BUILDING UTILITIES 3

Lecture 1 – Waves and Sound Waves

VIBRATIONAL MOTION PRINCIPLES

resting position forced vibration

STEPS TO A VIBRATION
 Disturbance caused by a force
 Restoring force brings it back to its original position
 Inertia keeps it moving past its original position
 Friction slows it and stops it- damping.
 BUT WHAT IS A WAVE?
A wave can be described as a DISTURBANCE
that travels through a MEDIUM, transporting energy
from ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER location. Each
individual particle of the medium is temporarily displaced
and then returns to its original equilibrium positioned.
 A single disturbance moving through a medium from
one location to another location is called a pulse.
 The repeating and periodic disturbance that moves
through a medium from one location to another is
referred to as a wave.
CATEGORIES OF WAVES
 ON THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
– A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the
medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction
that the wave moves.
– A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the
medium move in a direction parallel to the direction that the
wave moves.
– A surface wave is a wave in which particles of the medium
undergo a circular motion. Surface waves are neither
longitudinal nor transverse.
 ON THE ABILITY TO TRANSMIT ENERGY THROUGH A
VACUUM
– An electromagnetic wave is a wave that is capable of
transmitting its energy through a vacuum (i.e., empty
space); is produced by the vibration of charged particles.
– A mechanical wave is a wave that is not capable of
transmitting its energy through a vacuum; requires a
medium in order to transport their energy from one location
to another.
THE PROPERTIES OF A WAVE
 A crest (or a peak) is a high
point on a wave, and a
trough is a low point on a
wave.
 The amplitude of a wave
refers to the maximum
amount of displacement of a
particle on the medium from
its rest position. In a sense,
the amplitude is the distance
from rest to crest. This
distance is abbreviated with
the Greek letter λ (lambda).
 The wavelength of a wave is
simply the length of one such
complete spatial repetition,
also known as wave cycle.
 For a transverse wave, the
wavelength can be measured
as the distance from crest to
crest or from trough to
trough.
– In fact, the wavelength of a
wave can be measured as the
distance from a point on a
wave to the corresponding
point on the next cycle of the
wave.
 A region where the coils are
pressed together in a small
amount of space is known as
compression.
– A compression is a point on a
medium through which a
longitudinal wave is traveling
that has the maximum density.
 A region where the coils are
spread apart, thus maximizing
the distance between coils, is
known as rarefaction.
– A rarefaction is a point on a
medium through which a
longitudinal wave is traveling
that has the minimum density.
 The frequency of a wave
refers to how often the
particles of the medium vibrate
when a wave passes through
the medium.
– Given this definition, it is
reasonable that the quantity
frequency would have units of
cycles/second, waves/second,
vibrations/second, or
something/second.
– Another unit for frequency is
the Hertz (abbreviated Hz)
where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1
cycle/second.
 The period of a wave is the
time for a particle on a medium
to make one complete
vibrational cycle.
– Period, being a time, is
measured in units of time such
as seconds, hours, days or
years.
 The time necessary for one
complete wavelength to pass
a given point is the period,
abbreviated T.
 The number of wavelengths
that pass a given point in
one second is the frequency,
abbreviated f.
Combining this information with
the equation for speed
(speed=distance/time), it can be Speed = Wavelength * Frequency
said that the speed of a wave is
also the wavelength/period.

v=λ*f
 BEHAVIOR OF WAVES
 As a wave travels through a
medium, it will often reach the
end of the medium and
encounter an obstacle or
perhaps another medium
through which it could travel.
 The interface of the two media
is referred to as the boundary
and the behavior of a wave at
that boundary is described as
its boundary behavior.
Reflection, refraction diffraction and interference are all
boundary behaviors of waves associated with the bending
of the path of a wave.
 Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off of a barrier.
– Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection.
– Reflection of waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a
focal point.
 Refraction is the change in direction of waves that occurs when waves
travel from one medium to another.
– Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change.
 Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles and openings.
– The amount of diffraction increases with increasing wavelength.
 Interference happens two or more centers of disturbance may reinforce
each other in some directions and cancel in others.
BUILDING UTILITIES 3
Lecture 2 – Nature of Sound Waves
Diffusion
 NATURE OF A SOUND WAVE
 Sound is a Mechanical Wave
 Sound as a Longitudinal Wave
 Sound is a Pressure Wave
SOUND PROPERTIES AND THEIR
PERCEPTION
 A sound wave, which is not
impeded by another object,
propagates (or spreads) out
from the source as a sphere.
 If the sound source is oscillating
at a constant rate, it generates a
pure tone and the source can be
described in terms of a single
frequency, or rate of oscillation.
This frequency is usually
described in terms of units of
cycles (of oscillations) per
second, also labeled as hertz
(Hz).
 The frequency of sound is thus
described as the number of
times that a complete cycle of
compression and rarefaction of
air occurs in a given unit of time.
 Some sound waves
are periodic, in that the
change from equilibrium
(average atmospheric
pressure) to maximum
compression to maximum
rarefaction back to equilibrium
is repetitive. The 'round trip'
back to the starting point just
described is called a cycle.
The amount of time a single
cycle takes is called a period.
FREQUENCY RANGE OF AUDIBLE SOUND
 The ability of humans to
perceive pitch is associated
with the frequency of the
sound wave that impinges
upon the ear.
 The sensation of a frequency
is commonly referred to as
the pitch of a sound.
– A high pitch sound
corresponds to a high
frequency sound wave and a
low pitch sound corresponds
to a low frequency sound
wave.
When two sounds with a
frequency difference of greater
than 7 Hz are played
simultaneously, most people
detect the presence of a
complex wave pattern resulting
from the interference and
superposition of the two
sound waves.
 Wave interference is the phenomenon
that occurs when two waves meet while
traveling along the same medium.
 The principle of superposition is stated as
follows: “When two waves interfere, the
resulting displacement of the medium at
any location is the algebraic sum of the
displacements of the individual waves at
that same location.”
SOUND INTENSITY AND DISTANCE
 The amount of energy that is
transported past a given area of
the medium per unit of time is
known as the intensity of the
sound wave.
 Intensity is the energy/time/area.
 Typical units for expressing the
intensity of a sound wave are
Watts/meter2.
INVERSE SQUARE RELATIONSHIP
The mathematical relationship
between intensity and distance
is sometimes referred to as an
inverse square law.
 The intensity varies
inversely with the square of
the distance from the
source. Distance Intensity
 The surface area A (in 1m 160 units
meters squared) of a
sphere having radius r (in 2m 40 units

meters) is given by: 3m 17.8 units

A = (4 pi) r 2
4m 10 units
THRESHOLD OF HEARING & DECIBEL SCALE
 The faintest sound that the typical human ear can detect has an intensity
of 1*10-12 W/m2.
– This corresponds to a sound that will displace particles of air by a mere one-
billionth of a centimeter.
 This faintest sound that a human ear can detect is known as the
threshold of hearing (TOH).
 The most intense sound that the ear can safely detect without suffering
any physical damage is more than one billion times more intense than
the threshold of hearing.
 The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale.
 The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0 decibels
(abbreviated 0 dB).
‒ This sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2.
 The intensity of a sound is a very objective quantity; loudness of a
sound is more of a subjective response that varies with a number of
factors.
 # of Times
Source Intensity Intensity Level Greater Than
TOH
Threshold of Hearing (TOH) 1*10-12 W/m2 0 dB 100
Rustling Leaves 1*10-11 W/m2 10 dB 101
Whisper 1*10-10 W/m2 20 dB 102
Normal Conversation 1*10-6 W/m2 60 dB 106
Busy Street Traffic 1*10-5 W/m2 70 dB 107
Vacuum Cleaner 1*10-4 W/m2 80 dB 108
Large Orchestra 6.3*10-3 W/m2 98 dB 109.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 1*10-2 W/m2 100 dB 1010
Front Rows of Rock Concert 1*10-1 W/m2 110 dB 1011
Threshold of Pain 1*101 W/m2 130 dB 1013
Military Jet Takeoff 1*102 W/m2 140 dB 1014
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 1*104W/m2 160 dB 1016
THE SPEED OF SOUND
 Two essential types of properties that affect wave speed -
inertial properties and elastic properties.
– Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency of a
material to maintain its shape and not deform whenever a force or
stress is applied to it.
– Inertial properties are those properties related to the material's
tendency to be sluggish to changes in its state of motion.
 The speed of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties
of the air, mostly the temperature, and to a lesser degree, the
humidity.
 At normal atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 20O
degrees Celsius, a sound wave will travel at approximately
v = 344 m/s.
SPEED OF SOUND PROPAGATION in
VARIOUS MEDIA
Speed
Medium
Meters/second Feet/second

