Ch.

10: Superconductivity

 Electrical resistivity of solids

 Discovery of the superconductivity

Resistance in ohms of a
specimen of Hg versus
absolute temperature.

"Superconducting state"
~ the dc electrical resistivity is
zero : "perfect conductor"
~ persistent electrical currents
flow without attenuation in
superconducting ring for
more than a year.

(1913)
 Superconductors & superconducting transition temperature (Tc)

Material Tc (K)
Ga 1.1
Al 1.2
In 3.4
Sn 3.7
Hg 4.2
Pb 7.2
Nb 9.3
Nb3Sn 17.9
MgB2 39
Fe-pnictides ~50
Y-Ba-Cu-O ~92
Tl-Ba-Cu-O ~125
 Historical overview

• 1908 : Liquefying of Helium (H. K. Onnes)

• 1911 : Discovery of the superconductivity (H. K. Onnes)
• 1933 : Meissner effect (W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld)
• 1935 : London theory
• 1950 : Ginzburg-Landau theory
• 1957 : BCS theory (J. Bardeen, L. Cooper, J. Schrieffer)
• 1960 : Tunneling experiments (I. Giaever)
• 1962 : Josephson effect (B. D. Josephson)
• 1986 : Discovery of the high-temperature superconductivity
(J. G. Bednorz, K. Muller)
• 2003 : Theory of superconductors and superfluids
(A. A. Abrikosov, V. L. Ginzbrurg, A. J. Leggett)
 Superconducting transition temperature

LHe4
Diamond anvil
 Meissner effect : the magnetic properties of superconductors

(Normal state) (Superconducting state)

When a superconducting sphere is cooled in a constant magnetic

field, the lines of induction B are expelled from the sphere below
the transition temperature
- It can not be explained by the only idea of a perfect conductor
- A superconductor is a perfect diamagnet with zero magnetic
induction in the interior

 Superconducting levitation :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IkiEQTpqgU
  Destruction of superconductivity by magnetic fields

• A sufficiently strong magnetic field destroys superconductivity

• Threshold or critical magnetic field, Hc(T), is given by a function of the temperature

Hc(0) Normal state

superconducting
state
Tc

• A bulk superconductor behaves as if Btot = 0 inside the sample ~ Meissner effect

B tot  B a  4 M  0 (CGS) Nb
15
5.0 K
B tot  B a  0 M  0 (SI)
R()
5.5 K
6.0 K
10 6.5 K
7.0 K
7.5 K
5 8.0 K
8.5 K

0
0.0 0.5 1.0
Bc(7.5 K) B(T)
cgs units SI units
 Magnetization of superconductors  Phase diagram of superconductors
• Type 1 SC's : critical magnetic field of Hc as a perfect diamagnet (Pb, Hg, Sn, In, Al, ...)
• Type 2 SC's : Hc1 for a perfect diamagnetism and Hc2 for the vortex (or mixed) state (alloys)
 Pb1-xInx with
x=0 (A), 2.08%(B), 8.23%(c), 20.4%(D)

Superconducting magnetization curves of polycrystalline lead-indium alloys at 4.2 K

several tens teslas of

Hc2 for the application
of solenoidal coil in
MRI
 The superconducting state is more ordered than the normal state
 In all superconductors the entropy decreases markedly on cooling below Tc

 There is a discontinuity in the heat capacity

 The heat capacity in the superconducting state is an exponential form with an argument
proportional to -Eg/2kBT, where Eg is the energy gap of superconductor

Entropy

SN

SS

~ the second law of thermodynamics

 Superconducting energy gap cf) semiconductor band gap
EF + D

(a) conduction band in the normal state

Forbidden region (b) energy gap at the Fermi level in the
superconducting state. Electrons in excited
state above the gap behave as normal
electrons
EF - D

• Eg(0) = 2D(0) = 3.4 kBTc for conventional low temperature superconductors (or BCS SC's)

Energy gap normalized by zero-temp value

Eg (meV) Eg(0)/kBTc
Al 0.34 3.3
Ga 0.33 3.5
In 1.05 3.6
Sn 1.15 3.5
Pb 2.73 4.38
Nb 3.05 3.8

