

P(0)
=50 % = 0.5
P(z)

1  P(0) 
(dB/ Km)  10 log  
z  P(z) 

1
3  10 log 0.5
z

z = 1 Km

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2.2 Absorption
Absorption loss is related to the material composition and fabrication process of fiber.
Absorption loss results in dissipation of some optical power as heat in the fiber cable. Although
glass fibers are extremely pure, some impurities still remain as residue after purification.

Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms.

1) Absorption by atomic defects in glass composition.

2) Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in glass matts.

3) Intrinsic absorption by basic constituent atom of fiber.

2.2.1 Absorption by Atomic defects

Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber materials such as
missing molecules, high density clusters of atom groups. These absorption losses are negligible
compared with intrinsic and extrinsic losses.

1 rad (Si) = 0.01 J/kg

The higher the radiation intensity more the attenuation as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Ionizing radiation Intensity Verses fiber attenuation

2.2.2 Extrinsic Absorption

Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between the energy levels and
because of charge transitions from one ion to another. A major source of attenuation is from
transition of metal impurity ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper. These losses can be
upto 1 to 10 dB/km.

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 Another major extrinsic loss is caused by absorption due to OH (Hydroxyl) ions
impurities dissolved in glass. Fig. 2.3 shows absorption spectrum for OH group in silica.
Between these absorption peaks there are regions of low attenuation.

Fig.2.3 Absorption spectrum for OH group

2.2.3 Intrinsic Absorption

Intrinsic absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure state, no density variation
and inhomogenitics. Thus intrinsic absorption sets the fundamental lower limit on absorption for
any particular material.

Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV region and from
atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.

An attenuation spectrum for the intrinsic loss mechanism in pure Ge is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Attenuation spectra for intrinsic loss

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2.3 Rayleigh Scattering Losses
Scattering losses exists in optical fibers because of microscopic variations in the material
density and composition. As glass is composed by randomly connected network of molecules
and several oxides (e.g. Si02, GeO2), these are the major cause of compositional structure
fluctuation. These two effects results to variation in refractive index and Rayleigh type scattering
of light.

Fig. 2.5 shows graphically the relationship between wavelength and Rayleigh scattering.

Fig. 2.5 scattering loss verses wavelength

Scattering loss for single component glass is given by

83 2
 4  n  1 k B Tf T
2
scat ---- (2.4)
3

n = Refractive index

k B = Boltzmann’s constant

T = Isothermal compressibility of material

Tf = Temperature at which density fluctuations are frozen into the glass

Scattering loss for multi component glasses is given by

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 83 2 2
scat  4  n  v
3 ---- (2.5)

 2n = Mean square refractive index fluctuation

v = Volume of fiber
2.4 Bending Loss
Losses due to curvature and losses caused by an abrupt change in radius of curvature are
referred to as 'bending losses'.

The sharp bend of a fiber causes significant radiative losses and there is also possibility
of mechanical failure. This is shown in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 Bending Loss

The radiation loss from a bent fiber depends on

i) Field strength of certain critical distance Xc from fiber axis where power is lost through

radiation.

ii) The radius of curvature R

For multimode fiber, the effective number of modes that can be guided by curved fiber is
given expression

  2

   2  2a  3    3
 N 1 
N eff
  2  R   2n 2 kR    ---- (2.6)
   
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 α = Graded index profile.

Δ = Core - Cladding index difference.

n2 = Refractive index of cladding.

k = wave propagation constant

N
 = total number of modes in a straight fiber
2.4.1 Microbending

Microbending is a loss due to small bending or distortions. This small microbending is

not visible. The losses due to this are temperature related, tensile related or crush related.

The effects of microbending on multimode fiber can result in increasing attenuation

(depending on wavelength) to a series of periodic peaks and troughs on the spectral attenuation
curve. These effects can be minimized during installation and testing. Fig. 2.7 illustrates
microbending.

Fig.2.7 Microbending

2.4.2 Macrobending

The change in spectral attenuation caused by macrobcnding is different to microbending.

Usually there are no peaks and troughs because in a macrobend no light is coupled back into the
core from the cladding as can happen in the case of microbends.

The macrobending losses are caused by large scale bending of fiber. The losses are
eliminated when the bends are straightened. The losses can be minimized by not exceeding the
long term bend radii. Fig. 2.8 illustrates macrobending.