Air 344 1130

Water 1410 4625

Wood 3300 10825

Brick 3600 11800

Concrete 3700 12100

Steel 4900 16000

Glass 5000 16400

Aluminum 5800 19000

BEHAVIOR OF SOUND WAVES
 The interference of waves causes the
medium to take on a shape that results
from the net effect of the two individual
waves upon the particles of the medium.
‐ If two upward displaced pulses with the
same shape meet up with one another
along a medium, the medium will take
on the shape of an upward displaced
pulse with twice the amplitude of the
two interfering pulses. This type of
interference is known as constructive
interference.
‐ If an upward displaced pulse and a
downward displaced pulse having the
same shape meet up with one another
along a medium, the two pulses will
cancel each other's effect upon the
displacement of the medium and the
medium will assume the equilibrium
position. This type of interference is
known as destructive interference.
The interference of sound
waves causes the particles of Locations along the medium where
the medium to behave in a constructive interference continually occurs
are known as anti-nodes.
manner that reflects the net
effect of the two individual
waves upon the particles.
 If a compression (high pressure) of one
wave meets up with a compression (high
pressure) of a second wave at the same
location in the medium, then the net effect
is that that particular location will
experience an even greater pressure.
This is a form of constructive
interference. Locations along the medium where
 If two sound waves interfere at a given destructive interference continually occurs
location in such a way that the are known as nodes.
compression of one wave meets up with
the rarefaction of a second wave,
destructive interference results.
Destructive interference of sound Interference of sound waves has
waves becomes an important issue widespread applications in the world of
music.
in the design of concert halls and
auditoriums.
 One means of reducing the
severity of destructive
interference is by the design of
walls, ceilings, and baffles that
serve to absorb sound rather
than reflect it.
Beats are the periodic and repeating fluctuations heard in the
intensity of a sound when two sound waves of very similar
frequencies interfere with one another.
 A beat pattern is characterized by a wave whose amplitude is changing
at a regular rate.
 The beat frequency refers to the rate at which the volume is heard to be
oscillating from high to low volume.
 The beat frequency is always equal to the difference in frequency of the
two notes that interfere to produce the beats.
THE DOPPLER EFFECT and SHOCK WAVES
The Doppler effect is a phenomenon observed whenever the source
of waves is moving with respect to an observer.
 The Doppler effect is described as the effect produced by a moving source of
waves in which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for the observer
and the source are approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency
when the observer and the source is receding.
 The Doppler effect can be observed to occur with all types of waves - most
notably water waves, sound waves, and light waves.
 The Doppler effect is observed because the distance between the source of
sound and the observer is changing.
‐ If the source and the observer are approaching, then the distance is decreasing
and if the source and the observer are receding, then the distance is increasing.
‐ The source of sound always emits the same frequency. Therefore, for the same
period of time, the same number of waves must fit between the source and the
observer. if the distance is large, then the waves can be spread apart; but if the
distance is small, the waves must be compressed into the smaller distance.
SHOCK WAVES and SONIC BOOMS
 If a moving source of sound moves at
the same speed as sound, then the
source will always be at the leading
edge of the waves that it produces.
This phenomenon is known as a
shock wave.
 If a moving source of sound moves
faster than sound, the source will
always be ahead of the waves that it
produces. A sonic boom occurs as
the result of the piling up of
compressional wavefronts along the
conical edge of the wave pattern.
These compressional wavefronts pile
up and interfere to produce a very
high-pressure zone.
REFLECTION OF SOUND
 Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a
barrier. The reflection of sound follows the law "angle of incidence equals
angle of reflection", sometimes called the law of reflection. The same
behavior is observed with light and other waves.
 The reflected waves can interfere with incident waves, producing patterns of
constructive and destructive interference. Since the reflected wave and the
incident wave add to each other while moving in opposite directions, the
appearance of propagation is lost and the resulting vibration can lead to
resonances called standing waves in rooms.
 It also means that the sound intensity near a hard surface is enhanced because
the reflected wave adds to the incident wave, giving a pressure amplitude that
is twice as great in a thin "pressure zone" near the surface.
FORMATION of STANDING WAVES
 A standing wave pattern is a vibrational pattern created within
a medium when the vibrational frequency of the source causes
reflected waves from one end of the medium to interfere with
incident waves from the source.
‐ This interference occurs in such a manner that specific points along
the medium appear to be standing still.
 Such patterns are only created within the medium at specific
frequencies of vibration.
‐ These frequencies are known as harmonic frequencies, or merely
harmonics.
EXAMPLES OF REFLECTION
PLANE WAVE REFLECTION "The angle of incidence
is equal to the angle
of reflection" is one way
of stating the law of
reflection for light in a
plane mirror.

Sound obeys the same law

of reflection .
POINT SOURCE OF SOUND REFLECTING
FROM A PLANE SURFACE
When sound waves from a point
source strike a plane wall, they
produce reflected spherical
wavefronts as if there were an
"image" of the sound source at the
same distance on the other side of
the wall.

If something obstructs the direct

sound from the source from
reaching your ear, then it may
sound as if the entire sound is
coming from the position of the
"image" behind the wall. This kind
of sound imaging follows the same
law of reflection as your image in a
plane mirror.
REFLECTION FROM CONCAVE SURFACE

 Any concave surface will

tend to focus the sound
waves which reflect from it.
This is generally
undesirable in auditorium
acoustics because it
produces a "hot spot" and
takes sound energy away
from surrounding areas.
REFRACTION OF SOUND
 Refraction is the bending of waves when they enter a medium where
their speed is different. Refraction is not so important a phenomenon
with sound as it is with light, but bending of sound waves does occur
and is an interesting phenomena in sound.
 Direction of sound is altered when sound waves encounter changes
in medium conditions that are not extreme enough to cause reflection,
but are enough to change the speed of sound.
 Sound refracts through outdoor areas where temperature changes.
Because the speed of sound is faster in warmer air, sound waves
bend when they encounter cooler temperatures.
 Similar sound bending occurs with wind currents, with sound waves
traveling farther than expected when traveling with the wind, and
generating shadow zones when sound waves are traveling against
the wind.
If the air above the earth is warmer than
that at the surface, sound will be bent
back downward toward the surface by
refraction.
 Sound propagates in all directions from a point source. Normally,
only that which is initially directed toward the listener can be
heard, but refraction can bend sound downward.
 Normally, only the direct sound is received. But refraction can add
some additional sound, effectively amplifying the sound. Natural
amplifiers can occur over cool lakes.
DIFFRACTION OF SOUND
 Diffraction: the bending of waves
around small obstacles and the
spreading out of waves beyond small
openings.
DIFFRACTION OF SOUND
 If sound did not diffract, it would go
over an obstacle along a straight line
path – like light, which produces an
optical shadow behind the obstacle.
The long wavelength sounds of the bass drum will diffract
around the corner more efficiently than the more directional,
short wavelength sounds of the higher pitched instruments.
PASSAGE OF SOUND THROUGH OPENINGS
 Diffraction effect also occurs when sound travels through an
opening. This is due to the bending of sound at the
opening’s edges.
 The diffracted sound (as a %age of the total sound passing
through an opening) increases as the opening size is
reduced. The smallest opening has the largest %age of
diffracted sound. Through an extremely small opening, most
of the sound passes by diffraction.
RELEVANCE OF ACOUSTICAL SHADOWS
 An acoustical shadow has an
unfavorable effect on hearing and
listening conditions in lecture and
concert halls.
 Although an acoustical shadow is
undesirable for listening and hearing,
it is useful in the design of barriers to
protect buildings and neighborhoods
from traffic noise.
DIFFUSION OF SOUND
 When a sound wave reflects off a convex or uneven surface, the energy is spread
evenly rather than being limited to a discrete reflection. This phenomenon is known
as diffusion, which is equivalent to the diffusion of light from a frosted bulb, rather
than a clear bulb.
 Acoustic sound diffusion keeps sound waves from grouping, so there are no hot
spots or nulls in a room. In fact, sound diffusion greatly widens the "sweet spot" and
lends a strong, 3D sense of openness to a room, making it easier to hear "into" a
mix.
 Diffusion obliterates standing waves and flutter echoes without simply removing
acoustic energy from the space or greatly changing the frequency content of the
sound.
 Sound diffusion is one of the important acoustical requirements for rooms used for
musical performances. A room with a few large specularly reflecting surfaces, and
which does not contain adequate surface irregularities to diffuse sound, produces
harsh reflections, known as acoustic glare – an undesirable effect for music.
 With adequate diffusion in the room, the listener receives sound from various
directions and has the feeling of being “enveloped” by music – a desirable sensation
for music
DIFFUSION OF SOUND
 Excessive diffusion, on the other hand, deprives the listener of source localization,
since the sound appears to come from all directions. Excessive diffusion is to be
avoided in rooms meant for speech, since in these rooms, the sound must appear to
come from the speaker.
 Sound diffusion is a function of room geometry. Rectangular rooms with flat parallel
walls have poor diffusion. Even a slight splay (1:20) in one of the walls improves
diffusion. The more irregular the room shape, the greater the sound diffusion in the
room.
 Size of the room is another factor that affects diffusion. Diffusion is more easily
obtained in a large room than in a small room.
 Reflective room surfaces increase diffusion in the room. The more reflective the
surfaces, the greater the diffusion. Conversely, the provision of sound absorption
decreases diffusion. Even when only one surface of the room is highly absorbing,
sufficient diffusion is difficult to obtain unless other means of increasing diffusion are
incorporated.
 Convex reflective surfaces increase diffusion. They do so by scattering sound. A
concave surface, on the other hand, tends to focus sound into one direction and
location, starving other locations of adequate sound. Thus, a dome or similar
concave surface provides poor acoustics for an auditorium, unless the dome has
deep coffers to scatter sound.
SOUND FIELDS IN ENCLOSED SPACES
• Near field
– Generally within one wave length of the lowest frequency of sound produced by
the source
– Within this distance, sound pressure level measurements vary widely and are
not meaningful
– Maximum wave length of a human male voice is about 3 meters
• Reverberant field
– Close to large obstructions, such as walls, is dominant and approaches a
diffuse condition
– In well-designed music auditoriums, this field predominates and sound
pressure level remains relatively constant beyond the free field area
• Free (far) field
– Exists between the near and reverberant fields
– Intensity varies directly with pressure and inversely with distance squared
– Sound pressure level drops 6dB with each doubling of distance from the source
– It is in this field that meaningful sound pressure level measurements can be
made with respect to a specific source.
BUILDING UTILITIES 3
Lecture 3 - Architectural Acoustics
INTRODUCTION
The architect deals always with the human senses
when designing a building’s environment.
 Selection of site
 Location of the buildings on the site
 Arrangement of spaces within the building
 Materials and construction elements that shape the
finished spaces
ACOUSTICS
 Science that deals with the production, control,
transmission, reception, and effects of sound
 Subjective interpretation of sound
– Defines the difference between what is desirable and what is not
– Differentiates what is sound and what is noise; this differentiation
does not consider the specific content of the acoustic signal
– Dictates the quality of communication within a space
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN GOALS