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 Fig. 2.8 Macrobending

2.5 Core and Cladding Loss

The core and cladding have different indices of refraction hence they have different
attenuation coefficients α1 and α2 respectively.

For step index fiber, the loss for a mode order (v, m) is given by

Pcore Pcladding
 v,m  1  2 ---- (2.7)
P P
For graded index fiber loss at radial distance r is expressed as

n 2 (0)  n 2 (r)
  r   1   2  1 2 ---- (2.8)
n (0)  n 22

2.6 Signal Distortion in Optical Waveguide

The pulse gets distorted as it travels along the fiber lengths. Pulse spreading in fiber is
referred as dispersion. Dispersion is caused by difference in the propagation times of light rays
that takes different paths during the propagation. The light pulses travelling down the fiber
encounter dispersion effect because of this the pulse spreads out in time domain. Dispersion
limits the information bandwidth. The distortion effects can be analyzed by studying the group
velocities in guided modes.

2.6.1 Information Capacity Determination

Dispersion and attenuation of pulse travelling along the fiber is shown in Fig. 2.9.

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 Fig.2.9 Dispersion and attenuation in fiber

2.6.2 Material Dispersion

Material dispersion is also called as chromatic dispersion. Material dispersion exists due
to change in index of refraction for different wavelengths. A light ray contains components of
various wavelengths centered at wavelength λo. The time delay is different for different
wavelength components. This results in time dispersion of pulse at the receiving end of fiber.
Fig. 2.10 shows index of refraction as a function of optical wavelength.

Fig. 2.10 Index of refraction as it function of wavelength

The material dispersion for unit length (L= 1) is given by

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  d2n
Dmat   X ---- (2.9)
c d 2

C= Light velocity

λ = Center wavelength

d2n
2
= 2nd derivative of index of refraction w.r.t wavelength
d

Negative sign shows that the upper sideband signal (lowest wavelength) arrives before
the lower sideband (highest wavelength).

A plot of material dispersion and wavelength is shown in Fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11 Material dispersion as a function of wavelength

The unit of dispersion is ps/nm . km. The amount of material dispersion depends upon
the chemical composition of glass.

Solved Problem

An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 45 nm.What is the pulse spreading
in ns/km due to material dispersion?

Given λ = 850 nm

σ=45 nm

Pulse broadening due to material dispersion is given by

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 σm = σ L M

Assume L=1 m

1 d2n
M 2
c d 2

d2n
For LED source operating at 850 nm,  2 =0.025
d 2

By applying values, we get M=9.8 ps / nm / km

σm=0.441 ns/km

2.6.3 Waveguide Dispersion

Waveguide dispersion is caused by the difference in the index of refraction between the
core and cladding resulting in a 'drag' effect between the core and cladding portions of the power.

Waveguide dispersion is significant only in fibers carrying fewer than 5-10 modes. Since
multimode optical fibers carry hundreds of modes, they will not have observable waveguide
dispersion.

The group delay ( ԏwg) arising due to waveguide dispersion.

L d(kb) 
wg   n2  n2
dk 
---- (2.10)
c

b= Normalized propagation constant

k= group velocity

Normalized frequency V is given by

V  ka  n12  n2 2 
1
2

V  kan2 2
---- (2.11)
L d(Vb ) 
 wg   n2  n2
c dV 

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2.7 Optical sources
Optical transmitter converts electrical input signal into corresponding optical signal. The optical
signal is then launched into the fiber. Optical source is the major component in an optical
transmitter.

Popularly used optical transmitters are Light Emitting Diode (LED) and semiconductor Laser
Diodes (LD).

2.7.1 Characteristics of Light Source

i) It must be possible to operate the device continuously at a variety of temperatures for many
years.

ii) It must be possible to modulate the light output over a wide range of modulating frequencies.

iii) For fiber links, the wavelength of the output should coincide with one of transmission
windows.

iv) To couple large amount of power into an optical fiber, the emitting area should be small.

v) To reduce material dispersion in an optical fiber link, the output spectrum should be narrow.

vi) The power requirement for its operation must be low

vii) The light source must be compatible with the modem solid state devices.

viii) The optical output power must be directly modulated by varying the input current to the
device.

ix) Better linearity to prevent harmonics and intermoduJation distortion.

x) High coupling efficiency.

xi) High optical output power.

xii) High reliability.

xiii) Low weight and low cost

Two types of light sources used in fiber optics are light emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser
diodes (LDs).