1. SOUND DISTRIBUTION
– To hear voice and music at all points of the room
2. SOUND ISOLATION
– To NOT hear unwanted sound between rooms or outside to
inside
3. NOISE CONTROL
– To reduce or control sound level within a room
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
 Architectural Acoustics is concerned with sound in buildings.
 The function is to simply follow this logic: to enhance desired
sounds and to attenuate noises.
 This branch of architectural acoustics deals with sound in
lecture or concert halls, meeting rooms and classrooms.
− Sound production, by one or more live players, vocalists or lecturers,
whether assisted by loudspeakers or not, is greatly affected by the
character of the room in which it takes place.
 − The correct choice and placement of sound-absorbing and sound-
reflecting materials in a room and the level of noise in it are critical to
obtaining an acceptable space.
− Properly placed reflectors can direct the sound to where it will do
most good. Properly placed sound-absorbing materials will prevent
reflections that might cause unpleasant echoes or cause sounds to
interfere and cancel each other out.
− In rooms that are too reverberant, it is difficult to understand speech.
− In rooms that are not reverberant enough, music will sound dead
and lifeless.
 Another concern of architectural acoustics is sometimes called
building acoustics and deals with the reduction of noise
transfer between rooms in buildings.
FOUR MAJOR ASPECTS OF
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
1. Isolating sound between rooms.
2. Managing acoustics within spaces; typically by controlling
reverberation.
3. Managing HVAC/Plumbing/Electrical Equipment (MEP)
vibration and noise control.
4. Active audio systems such as white noise generators and noise
cancellation.
MAJOR BRANCHES OF ARCHITECTURAL
ACOUSTICS
 Room acoustics
− involves the design of the interior of buildings to project properly diffused sound at
appropriate levels and with appropriate aesthetic qualities for music and adequate
intelligibility for speech.
 Noise control or noise management
− involves the reduction and control of noise between a potentially disturbing sound
source and a listener.
 Sound isolation
− involves site consideration, location of activities within the building, construction of
barriers, background sound levels in coordination with room acoustics
 Sound reinforcement and enhancement systems
− use electronic equipment to improve the quality of sounds heard in rooms.
DIFFICULTIES IN ACHIEVING GOOD
ACOUSTICS
 For cost-cutting measures, the weight of various materials
has been reduced
 Population density vis-à-vis spaces has increased steadily,
thus raising the amount of noise generated
 Design of many office areas today is open, with only
cubicles separating workers
 Mechanical and electrical systems intended to provide
comfort to building occupants also generate noise
 There is no unified theory of acoustical comfort to guide
design efforts, unlike that of thermal comfort
COMMON ELEMENTS OF ANY
ACOUSTICAL SITUATION
 Sound source – if the source can be controlled, then it is
not necessary to consider the path or recipients’ locations
 Sound transmission path – if sound can be controlled in the
path between the source and listeners, then it is
unnecessary to consider the listeners’ locations
 Receiver of the sound – reception of sound may be
influenced, and not normally an architectural concern
Modify Enclosure Enclosure
Redesign Absorption Absorption
Relocate Barrier Relocate
ROOM ACOUSTICS and BUILDING
ACOUSTICS
 Room Acoustics describes the various sound phenomena
within an enclosed space.
 Building Acoustics describes how sound is transmitted
from one room to the other in the same building.
– Building Acoustics is very much related to sound insulation
between walls and vibration isolation of different parts of the
building structure.
– Two types of sound that concern Building Acoustics are: airborne
sound and structure-borne sound.
TYPES OF SOUND
 Most sounds in buildings are airborne sounds
– Sounds generated by human conversation and musical instruments
– Sounds produced by fans, motors, machinery, vehicles, airplanes are airborne
sounds
 Structure-borne sound is produced by an impact of some sort on
building elements – floors, walls, roofs, etc.
– The impact causes the building elements to vibrate, and as they vibrate, they
radiate sound.
– Since it is impact-related, structure-borne sound is also referred to as impact
sound
– When a nail is hammered on a wall, or a person walks on a suspended floor or
knocks on a door, structure-borne sound is produced
– Once the structure-borne sound is produced by a building component, it
become airborne sound and reaches the receiver as such.
 Although most sources produce either one, several sources produce
both.
ROOM ACOUSTICS
WHAT IS ROOM ACOUSTICS
 Room Acoustics is concerned with the way sound is created, propagated,
perceived, measured and modelled inside enclosures. Enclosures can be
dwellings, offices, workshops, factory halls, lecture rooms, auditoria, concert halls,
transportation terminals, etc.
 One of the most important parameters in Room Acoustics is Reverberation Time.
It is a measure for how long the acoustic energy emitted from sound sources
inside a room will linger. In regular rooms with an even distribution of sound
absorption, reverberation time is also a measure for the amount of absorption
present inside the room.
 The optimal reverberation time depends on the use of the enclosure.
− For example, for churches and large concert halls longer reverberation times are
often desired, since this supports the music.
− Halls for speech should have a shorter time, since otherwise lingering sound will
blend with subsequent spoken words, making it difficult to understand what is said.
− Factory halls should also have short reverberation time. In this situation the goal is to
prevent the accumulation of sound energy. This will help reduce the overall sound
pressure level and the noise exposure for all workers in the hall.
WHY ROOM MATTERS
The sound that is heard in any room is a combination of the
direct sound that travels straight from a sound source to the
listener, and the indirect reflected sound — the sound from
that source that bounces off the walls, floor, ceiling, and
furniture before it reaches the listener. Reflected sounds can
be both good and bad.
 The good part is that they make music and movie dialogue sound
much fuller and louder than they would otherwise.
‒ If the speakers are played outdoors where there are no walls to add
reflections, they don't sound as good — thin and dull, with very little
bass.
‒ Reflected sound can add a pleasant spaciousness to your sound.
 The bad part is that these same reflections can also distort
sound in a room by making certain notes sound louder while
canceling out others.
‒ The result may be midrange and treble that's too bright and harsh
or echoey, or bass notes that are boomy, with a "one-note" quality
that drowns out deep bass.
‒ Because these reflections arrive at the listener at different times
than the sound from the sound source, the three-dimensional
"soundstage" created by the speakers and the images of the
instruments and singers may become vague or smeared.
LISTENERS’ QUALITY EXPERIENCE
 Clarity (articulation, intelligibility, definition)
- The quality of sound which supports the comprehension of detail
and the distinct separation of individual musical notes and
articulations.
 Loudness (volume, strength)
- The overall quantity of sound, as heard by a listener.
 Localization
- The ability to determine the exact or approximate location of the
sound source.
 Reverberance
- Running Liveliness - The sense of a persistence of sound as
heard during ongoing speech or music.
- Reverberation (decay, lingering) - The perceived lingering of
sound following the cessation of music.
 Envelopment (immersion)
- The sense of being surrounded by sound
 Proper timbre (Warmth, bass response or lack of
“boominess”, proper mid/high pitch)
- The tonal quality resulting from an abundance of low-pitched
sound (bass sound) within a room.
 Communication
- Musicians on Stage
- Musicians in Pit
 Feedback
QUALITIES OF ROOM SUITABILITY
 Reverberance or Liveliness: primarily a function of
the sound absorption in the room and quantified by
the Reverberation Time (RT60)
 Background Noise Levels: predominantly HVAC
noise, quantified by the NC or RC value
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
 Acoustical spaces such as concert halls,
classrooms, churches, offices, etc
 Industrial Environments - occupied spaces, or
enclosures around noise sources
SOUND FIELDS IN ENCLOSED SPACES
• Near field
– Generally within one wave length of the lowest frequency of sound produced by the
source
– Within this distance, sound pressure level measurements vary widely and are not
meaningful
– Maximum wave length of a human male voice is about 3 meters
• Reverberant field
– Close to large obstructions, such as walls, is dominant and approaches a diffuse
condition
– In well-designed music auditoriums, this field predominates and sound pressure
level remains relatively constant beyond the free field area
• Free (far) field
– Exists between the near and reverberant fields
– Intensity varies directly with pressure and inversely with distance squared
– Sound pressure level drops 6dB with each doubling of distance from the source
– It is in this field that meaningful sound pressure level measurements can be made
with respect to a specific source.
ROOM ACOUSTICS
 A field of acoustics that describes how sound propagates
in a closed or semi-closed space.
 Each space has its own sound ‘fingerprint’ which affects
the quality of a sound, whether this is speech, music or
any kind of noise.
 Key elements are:
– the sources and receivers of sound,
– the geometry of the closed space (room) and
– the materials (acoustic properties) of the walls.
SOURCES
Point Sources
 Simplest type of source - sound is
assumed to be generated at an ideal
point in space.
 A point source that radiates sound
equally to all directions is
called omnidirectional. If radiation is
not equal (e.g. stronger in front of the
source) a directivity pattern is needed
to describe it. Point sources and their
directivities can be
 Used to represent the majority of
sources in real life, but only when the
listener is away from the source at least
at a distance comparable to the source.
Line Sources
 Simply a line in space that
radiates sound constantly
throughout its length.
 This type of source could be
used to describe:
– Traffic noise from a big
highway, averaged over
time and over many
vehicles passing by.
– Pipes that carry noisy
flowing liquid.
– Public address (PA) line
arrays
Surface (plane) Sources
 Extending a line source to two
dimensions, we get a surface source.
 In this case sound is radiated from a
whole surface, and this type of source
can be used to describe:
– Machines with vibrating surfaces,
which are not small enough to be
simplified into point sources.
– Noise from crowd in a restaurant
or a party.
RECEIVERS
 All humans, animals and live organisms with a hearing system are
considered receivers.
 Electroacoustic equipment are also receivers of sound, helps pick up
even very low levels (inaudible for us) and translating sound waves
into electric signals and numerical sequences for further processing.
 Similar to sources, the simplest type of receiver is a point or
omnidirectional one - sound is picked equally from all directions.
 Humans are described as binaural receivers meaning that both the
left and right ear, and shape of head, should all be taken into
account.
GEOMETRY
 All surfaces contribute with reflections to the overall sound from the
source to the receiver creating a compound effect, which differs
significantly from room to room.
 A small part of the sound radiated from any source arrives at the
receiver directly.
 There is only one line connecting the source with the receiver directly,
therefore there is only one direct sound.
 If it is an omnidirectional source, sound is radiated equally to all other
directions which eventually hit the walls of the room and get reflected.
Many of the reflections will eventually arrive at the receiver at various
times after the direct sound.
Most important
MATERIALS
 Walls have the ability to absorb part of the sound energy that hits
them.
– Quantified by the absorption coefficient, a real number from 0 to 1.
– The absorption coefficient is simply the non-reflected sound
energy (absorbed or transmitted) divided by the sound energy that hits the
wall.
 An ideally hard wall absorbs no energy, thus absorption coefficient
would be 0, while an ideally soft wall absorbs all energy, so the
absorption coefficient would be 1.
 Each material in room acoustics is associated with an absorption
coefficient that varies throughout the frequency range. In
– Room Acoustics is mainly interested in frequencies from 125 Hz to 4000 Hz,
divided in 6 full octave bands, centered at 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000
Hz. Therefore, a material is described by a series of 6 absorption coefficients.
 If the surface of the wall was ideally smooth, the angle of reflection
would be exactly the same as the angle of incidence. If the surface
was ideally rough, the reflected sound energy would be scattered to
random directions. Again, in reality, no wall is ideally smooth or ideally
rough.
– Therefore, an extra coefficient called scattering coefficient is needed to
describe the behavior of the reflections from real-life walls.
– The scattering coefficient is a number from 0 to 1, and defined as the fraction
of the reflected sound energy that is scattered to random directions (different
from the angle of specular reflection).
ROOM ACOUSTIC PARAMETERS
Reverberation Time
 Most frequently used parameter in room acoustics. It is approximately
the time it takes for a sound to decay and cease to an inaudible level
after a loud sound source has been switched off.
 Can reveal information about the size and absorption of a room.
Large rooms with sound reflective surfaces have longer reverberation
times, while small rooms with sound absorptive surfaces have short
reverberation times. The reverberation time of a room is defined as
the time it takes for the sound to be attenuated by 60 dB after the
source has been switched off. This is noted as RT60.
 The loudest crescendo for most orchestral music is
about 100 dB and a typical room background level
for a good music-making area is about 40 dB.
 Thus the standard reverberation time is seen to be
about the time for the loudest crescendo of the
orchestra to die away to the level of the room
background.
 The 60 dB range is about the range of dynamic
levels for orchestral music.
Clarity
 Describes how clearly speech or music can be heard by the listener.
 Late reflections tend to deteriorate clarity. Therefore, the longer the
reverberation time, the lower the clarity.

Speech Transmission Index

 Used to describe how clear speech is transmitted in the room and
perceived by the listener.
 The calculation of the Speech Transmission Index is more
complicated than Clarity, taking into account the amplitude modulation
of speech, and the background noise.
 The parameter ranges from 0 (bad) to 1 (Excellent) and it is unitless.
COMMON ROOM ACOUSTIC
PHENOMENA
Echoes
 Typically, early reflections arrive within 50ms relative to the direct
sound and they enhance the signal heard by the receiver. So, they
have a positive effect.
 However, any early reflection (up to 2nd or 3rd orders of reflection)
that arrives later than 50ms can be perceived as a separate sound
with a disturbing effect. This is called an echo and gives the
impression that sound repeats itself.
 To perceive such an echo, the total distance travelled by the reflected
sound will be at least 17m, which is derived if we multiply the speed of
sound by the 50ms delay.
Flutter echoes
 Not to be confused with simple echoes, they are repetitive reflections
between parallel walls, usually with a high frequency.
 Flutter echoes can easily occur between parallel walls 5m apart, and
the time passed between the repetitive reflections is equal to the
distance divided by the speed of sound.
Focusing
 A common effect caused by curved surfaces. Sound reflections can
be concentrated in certain areas of the space, leaving others with too
little sound. Focusing is not a problem if the radius of curvature is less
than half the height of the room.
Whisper Gallery Effect
 The effect occurs in cylindrical rooms, where early reflections from
sources close to the walls focus on receivers close to the walls at any
angle. The result is that even a low-level sound can be heard at a
large distance, with surprising clarity and level.
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN OF
ROOMS FOR SPEECH
The spoken English language is almost entirely
dependent on the quality and clarity of the consonants
communicated within each word; not the vowels.
Here's a written example. See if you can figure out this
phrase using only the vowels. __e _e___ _ea __e___
_y __e _ea __o_e, __i_e __e _ai_ i_ __ai_
_o__i_ue_.
ROOM DESIGN
OBJECTIVES REQUIREMENTS
 Prime objective in the design for  There must be adequate loudness.
rooms intended for speaking  The sound level must be relatively
purposes uniform.
– Realization of conditions that  The reverberation characteristics
will provide good intelligibility of the room must be appropriate.
of speech  There must be a high signal-to-
noise ratio.
 Background noise levels must be
low enough to not interfere with
the listening environment.
 The room must be free from
acoustical defects such as long-
delayed reflections, flutter echoes,
focusing, and resonance
DESIGN OF ROOMS FOR SPEECH
 Rooms used primarily for speech
– Lecture rooms, classrooms
– Auditoriums
– Drama theaters
 Primary requirement of these spaces is that speech should be
intelligible without an undue strain on the listener
– The secondary requirement is to retain the natural character of the speaker’s
voice
– If a speech reinforcement is used, it should be of high fidelity and low level, so
that the distortion of the spoken word is minimized
 Speech intelligibility is maximizing the loudness of the speech and
minimizing the ambient noise level (65-40)
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
CLASSROOM CONSIDERATIONS
 Reverberation time in classrooms should be low to decrease the
masking effect of reverberation and maximize speech intelligibility
– RT of 0.4 to 0.5 seconds is recommended
– Students with special needs and senior citizens will benefit from lower RT
– Air conditioning noise
 The recommendation is also applicable to classrooms used as
distance learning centers
– These rooms are in effect audio studios where reverberation is of little use
 To achieve 0.4-0.5 RT, the room requires absorption in addition to that
provided by a lay-in ceiling
– Some parts of the wall surfaces need to be absorptive
 A decrease of background noise levels is also recommended
– Generally recommended Classroom NC (Noise Criteria) or RC (Room Criteria)
values is 35 to 40; this should be reduced to RC (or NC) 25
SPEAKER-LISTENER DISTANCE
 It is important to ensure that high
frequencies are least reduced
during their passage from
speaker to listener
– Speech power is contained in the
vowels which are low frequency
components of speech; speech
intelligibility is contained in the
consonants – the high frequency
components of speech
 Thus, the obvious design
strategy is to minimize the
speaker-listener distance, but at
no cost to audience comfort
HEARING and SEEING
 Minimizing speaker-listener
distance is not only important for
acoustical reasons
– For visual reasons, the listener will
see the speaker better if he is
closer to the speaker; good
lighting also aids intelligibility
– If one can see the speaker well, it
is likely that he will hear the
speaker well
 Maximum suggested distance
between farthest seat and stage
for lecture hall or auditorium is
25m; for drama theater, the
corresponding distance is 20m.
BALCONY and HALL DEPTH
 Provide a balcony in order to control speaker-listener distance
– To improve the flow of reflected sound under the balcony, the under-balcony
soffit and the room’s ceiling must be appropriately profiled
– If the ceiling and soffit profiles are not correctly designed, the under-balcony
space may not receive much-needed reflected sound due to shadow formation
– A deep balcony should be avoided; as a rough guide, the depth of balcony
overhang should not be more than twice the height of the balcony opening
BALCONY PARAPET
TREATMENT