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2.7.2 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Conventional p-n junction is called as homojunction as same semiconductor material is

used on both sides junction. As the carriers are not confined to the immediate vacinity of
junction. Hence high current densities cannot be realized.

The carrier confinement problem can be resolved by sandwiching a thin layer between p-type
and n-type layers. The middle layer mayor may not be doped. The carrier confinement occurs
due to band gap discontinuity of the junction. Such a junction is called heterojunction and the
device is called double heterostructure.

2.7.2.1 LED Strucrures

HeteroJunctions

A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors with

different bandgap.Hetercjunctions are of two types, lsotype (n-n or p-p) or Antisotype (p-n).

Double Heterojunctions (DH)

In order to achieve efficient confinement of emitted radiation double heterojunctions are used in
LED structures. A heterojunction is a junction formed by dissimilar semiconductors. Double
heterojunction (DR) is formed by two different semiconductors on each side of active region.

2.7.2.2 LED configurations

There are two LED configurations used in optical fiber links .

1. Surface emitting LED.

2. Edge emitting LED.

Both devices use a OH structure to constrain the carriers and the light to an active layer.

Surface Emitting LEDs

In surface emitting LEOs the plane of active light emitting region is oriented perpendicularly to
the axis of the fiber. A DH diode IS grown on an N-type substrate at the top of the diode as
shown in Fig. 2.12. A circular well is etched through the substrate of the device. A fiber is then
connected to accept the emitted light.

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 Fig. 2.12 Cross-section through a typical surface emittlng LED

At the back of the device is a gold heat sink. The current flows through the p-rype material and
forms the small circular active region resulting in the intense beam of light.

Diameter of circular active area = 50 μm

Thickness of circular active area = 2.5 μm

Current density= 2000 A/cm2 half-power

Emission pattern = Isotropic, 1200 beamwidth.

The isotropic emission pattern from surface emitting LED is of lambartian pattern. In Lambartian
pattern, the emitting surface is uniformly bright, but its projected area diminishes as cos θ, where
θ is the angle between the viewing direction and the normal to the surface as shown in Fig. 2.13.
The beam intensity is maximim along the normal.

The power is reduced to 50% of its peak when θ=6O0. Therefore the total half-power beamwidth
is 1200. The radiation pattern decides the coupling efficiency of LED.

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 Fig. 2.13 Lambartian radiation

Edge Emitting LEDs (ELEDs)

In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam more
directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED. Such a device is known as edge
emitting LED or ELED.

It consists of an active junction region which is the source of incoherent light and two guiding
layers. The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active region but higher than outer
surrounding material. Thus a waveguide channel is form and optical radiation is directed into the
fiber. Fig. 2.14 shows structure of ELED.

Fig. 2.14 Structure of edge emitting. DH, strip contact LED

Edge emitter's emission pattern is more concentrated (directional) providing improved coupling
efficiency. The beam is Lambartian in the plane parallel to the junction but diverges more slowly
in the plane perpendicular to the junction. In this plane, the beam divergence is limited. In the
parallel plane. there is no beam confinement and the radiation is Lambartian.
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 Fig. 2.15 Unsymmetric radiation from an edge emitting LED

To maximize the useful output power, a reflector may be placed at the end of the diode opposite
the emitting edge. Fig. 2.15 shows radiation from ELED.

Advantages of LED

1. Simple design.

2. Ease of manufacture.

3. Simple system integration.

4. Low cost.

5. High reliability.

Disadvantages of LED

1. Refraction of light at semiconductor/air interface.

2. The average life time of a radiative recombination is only a few nanoseconds, therefore

modulation BW is limited to only few hundred megahertz.

3. Low coupling efficiency.

4. Large chromatic dispersion.

2.7.3 Injection Laser Diode (ILD)

The laser is a device which amplifies the light, hence the LASER is an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

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The operation of the device may be described by the formation of an electromagnetic standing
wave within a cavity (optical resonator) which provides an output of monochromatic highly
coherent radiation.