 A balcony parapet can be

source of delayed reflections,
causing an echo in the front
part of the audience
– The height of the parapet and
thus serve as a reflector
– The echo problem is worse if the
balcony parapet is concave in
plan; a reflective concave
parapet produces sound
focusing, worsening the echo
problem
ROOM SHAPE
 Another strategy to minimize speaker-listener distance is to use a fan-shaped room
– Considering the directionality of speech, the suggested maximum side-wall splay for a room
is 30O; the absolute maximum being 65O
– Reflections from the side walls of a fan-shaped room are directed toward the rear of the
room where they are most needed
DIRECTIONALITY OF SPEECH
 The relative sound pressure levels (SPL) of speech in a horizontal
plane centered at the speaker’s mouth are for 2 regions – 125-250Hz
and 1.4-2kHz
– The SPL is maximum in the front of the speaker and decreases on either side
of the frontal direction
– The decrease is greater for the 1.4-2kHz region – a region that contributes
substantially to speech intelligibility
– the SPL behind the speaker is nearly 12dB lower than in front
ROOM VOLUME
 The smaller the volume/seat, the greater the sound energy available
to each listener;
– A smaller volume also means that a smaller amount of absorption is needed to
obtain a given reverberation time, since the reverberation time is directly
proportional to room volume (RT60=0.161V/ƩA)
REFLECTING/ABSORBING AREAS
 In a small classroom with a volume of 2.0m3/seat, the absorption
provided by the audience is all that is needed to obtain the required
RT
 Which parts of the room should be treated with sound absorbing
material, and which parts should not be treated?
EARLY REFLECTIONS
 The importance of providing
strong early reflections at the
listener
– Early reflections are sounds that
arrive within 50ms (0.05S) of the
direct sound; they are integrated
with the direct sound, thus,
increasing intelligibility
– Consequently, the path length
difference between the reflected
and direct sounds at a listener
should not exceed 20m
DELAYED REFLECTIONS
 Consider the difference
between the path lengths of the
direct sound and that reflected
from the rear wall in the front
part of the audience
– For a large to medium size hall,
this difference is usually greater
than 20m; therefore, the rear wall
has the potential to produce an
echo
 The recommendation - rear wall
should be treated with a sound
absorbing material, except for
small rooms (up to 100 to 150
person-capacity)
– As an alternative, the rear wall
can be diffusively reflective,
provided the required RT can be
achieved without an absorbing
treatment on the rear wall
FLAT FLOOR and SIGHT LINES
 A sight line is a line joining the eye of the seated person with the focal
point
 The focal point is the lowest point in the stage area that must be
visible to every person
– from the acoustical viewpoint, the focal point may represent the sound source
– in drama theater, the focal point could be the stage floor
 A clear sight line means that there is no visual obstruction (sight line
clears over the head of the person in front)
 The distance can be doubled if the seating arrangement is a
staggered type
– In staggered seating, c = 50mm
FLOOR RAKE
 A raked floor sloped upward from the
front raises the listeners, provides them
with a broader sound beam, indicating
a greater amount of sound energy
received by the audience
 A combined raked (sloped) floor and an
elevated stage (for the speaker) even
maximizes the direct sound energy
reaching the audience
 A sloped floor reduces excessive
audience absorption, since sound that
travels over the audience with a small
angle of incidence gets absorbed more
than the sound whose direction of
travel makes a larger angle with the
audience.
SLOPED FLOOR w/ VARYING SLOPE
 The beginning is made from the first row, which is usually at
elevation 0.
– The elevation of the 2nd row is established by drawing a line from the
top of the head of the person in the first row to the focal point and
extending it to the 2nd row; this gives the eye height of the 2nd row
– The elevation of the 3rd row, as well as the succeeding rows, is
determined in exactly the same way
 This procedure gives a floor slope that increases with distance from
the stage; if the aisle floor is stepped, the step heights will be unequal
 For life-safety reasons, building codes do not permit unequal steps in
aisles, thus, restricting the use of a ramped aisle for steep slopes
SLOPED FLOOR – UNIFORM SLOPE
 The slope is determined based on the fact that the sight line from the
last row should clear over the head of the person seated immediately
in the front
 If this slope is provided throughout the hall, all other seats will have
more than clear sight lines
 Floor slope is determined by calculating riser height for each row
width (tread)
SLOPED FLOOR – UNIFORM SLOPE
 To achieve clear sight lines, balcony floor slope must be greater than
that of the main floor
 If a mid-floor landing is provided in the hall, the floor slope of the rear
part of the hall needs to be greater then that of the front part
STAGE FLOOR
 Although the stage must be raised, its height should preferably be a
maximum of 1.05m so that the stage floor is visible from the eye
height of the 1st row
– If the hall is to be used only for lectures, a concrete stage floor is acceptable
– If the hall is also to be used for theatrical and musical performances, the stage
floor should be constructed of wood planks with an underlying air space (20mm
or greater) to provide some amplification of low frequencies and for the comfort
and safety of the performers
CEILING REFLECTIONS
 In a large auditorium or theater, the ceiling must be profiled so that as
much sound as possible can be directed towards the rear parts of the
hall
– The ceiling may be a continuous surface, or discrete suspended panels from
the overhead structural framework
– Suspended panels are usually preferred since they allow easier access to air
conditioning, lighting and other services located in the ceiling, apart from being
aesthetically pleasant
– The ceiling reflector profile is determined on the basis of geometrical acoustics
– The reflectors are organized in such a way that increasingly greater amount of
sound energy is directed to the rear of the hall
CEILING REFLECTORS
 Curved Ceiling Reflectors
– Where curved reflectors are used, their profile may be determined by drawing
the incident and reflected rays
– Curved reflectors are particularly useful in multipurpose halls since they diffuse
sound, giving less acoustical glare as compared to planar reflectors
 Size of Reflectors
– The size of each reflector panel must be at least 2.50m in any one direction
– The panels must be reasonably heavy in order to provide high degree of
reflection, and to ensure that their resonant frequency is outside the lowest
speech frequency range
AMBIENT NOISE
 Ambient noise in an auditorium or theater can arise from the following
sources:
– External noise, or other noise-producing activities outside the hall
– Noise generated by audience footsteps
– Air conditioning noise
 External noise can be best managed by providing ancillary spaces to
surround the hall to function as sound locks between the hall and the
outside
– If such surrounding ancillary spaces are not provided, external walls of the hall
must have a high STC value – STC 65 or greater
 To minimize footstep noise, the aisles should be carpeted
– The front part of the hall (between the stage and the 1 st row of seats) and the
floor under the seats may be left uncarpeted; a resilient floor covering may be
used in these areas
 Air conditioning noise should be as low as possible
– Air conditioning noise NC (Noise Criteria) or RC (Room Criteria) 25 is the
maximum recommended level for auditoriums and theaters
Sh_ s_lls s__ sh_lls b_ th_ s__ sh_r_,
wh_l_ th_ r__n _n Sp__n c_nt_n__s.
DESIGN OF ROOMS FOR
MUSIC
Concert Halls and Music Practice Rooms
INTRODUCTION
 As a special field of room acoustics, concert hall acoustics focuses in
the design of spaces for live music events, typically unamplified.
 Concert halls are usually intended for classical music performances
(mainly symphonic works) with audience capacity ranging from 300 to
2500 seats.
DESIGN DETERMINANTS
 Ideally, each music type requires a different type of space to
maximize listening pleasure.
 Even a modern symphony hall is required to accommodate a full
symphony orchestra, small orchestra, orchestra with choir, duets, and
even educational programs for schools
 The character of the acoustics of music spaces is also due to the
large ensemble of musical instruments typical of a modern symphony
– Each instrument has a different acoustical requirement for optimization; the
organ requires long reverberation time, while the piano requires smaller
reverberation time; the reverberation requirements for string and percussion
instruments are somewhere in between.
MUSIC and ACOUSTICS
 The two realms have thus developed their own languages with their
own vocabularies
 However, the issues relevant to a musician are, to a large extent, the
same with that of the acoustician
– Judgement of music and the acoustical qualities of music space are evaluated
using the same dimension
EARLY and REVERBERANT SOUND
 Recent studies have indicated that some of the important acoustical
attributes are related to the early sound – the sound that reaches
the listener within the short interval after the direct sound
– The sound that reaches the listener after the early sound is called the
reverberant sound.
 Thus, the acoustical phenomena related to the musical attributes
may be divided into two categories
 Attributes related to early sound
– Reverberance – the early decay time
– Clarity
– Intimacy
– Spaciousness – the laterality of sound
 Attributes related to reverberant sound
– Spaciousness – the listener envelopment
– Warmth
– Brilliance
– Loudness
TYPES OF CONCERT HALLS
“SHOEBOX” CONCERT HALL
 The shoebox shape is simply a
rectangular room, typically with
some balconies.
 Characteristic of most shoebox
halls – particularly the historical
ones – is their “fullness” of
sound, the importance of the
room effect and the sensation of
being surrounded by sound.
 Ornamentations or other
elements are essential to avoid
the undesirable effects of
reflective parallel walls that color
the sound and generate flutter
echoes between the walls.
VINEYARD CONCERT HALL
 Named such because the seating
sections resemble slopes in a vineyard.
 This type of room has several
advantages:
– It is visually interesting.
– The irregular pattern helps to avoid
acoustic issues, such as flutter echoes and
focusing.
 The design is very complicated and
expensive.
– The location of the audience behind and to
the sides of the stage, plus the absence of
a balcony results in a room width much
bigger than shoebox halls, and wider than
what is acoustically acceptable.1
ARENA AND AMPHITHEATRE CONCERT
HALL
 Works acoustically well for theatre
and speech.
– However, this shape creates acoustic
problems for music and it is necessary
to increase the reverberation and the
room effect by closing off the acoustic
volume.
 Needs to “break up” the concave
shape that generates focusing and
to add reflective surfaces inside the
volume to obtain a better distribution
of the acoustic energy.
– Acoustic reflectors covering part of the
stage and the audience can be
installed for better energy distribution.
FAN-SHAPED CONCERT HALL
 Fan-shaped rooms are the more
common; able to accommodate a
large number of attendants while
keeping a frontal view of the
performers.
 Not prone to flutter echoes, simply
because of the non-parallel walls.
– The width of the room at the rear seats
allows for spaciousness of sound.

 A type of hall to avoid from an acoustic point of view

– Reflections of the lateral walls are directed toward the back of the room while
the front and middle areas do not benefit from any of those lateral reflections.
– This absence of lateral reflections results in a weak subjective sense of
envelopment.
– The lack of lateral reflections can only be partly compensated for by ceiling
reflections.
REVERSE FAN-SHAPE HALL
 A type of hall derived from the fan-shape, but is more an extension or
optimization of the shoebox shape in which the lateral walls are not
perfectly parallel to each other but create a room which is wider at
the front than it is at the back.
– The advantage of such a room is that the reflections of the lateral walls
become more efficient at the back of the room.
 For a rectangular shoebox, the reflections on the rear end of the
lateral walls do not reach the middle area of the room.
– By narrowing the back of the room, these reflections can be orientated toward
the listeners in the middle area.
– The reflections are therefore being reinforced in the back of the room and for
the entire audience.
CAPACITY OF THE ROOM
 Three different capacities for symphonic concert halls:
– Between 1300 (or less) and 1500 seats;
– Between 1500 and 2000 seats;
– More than 2000 seats.
 The sound level of a symphony orchestra does not depend on the
number of listeners.
– The hall and its acoustic volume is designed in view of sound levels and
acoustic conditions relating to the orchestra, rather than paying too much
attention to the number of listeners.
– For rooms with a capacity of less than 1500 seats, the sound volume per
listener is therefore significant and increases further as the seat count
decreases.
 Halls with more than 2000 seats present a double challenge.
– The sound level in the room needs to be maximized - acoustic energy is
limited.
– Room dimensions need to be increased.
OTHER GEOMETRICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
SUSPENDED REFLECTORS
 An important objective of a concert hall is to deliver the sound to
different audience sections as uniformly as possible.
 The room’s actual ceiling is unlikely to be able to accomplish this.
– Therefore, it is common to install suspended reflectors off the ceiling, at angles
that will reflect the sound towards different audience sections.

SPACIOUSNESS/ENVELOPMENT
 By taking into consideration the angles of the walls at both sides of
the audience, and adjusting reflections of the walls using reflectors, it
is possible to redirect the sound from the stage back into the
audience at a very lateral angle.
– The result will be a perception of the music source being much wider than it
really is, compared to the case where a listener only receives the direct sound
from the stage.
– The attribute related to lateral reflections is called the apparent source width
(ASW). The greater the ASW, the better the music.
STAGE SUPPORT
 Room acoustics must be designed with not only the audience in mind,
but also considering the musicians.
 A concert hall without high enough sound strength will make the
musicians feel like their instrument is not producing strong enough
sound, leading to frustration and unbalanced overall sound.
 It is also important that the musicians are able to hear themselves, so
it is helpful to have reflectors at their sides and/or above them.
ROOM ACOUSTIC
PARAMETERS
REVERBERANCE – EARLY DECAY TIME
 The initial part of the decay outline correlates with reverberance
– Music consists of successive notes, and the latter part of the decay of a note is
submerged or masked by the succeeding note/s
 The time associated with the early part of the decay process is called
the early decay time (EDT)
– EDT is made up of few isolated early reflections; RT consists of a multitude of
reflections
– EDT is sensitive to room geometry since early reflections come from
identifiable room surfaces; RT is due to reflections that come from virtually all
room surfaces so it is independent of room geometry
 A short EDT provides “clarity” and a long RT provides “liveness” to
music
DEFINITION or CLARITY
 The sound reaching the listener within 0.08s (80ms) of the arrival of
the direct sound is integrated with the direct sound
 If this sound energy arriving within 80ms is large in relation to the
later arriving sound, the discrete notes in a piece of music stand
apart from one another, giving music a sensation of definition or
clarity
– Conversely, a decrease in early sound energy – more energy in the
reverberant part – tends to decrease definition and adds “fullness of tone”
– An excess in fullness of tone tends to muddy the tone
– It is obvious that C80 is related to RT – in an inverse relationship
– As the RT increases, the early energy decreases and the reverberant energy
increases, thus, resulting to low clarity
INTIMACY
 It is the subjective impression of the size of the hall
 A small hall helps establish a sense of closeness to the source, giving
a feeling of intimacy
– Thus, narrow halls, measuring 20 to 23m are considered as intimate
 The opposite feeling, usually obtained in wide halls, is one of being
“detached” or “remote” from the performance
 The acoustical measure of intimacy is called initial time delay gap
(ITDG), defined as the interval in milliseconds between the arrival of
the direct sound and the 1st reflection at the listener
– The smaller the interval, the more intimate the hall, or the more involved the
listener feels with the performance
INITIAL TIME DELAY GAP
 It is obviously a function of the size of the hall.
 ITDG is a means of mentally establishing whether one is in an
acoustically small or large space.
– A blind person can judge the size of the hall fairly accurately, based just on his
assessment of ITDG.
 ITDG varies with the listener location in a hall.
– The larger the hall, the farther apart its surfaces, resulting in a longer path
difference between the direct and the reflected sounds at the listener, which
renders a larger ITDG
– For listeners close to sound reflecting surfaces where the difference between
the direct and reflected paths is small, they perceive the hall as being intimate
 Controlling the width of the hall, or providing side walls close to the
audience is useful strategy.
 In a wide hall or in an open-air music space, the intimacy can be
improved by the use of an orchestral enclosure – a stage with
boundaries located close to the musicians
– The enclosure provides early reflection of sounds at the listeners apart from
enhancing other musical attributes
 The appropriate value of ITDG varies with the type of music played in
the hall
– Chamber music, intended for performance in a small and intimate room, will
sound smeared, and the intricacies of its detail blurred, when played in a very
large space
– For concert halls, a low ITDG value is preferred; highly rated spaces achieve
16ms, while lowly rated halls achieve 31ms
– The ITDG values were taken at an approximate center of the hall - nearly
halfway between the stage and the balcony front
WARMTH
 A slight increase in low frequency (bass) reverberation is an important
requirement for music halls – to provide warmth to music
– Warmth is determined by comparing low and high frequency reverberations,
called the bass ratio (BR)
 A BR greater than 1.0 is desirable for warmth in music
– Recommended BR value is between 1.1 to 1.25 for halls with an RT greater
than 1.8 seconds
– For halls with RT less than 1.8 seconds, BR should be between 1.1 and 1.45
– A BR greater than the recommended value should be avoided
• Conversely, music played in a hall with a BR less than 1.0 lacks
warmth
– Only hard and heavy surfaces, such as concrete and masonry, are
recommended for music hall interiors
– Room surfaces of lightweight panels with air cavity backup increase low
frequency absorption, thereby reducing BR
BRILLIANCE
 High frequencies (2kHz and above) are more easily absorbed by
most building materials than low and mid frequencies
– High frequencies are also reduced by air, while low and mid frequencies are
not. Consequently, early decay time (EDT) and reverberation time (RT) tend to
be lower at high frequencies
– Thus, music performed in halls with a very low EDT or RT at high frequencies
lack brilliance - a brilliant music is one that is not deficient in high frequencies; it
gives a bright, clear and ringing sound
 To achieve adequate brilliance in music, surfaces that are good high
frequency absorbers, such as draperies and carpets, etc., should be
used with extreme care in buildings intended for music
LOUDNESS
 Inadequate loudness is frustrating; excessive loudness is
overpowering
– A poorly designed large hall may suffer from lack of loudness particularly in
seats away from the orchestra; in a small hall, the orchestra may be too loud
 Loudness (Gmid) is made up of the strength of the direct sound and
the reverberant sound
– The direct sound is a function of the size (volume) of the hall; reverberant
sound is dependent on the reverberation time – in fact early decay time (EDT).
 Thus, Gmid is inversely proportional to the volume of the hall, V, and
directly proportional to EDT
Gmid = EDT/V
 The recommended value of Gmid is between 4.0 to 5.5dB
 ARCHITECTURAL
REQUIREMENTS
PARAMETERS
Ideal : between 12m3 and 13m3.
Volume per person
Acceptable : between 11m3 and 14m3
Approximately 30000m3 (between 28000
and 32000m3) to obtain 12 to 13m3 per
Total volume
person in the audience and for 2400
seats.
1400m2 including 500m2 close to the
Reflective surfaces musicians (less than15m from a point of
the stage).

Height of the auditorium
Height of the reflectors above stage
Variable acoustic absorption
(curtains or other elements)
The height will be chosen by the design
team to obtain the appropriate volume of
30000m3.
The ceiling will not necessarily be flat. It is
understood and considered acceptable
that the total height (omitting the acoustic
reflectors) above the stage can be greater
than 20m.
Required variability: between 10 and 16m
for a continuous large reflector (canopy)
and 8 to 14m for a set of smaller acoustic
reflectors
More than 1200m2 of absorbing material is
required, which shall be exposed to sound
or removed with the use of motorized or
mechanized machinery.
BUILDING UTILITIES 3
Lecture 6 – Sound Control
SOUND CONTROL
 Controlling sound is often assumed that we are referring to the
reduction of sound.
 There are cases that we want to preserve the sound energy, and
control its spatial spreading characteristics.
 Primary ways to reduce sound are through absorption, insulation and
vibration isolation.
– Absorption may eliminate unwanted sound reflections, but poses the possibility
of some people hearing the sound coming from a source
– Redirection and diffusion can have favorable acoustic results for even sound
distribution
ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION
 Converts sound energy into heat energy and is used to reduce sound
levels within rooms1.
 When sound energy impinges on a material, part of that energy is
reflected and the rest is absorbed.
 The term used to define the material’s sound absorption characteristic
is coefficient of absorption.
– The theoretical limits are 1 and 0; if a material absorbs all sound incident upon
it, its absorption coefficient is 1.
 Absorption coefficients vary with frequency3.
 To describe the absorption characteristics of a material, a value has
been defined using a single number and incorporating multiple-
frequency components. This value is called Noise Reduction
Coefficient (NRC).
– NRC values should be used only when the sound sources of interest are within
the 250- to 2kHz range.
 Useful in reducing or eliminating unwanted reflections off surfaces
– Standing waves can be eliminated by covering one of the parallel surfaces with
absorptive material
 Can also be used to eliminate echoes
– Rear walls of auditoriums are installed with absorptive materials since rear walls
have the greatest potential to cause echoes.
 Most common use is to control reverberation
– Reverberation is the build-up of sound within the room, resulting from repeated
sound wave reflections off all of its surfaces
– Reverberation can increase sound levels within a room by up to 15 dBA, as well
as distort speech intelligibility.
– Reverberation is desirable for rooms in which music is being played to add a
pleasant elongation of tones. Therefore, there are different reverberation
characteristics that would be appropriate for different room uses.
NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT
SOUND-ABSORBING MATERIALS
Sound absorbing materials can be classified based on the
mechanism by which they absorb sound:
 Porous absorbers
– Porosity of the material may be due to the fibrous composition or due to voids
between granules or particles of the material.
– Fiberglass and mineral wool are the most commonly used porous absorbers.
Other materials are rigid mineral fiberboards with fissured or pierced surfaces –
used primarily as ceiling tiles
 Panel or membrane absorbers
– A solid unperforated panel installed against a hard substrate with an intervening
air space
– When a sound wave falls on such a panel, it sets the panel into vibration and
loses some energy by damping
 Volume absorbers
– Consist of a volume of air connected to the general atmosphere through a small
volume of air called neck
– Other terms used for this absorber are: cavity absorber, cavity resonator or
Helmholtz resonator.
OTHER SOUND-ABSORBING
MATERIALS
Other sources of absorption in the room are:
 Occupancy absorption (furniture and human beings)
 Air absorption
 Occupancy absorption
– Audience absorption is usually the largest contributor (75%) to the total
absorption of an auditorium or concert hall
– Some other factors affecting audience absorption are:
o Type of upholstery on seats
o Type of dress worn by the audience
o Slope of the floor
 Air absorption
– Air absorbs sound, but is significant only at high frequencies – 2kHz and above
– Air absorption (Aair) is given by the formula Aair= m V, where V is the volume of
the room in m3 (or ft3), and m is the air attenuation coefficient, expressed in
sabins/m (or sabins/ft).
INSULATION
INSULATION
Sound insulation is similar in many ways to the description of sound
absorption.
‒ As for absorption, there is a transmission coefficient that ranges from the ideal
limits of 0 to 1. Unlike the absorption coefficient though, the limit of 1 is
practically possible ( a transmission coefficient 1 means that all of the sound
energy is transmitted through a partition). Zero value (meaning no sound
transmission) , however, is not practical since some sound will always travel
through a partition.
‒ The principal descriptor for sound insulation is a decibel based on the
transmission coefficient, known as transmission loss (TL).
‒ TL can be loosely defined as the amount of sound reduced by a partition
between a sound source and a listener. TL is the quantity that is reported in a
manufacturer’s literature since it is measured in a laboratory.
‒ TL is frequency dependent; TL values increase with increasing frequency.
‒ The single-number rating for TL that takes into account the entire frequency
spectrum is known as the Sound Transmission Class (STC). STC values are
based on decibels.
‒ Similar to NRC, STC is useful to describe the sound insulation efficiency of a
partition over the human speech frequency range of 500 to 2kHz.
NOISE REDUCTION
• Noise by definition is an unwanted sound
– We, therefore, want to reduce, rather than redirect, noise to
acceptable levels, when we talk about controlling it
• Noise level in a building is a combination of 2 sources: interior
noise – that produced inside the building – and exterior noise
– Primary source of interior noise is the use and occupancy of the
building
• Noise can be controlled at its source, in the path between the
source and the listener, or at the listener
– The most effective control takes place at the source
– If noise can be controlled at its source, it is unnecessary to consider
the path or listener locations
– If the noise can be controlled in the path, it is unnecessary to
consider the listener’s location for noise control measures
NOISE REDUCTION
Control at the Source Control in the Path Control at the Listener