2.7.3.1 Principle:

Material absorbs light rather than emitting. Three different fundamental process occurs between
the two energy states of an atom.

1) Absorption 2) Spontaneous emission 3) Stimulated emission.

Laser action is the result of three process absorption of energy packets (photons) spontaneous
emission, and. stimulated emission. (These processes are represented by the simple two-energy-
level diagrams).

Where, E1 is the lower state energy level.

E2 is the higher state energy level.

2.7.3.2 Distributed Feedback (DFB) laser

In DFB laser the Iasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index along the
longitudinal dimension of the diode. Fig. 2.16 shows the structure of DFB laser diode.

Fig. 2.16 DFB Laser diode

The electromagnetic wave propagating in longitudinal direction is expressed as

E(z,t)  I(z)e j(t z) ----- (2.12)

where,
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 I(z) is optical field intensity.

ω is optical radian frequency

β is propagation constant.

Lasing (light amplification) occurs when gain of modes exceeds above optical loss during one
round trip through the cavity i.e. z = 2L If R1 and R2 are the mirror reflectivities of the two ends
of laser diode. Now the expression for lasing expressing is modified as,

 2Lg(hv)  (hv)
I(2L)  I(0)R1R 2 e  
---- (2.13)

Advantages of Laser Diode

1. Simple economic design.

2. High optical power

3. Production of light can be precisely controlled.

4. Can be used al high temperatures.

5. Better modulation capability.

6. High coupling efficiency.

Disadvantages of Laser Diode

1. At the end of fiber, a speckle pattern appears as two coherent light beams add or subtract their
electric field depending upon their relative phases.

2. Laser diode is extremely sensitive to overload currents and. at high transmission rates, when
laser is required to operate continuously the use of large drive current produces unfavorable
thermal characteristics and necessitates the use of cooling and power stabilization.

2.7.4 Line Width of an Light sources

Emitted wavelength is related to photon energy by,

hc
 ----- (2.14)
Eg

By differentiating,

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 d hc
 2 ----- (2.15)
dE g Eg

Assuming ∆λ is small

hc
  E g ----- (2.16)
E g2

From semiconductor physics, ∆Eg = ∆(hν) ≈ 3kBT,

3k B T
   2 ----- (2.17)
hc

These are typical values and the exact value depends on the LED structure.

2.7.5 Phase Noise

Phase noise is most often obtained from beat measurements – either from a beat note
between two different lasers, or between the laser output and a delayed portion of it, often with
an additional frequency shift provided by an acousto-optic modulator. The delay is often
achieved with a long optical fiber. If this can be longer than the coherence length, one can use
simple processing techniques as the fluctuations of both signals are statistically independent. If
this is impractical, more sophisticated techniques of data analysis can be employed. The most
flexible measurement scheme is again based on recording the beat signal with a sampling card,
even though the initial efforts for data processing are more extensive than with a spectrum
analyzer and is shown in fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17 Phase noise in optical sources

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2.7.6 Switching Characteristics
An optical switch may operate by mechanical means, such as physically shifting an
optical fiber to drive one or more alternative fibers, or by electro-optic effects, magneto-optic
effects, or other methods. Slow optical switches, such as those using moving fibers, may be used
for alternate routing of an optical switch transmission path, such as routing around a fault. Fast
optical switches, such as those using electro-optic or magneto-optic effects, may be used to
perform logic operations; also included in this category are semiconductor optical amplifiers,
which are optoelectronic devices that can be used as optical switches and be integrated with
discrete or integrated microelectronic circuits

2.7.7 Modulation Characteristics

An optical modulator is a device which is used to modulate a beam of light. The beam
may be carried over free space, or propagated through an optical waveguide. Depending on the
parameter of a light beam which is manipulated, modulators may be categorized into amplitude
modulators, phase modulators, polarization modulators etc. Often the easiest way to obtain
modulation of intensity of a light beam, is to modulate the current driving the light source, e.g.
a laser diode. This sort of modulation is called direct modulation, as opposed to the external
modulation performed by a light modulator. For this reason light modulators are, e.g. in fiber
optic communications, called external light modulators.
With laser diodes where narrow line width is required, direct modulation is avoided due
to a high bandwidth "chirping" effect when applying and removing the current to the laser.
.

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