Maintenance Enclose source Relocate listener

Avoid resonance Install barrier Enclose listener

Have listener use hearing

Relocate source Install proper muffler
protection
Remove unnecessary Add masking sound at
Install absorptive treatment
sources listener's location

Use quieter models Isolate vibrations

Redesign source to be
Use active noise control
quieter
NOISE RATING [NR]
 Noise Rating curves have been the
international standard for indicating
acceptable sound levels within a
space.
 NR curves were developed by the
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO.)
 Each curve depicts the acceptable dB
levels across a range of frequencies
between 31.5 Hz and 8,000 Hz (8 kHz).
NOISE CRITERION [NC]
 Noise Criterion was developed in the
1950s and was most often used in the
United States to depict the acceptable
range of background noise in a space.
 It is measured in the range of 63 Hz to
8000 Hz (8 kHz).
ROOM CRITERIA [RC]
 Room Criteria is an alternative range of
allowable background noise in a
building or room that was developed in
the 1980s.
 It is measured in the range of 16 Hz to
4000 Hz (4 kHz).
 Like NC, RC takes into account the
general “hum” of the building.
 However, RC looks at sounds at much
lower frequency levels to account for
rumbling HVAC equipment.
 RC are depicted with straight lines of
constant slope, which were observed to
be the average spectrum seen in office
buildings in the 1980s.
BALANCED NOISE CRITERION
(NCB)
 The new Balanced Noise Criterion
curves, updated in ANSI S12.2-2008,
accounts for sound frequencies down
to 16 Hz, which will address issues
from the low-frequency hum of energy
efficient HVAC equipment.
 NCB also reduces the higher frequency
levels to eliminate hiss.
RC MARK II
 This criteria is an improvement to the
original Room Criteria.
 It is almost the same as RC, except
that it takes into account the subjective
response of room occupants to
vibrations of very low frequencies,
which are often caused by HVAC
equipment.
 It was developed in the late 1990s.
INTERIOR NOISE CONTROL
DESIGN GUIDELINES
Eliminating reflections is not always a useful thing to do especially in
rooms where an audience is listening to a performance or a lecture.
‒ It is desirable that the audience hear the sound not only clearly, but without
preference to seating location.
 Eliminate sharp echoes by avoiding smooth, flat, reflective surfaces
 Install irregular and convex surfaces to diffuse the sound evenly
throughout the audience.
‒ For smaller rooms that require diffusion, special commercial sound-diffusing
panels called QRDs (quadratic residue diffusers) are available
 Concave surface shapes should also be avoided.
‒ These surfaces focus sound in certain areas causing hot spots, and defocus
sound from others causing dead spots.
‒ If aesthetics require the need for it, it would be best to install absorptive or
diffusive surface and cover it with acoustically transparent material in the
concave shape.
 Reflective surfaces should be avoided for rear walls in auditoriums.
‒ They are beneficial, though, when they are close to the stage and along side
walls
BY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
The simplest and most efficient means of controlling interior
noise is through architectural design.
 Rooms where high noise level is expected should be separated from
noise-sensitive rooms. As much as possible, the building should be
zoned into noisy and quiet zones.
– In multistory apartment buildings, bedrooms and study rooms should be
separated from lobbies, corridors and general circulation areas
– Separation between noisy and noise-sensitive spaces should be examined both
in plan as well as sections
– Noise-sensitive spaces such as auditoriums, assembly halls, concert halls, etc.,
should be surrounded by ancillary spaces such as lobbies, foyers, toilets, etc.,
in order to isolate them from exterior noise
– Mechanical equipment rooms should be separated from rooms requiring quiet
– Open spaces and courtyards should be used, whenever possible, to separate
different or similar occupancies to provide acoustical isolation
SOUND ABSORPTIVE TREATMENT
 Sound-absorbing materials act by reducing the intensity of reflected
sound
– They are effective in reducing reverberant sound only; addition of sound
absorption has no effect on direct sound
– Absorptive material on its own is not effective in reducing noise; it should be
used as part of a multilayered enclosure on the inside
– Placing absorption close to the source reduces reverberant sound by a great
amount, since the sound gets absorbed before it becomes part of the
reverberant field
– In a small room, sound absorption may be placed on both the walls and ceiling
– In a large room with low ceiling, the ceiling is the best location for sound
absorption since it is the only surface close to the source; in a large room with
high ceiling, space absorbers are recommended since they can be hung from
the ceiling and brought closer to the source
– In a manufacturing facility, space absorbers coupled with free standing partial-
height sound absorbing barriers close to the sources are recommended
– Partial-height sound absorbing barriers are commonly used in open-plan offices
to produce speech-privacy
NOISE SOURCE LOCATION in ROOMS
 In a room with reflective walls, keep noise sources away from the
walls
– theoretically, a noise source near reflective walls increases the noise level by
3dB as compared to a source in the center of a room
– A noise source near the edge of a room increases the level by 6dB; a source
placed at the corner of a room increases the level by 9dB
– Therefore, machines in a manufacturing facility should be placed away from the
walls
NOISE CONTROL THROUGH BARRIERS
A barrier contrasts from an enclosure by being open to the air
on at least one side
 Because of diffraction, noise barriers are limited to 15dB of noise
reduction capability, whatever the material
– This is compromised even more if there are reflective ceilings above that
barrier; therefore, absorptive ceiling should be installed above them
 It is important to have no air spaces within or under the barriers
 A barrier must break the line of sight between the sound source and
the listener
– If the sound source is visible, that barrier cannot provide sound reduction from
the source
 A sound-insulating (full-height) barrier between a noisy environment
and the receiving room is, thus, the most effective means of interior
noise control
ENCLOSURES
Enclosures can be effective at reducing noise levels, provided
they are designed properly.
 Enclosure must completely surround the noise source having no air
gaps; An enclosure’s effectiveness is up to 70dB of reduction
 Enclosures must be isolated from floors or any structural members of
a building
– Chances of the enclosure sides perfectly sealing to the ground are slim;
therefore, air gaps would result
– Vibrations will be carried along the ground or floor since the source is in direct
contact with it
 Enclosures should not consist of only sound-absorptive material
– Main purpose of absorptive material is to control reflections within spaces, not
to control sound transmission out of spaces
 Enclosure must consider that some noise sources require ventilation
– Ventilation systems must be developed that minimize noise transmission
– Leaving a simple opening for ventilation will severely compromise the noise
control effectiveness of the enclosure
EXTERIOR NOISE CONTROL
THROUGH SITE PLANNING
Site and town planning principles can be used to control
exterior noise
 Increase distance between noise source and receiver
 Heavy foliage coupled with several rows of trees reduces noise
– Although trees do not absorb much sound, they diffuse sound so that part falls
on the foliage where it gets absorbed
– Heavy foliage absorbs sound to the same degree as an interior carpet
– One or two rows of trees with no or little ground foliage will not reduce any more
sound than that reduced due to distance
– Trees should not be deciduous types
 Self-protecting building forms can shield noise-sensitive parts of the
building from the noise source
 Building housing noise-sensitive spaces should be laid perpendicular
to the street, and shielded by buildings that can tolerate noise
 If tall buildings have overhanging balconies facing a busy street, the
underside of those balconies should be treated with sound-absorbing
material to absorb sound before it hits the building facade
 Residential districts and other areas where quiet is needed should be
separated from industrial districts, highways, railways, airports, etc.
 Road network should be planned in such a way that traffic is
concentrated on a few streets rather than being distributed on several
of them
 Avoid placing objectionable sound source near a still body of water
that lies between the source and receiver; refraction effects cause the
sound to travel across that body of water with little reduction
 Avoid location noise-sensitive buildings in the prevailing downwind
direction of a noise source
– As with temperature variations, shadow zones are set up upwind of a noise
source and sound travels farther outdoors with the wind
BY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
 Doors and windows of buildings can, in large measure, determine the
overall transmission loss of a wall
– Since doors and windows have a lower acoustic transmission loss than the wall
in which they are mounted, particular care must be taken not to degrade
performance further with air leaks
– Louvered doors and door undercuts to permit air movement are useless as
sound barriers
– The most important step in soundproofing doors is complete sealing around the
opening; a door in the closed position should exert pressure on gaskets, making
the joints airtight
– When single doors do not provide sufficient reduction, a sound lock consisting
of 2 doors, preferably with sufficient space between them to permit full door
swing; all surfaces In the sound lock should be covered completely by
absorbent material and the floor carpeted
– Another important consideration with respect to sound intrusion via doors is the
location of a door with respect to sources of unwanted sound
 Windows are critically important to block exterior noise, thus making
them the deciding factor in the composite exterior wall transmission
loss
– As with doors, proper gasketing and sealing are very important
– Double glazing is effective only when the 2 panes are separated by a wide air
gap; small sealed air spaces is desirable only for thermal insulation because a
large space allows convection current to transfer heat
 Just as sound will pass through the acoustically weakest part of a
composite wall, it will also find parallel or flanking paths, i.e., an
acoustic short-circuit
– Proper design of door and window location should be observed to avoid
flanking paths
TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE
NOISE IMPACTS
Lecture 7
Four major actions which can be taken to improve noise compatibility for any type of
land use or activity.
 Site planning - uses the arrangement of buildings on a tract of land to minimize
noise impacts by capitalizing on the site’s natural shape and contours. Open
space, nonresidential land uses, and barrier buildings can be arranged to shield
residential areas or other noise sensitive activities from noise, and residences
can be oriented away from noise.
 Architectural design - incorporates noise reducing concepts in the details of
individual buildings. The areas of architectural concern include building height,
room arrangement, window placement, and balcony and courtyard design.
 Construction methods - involves the use of building materials and techniques
to reduce noise transmission through walls, windows, doors, ceilings, and floors.
This area includes many of the new and traditional “soundproofing” concepts.
 Barrier construction - between noise sources and noise-sensitive areas.
Barrier types include berms made of sloping mounds of earth, walls and fences
constructed of a variety of materials, thick plantings of trees and shrubs, and
combinations of these materials.
ACOUSTICAL SITE PLANNING
Site Planning Techniques
 increasing the distance between the noise source and the receiver
 placing nonresidential land uses such as parking lots, maintenance facilities, and
utility areas between the source and the receiver
 locating barrier-type buildings parallel to the noise source or the highway
 orienting the residences away from the noise
Parking Garage to shield residential area.
Parking spaces, end of buildings, and a baseball diamond are placed
near the highway. A berm is constructed and trees are planted to shield
residences from traffic noise.
Placement of noise compatible land uses near highway in Planned
Unit Development
In cluster development, open space can be placed near the highway to
reduce noise impacts on residences
ACOUSTICAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Room Arrangement
Solid Walls
One Story Houses
In cases where either the house or the
highway is slightly recessed or a barrier
has been placed in the sound path, the
noise impact may be further reduced if
the house has only one story. If the
single-story design is inefficient, the split-
level design may be effective. In any
case the path of the sound waves should
be assessed before the building design is
drawn. Noise impacts can be reduced by use of single story houses.
Balconies

The standard jutting balcony facing the road may reflect traffic noise
directly into the interior of the building.
Courtyards
 Proper architectural design may also provide
for noise reduction in an area outside of the
building.
 The court garden and patio houses can
provide outdoor acoustical privacy.
 Schools, rest homes, hotels, and multi-family
apartment dwellings can also have exterior
spaces with reduced noise by means of
court yards.

Use of courtyard house to obtain quite outdoor environment

CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Factors which influence sound attenuation of walls

Factors which influence sound attenuation of walls
Increase the mass and stiffness of the wall.
In general, the denser the wall material, the more it will reduce noise. Thus, concrete walls are better insulators than wood walls
of equal thickness. Increasing the thickness of a wall is another way to increase mass and improve sound insulation. Doubling
the thickness of a partition can result in as much as a 6 dB reduction in sound. However, the costs of construction tend to limit
the feasibility of large increases in wall mass.
The relative stiffness of the wall material can influence its sound attenuation value. Care must be taken to avoid wall
constructions that can vibrate at audible frequencies and transmit exterior sounds.
Use cavity partitions.
A cavity wall is composed of two or more layers separated by an airspace. The airspace makes a more effective sound insulator
than a single wall of equal weight, leading to cost savings.
Increase the width of the airspace.
A three-inch airspace provides significant noise reduction, but increasing the spacing to six inches can reduce noise levels by
an additional 5 dBA. Extremely wide air spaces are difficult to design.
Increase the spacing between studs.
In a single stud wall, 24 inch stud spacing gives a 2-5 dB increase in STC over the common 16 inch spacing.
Use staggered studs.
Sound transmission can be reduced by attaching each stud to only one panel and alternating between the two panels.
Use resilient materials to hold the studs and panels together.
Nails severely reduce the wall’s ability to reduce noise. Resilient layers such as fiber board and glass fiber board, resilient clips,
and semi-resilient attachments are relatively inexpensive, simple to insert, and can raise the STC rating from 2-5 dB.
Use dissimilar leaves.
If the leaves are made of different materials and/or thickness, the sound reduction qualities of the wall are improved.
Add acoustical blankets.
Also known as isolation blankets, these can increase sound attenuation when placed in the airspace. Made from sound
absorbing materials such as mineral or rock wool, fiberglass, hair felt or wood fibers, these can attenuate noise as much as 10
dB. They are mainly effective in relatively lightweight construction.
Seal cracks and edges.
If the sound insulation of a high-performance wall is ever to be realized, the wall must be well sealed at the perimeter. Small
holes and cracks can be devastating to the insulation of a wall. A one-inch square hole or a 1/16 inch crack 16 inches long will
reduce a 50 STC wall to 40.
Windows
Close windows
 The first step in reducing unwanted sound is to close and seal the windows.
 The greatest amount of sound insulation can be achieved if windows are permanently sealed. However, openable acoustical
windows have been developed which are fairly effective in reducing sound.
 Whether or not the sealing is permanent, keeping windows closed necessitates the installation of an air-conditioning system. The
air conditioning system may in addition provide some masking of noise.
 If windows must be openable, special seals are available which allow windows to be opened.

Reduce window size

 The smaller the windows, the greater the transmission loss of the total partition of which the window is a part.
 Reducing the window size is a technique that is used because (a) it precludes the cost of expensive acoustical windows, and (b) it
saves money by cutting down the use of glass.
 The problems with this technique are (a) it is not every effective in reducing noise; e.g., reducing the proportion of window to wall
size from 50% to 20% reduces noise by only 3 decibels; and (b) many building codes require a minimum window to wall size ratio.
Windows
Increase glass thickness
 If ordinary windows are insufficient in reducing noise impacts in spite of sealing techniques, then thicker glass can be installed. In
addition, this glass can be laminated with a tough transparent plastic which is both noise and shatter resistant. Glass reduces
noise by the mass principle; that is, the thicker the glass, the more noise resistant it will be. A 1/2-inch thick glass has a maximum
STC rating of 35 dB compared to a 25 dB rating for ordinary 3/16-inch glass.
 However, glass thickness are only practical up to a certain point, when STC increases become too insignificant to justify the cost.
For example, a 1/2-inch-thick glass can have an STC of 35; increasing the thickness to 3/4 inch only raises the STC to 37.
However, a double glass acoustical window consisting of two 3/16-inch-thick panes separated by an airspace will have an STC of
51 and can cost less than either solid window.
 In addition to thickness, proper sealing is crucial to the success of the window. To prevent sound leaks, single windows can be
mounted in resilient material such as rubber, cork, or felt.
Windows
Install Double-Glazed Windows
 Double-glazed windows are paired panes separated by an airspace or hung in a special frame.
 Generally, the performance of the double-glazed window may be increased with:
o increased airspace width
o increased glass thickness
o proper use of sealing
o slightly dissimilar thickness of the panes
o slightly non-parallel panes
Windows
 In general, the airspace between the panes should not be less than 2-4 inches if an STC above 40 is desired. If this is not
possible, a heavy single-glazed window can be used. The use of slightly non-parallel panes is a technique employed when
extremely high sound insulation is required, such as in control rooms of television studios.
 The thickness of double-glazed panes may vary from 1/8 to 1/4 inch or more per pane. Although thickness is important, the factors
which most determine the noise resistance of the window is the use of sealant and the width of the airspace.
 As in the case of all windows, proper sealing is extremely important. To achieve an STC above 43, double-glazed windows should
be sealed permanently. If the windows must be openable, there are available special frames and sealers for openable windows
which allow a maximum STC of 43.
 Permanently sealed double-glazed windows often require an air pressure control system to maintain a constant air pressure and
minimal moisture in the airspace. Without this system, the panes may deflect, and, in extremely severe cases, pop out of the
frames.
 To further insure isolation of noise between double-glazed panes, the panes could be of different thicknesses, different weights,
and slightly non-parallel to each other. This prevents acoustical coupling and resonance of sound waves.
Doors
 Acoustically, doors are even weaker than windows, and more
difficult to treat. Any door will reduce the insulation value of
the surrounding wall.
 The common hollow core door has an STC rating of 17 dB.
Taking up about 20% of the wall, this door will reduce a 48
STC wall to 24 STC.
 To strengthen a door against noise, the hollow core door can
be replaced by a heavier solid core door that is well sealed
and is relatively inexpensive. A solid core door with vinyl seal
around the edges and carpeting on the floor will reduce the
same 48 STC wall to only 33 dB.
 An increased sound insulation value can be achieved if
gasketed stops or drop bar threshold closers are installed at
the bottom edge of the door.
 The alternative solution to doors is to eliminate them
whenever possible from the severely impacted walls and
place them in more shielded walls.
Ceilings
 Acoustical treatment of ceilings is not usually necessary unless the noise is extremely severe or the noise source is passing over
the building.
 The ordinary plaster ceiling should provide adequate sound insulation except in extremely severe cases.
 An acoustically weak ceiling which is likely to require treatment is the beamed ceiling.
 Beamed ceilings may be modified by the addition of a layer of fiberglass or some other noise resistant material.
 Suspended ceilings are the most effective noise reducers but they are also the most expensive.
Floors
 In the case of highway noise, floors would only require
acoustical treatment if the highway were passing under the
building.
 In this case, flooring would have to provide protection against
structural vibrations as well as airborne sound.
 Two ways to insulate a floor from noise are to install a solid
concrete slab at least 6 inches thick or install a floating floor.
 In general, the floating floor gives the greatest amount of
sound and vibration insulation; however, it is extremely
expensive.
 Basically, a floating floor consists of a wood or concrete slab
placed over the structural slab, but separated by a resilient
material. The resilient material isolates the surface slab from
the structural slab and the surrounding walls.
Interior Design
 Overall interior noise levels can be reduced by the extensive
use of thick, heavy carpeting, drapes, wall hangings, and
acoustical ceiling tiles.
 These materials absorb sound. They cannot prevent noise
from coming through the walls, but they can reduce overall
sound levels by reducing sound reverberations.
Masking
 Another way of coping with noise is to drown it out with
background noise.
 This technique is known as masking. It can be very effective
in reducing noise fluctuations which are often the most
annoying aspects of noise.
 Masking can be produced by air conditioning and heating
systems, soft music, or electronic devices.
BARRIER CONSTRUCTION
A noise barrier is an obstacle placed between a noise
source and a receiver which interrupts the path of the
noise. They can be made out of many different
substances:
To be effective, a barrier must block the “line of sight” between the
 sloping mounds of earth, called berms highest point of a noise source and the highest part of a receiver.

 walls and fences made of various materials including

concrete, wood, metal, plastic, and stucco
 regions of dense plantings of shrubs and trees
 combinations of the above techniques

Cross section of a berm

Wall barriers may reflect sound from one side of the

highway to the other.