Temperature normalized by Tc
 Thermodynamics of the superconducting transition
 Consider the work done on a type-I superconductor when it is brought from a position
at infinity (where the applied field is zero) to a position r near a permanent magnet:

Ba

W    M  dBa per unit volume of specimen

0

Ba
Since M   (Meissner effect in cgs),
4
the differential free energy in the superconducting state is given by
a B Ba Ba
1 1
 M  dBa = Ba dBa  W    M  dBa   B dB   dF  Fs ( Ba )  Fs (0)
4 4
a a S
0 0 0

Ba2
Fs ( Ba )  Fs (0) 
8
When magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, the free energy is increased.
At the critical value Bac , the enrgies are equal in the normal and superconducting state!
Bac2
FN ( Bac )  Fs ( Bac )  Fs (0)   FN (0)
8
In the normal state, M = 0 and the energy is independent of magnetic field ~ FN ( Bac )  FN (0)
Ba2c
 DF  FN (0)  Fs (0)  ~ the stabilization free energy density of the superconducting state
8

If Ba>Bac, the normal state is the stable state.

An applied magnetic field increases F by Ba2/8.

For T<Tc, the metal becomes a superconductor in zero

magnetic field, so that Fs(T,0) is smaller than FN(T,0).
 London equation

qE

qE Heinz London (1907-1970)

nqv & Fritz London (1900-1954)

m

nq 2


E= ( Λjs )
t
Faraday's law & Ampere's law (cgs unit)
1 B 4
 E   ,  B  j
c t c
Using the vector identity,
4
    B =  (   B )   2 B   2 B   j
c

Taking the curl of the 1st London eq., E = ( Λjs )
t
1 B    1 
 E  -    ( Λjs )    ( Λ j )  B 0
c t t t  c 
s

1 1 nq 2 m
Set   ( Λjs )  B  0    js   B= B with  = 2 ~ 2nd London Eq.
c Λc mc nq
4 4  1  4 nq 2 B mc 2
 B
2
  js    B  B = 2 with L =
c c  Λc  mc 2
L 4 nq 2
Magnetic field inside a bulk superconductor,
B  B0 exp (  x L ) ~ Meissner effect
L (0)
and L (T ) 
1  (T Tc )
4
“The forgotten brothers” by S. Blundell
Physics World (April, 2011)
 BCS theory of superconductivity
 Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer: two electrons (k↑ and -k↓) moving in an ionic lattice can
experience an effective attractive force to be paired together (Cooper pairs).

At low temperature, an electron can draw the positive ions in

a superconducting material towards it. This movement of the
ions creates a more positive region that attracts another
electron to the area ~ phonon mediated attractive interaction
can overcome the repelling Coulomb interaction

• The binding energy of the pairing interaction is quite weak (Eg ≤ meV), and thermal energy
can easily break the Cooper pairs ~ superconducting transition temperature (Tc ≤ 10 K)

• Electrons are spin ½ fermions, but a Cooper pair is a composite boson with integer total
spin (spin singlet state ~ 0) ~ All the Cooper pairs can condensate into the same ground
state to exhibit the superconductivity
 Supercurrent density
 ( r ) ~ the particle probability amplitude  wavefunction describing Cooper pairs
n     constant ~ the pair concentration ~ one-half of the electron concentration (2n ) in conduction band
  n1/2 ei ( r ) ;    n1/2 e  i ( r )

The velocity of a particle obtained from the Hamiltonian equation is,

1 q  1 q 
v  p  A    -i   A  where p is a conjugate momentum
m c  m c 
The particle flux density is given by (J / e  nv, classically)
1 q  1/2 i ( r ) n  i ( r )  q i ( r )  n  q 
 v  n1/2 e  i ( r )
m
 -i   A
c 
 n e 
m
e 

-i ( ie i ( r )
)  ( r ) 
c
Ae  
 m
   ( r )  A
c 
nq  q  nq
The electric current density is j  q v    ( r )  A  (cgs) or (  ( r )  qA) (SI)
m c  m
nq 2 nq 2
We obtain the London equation:   j   B (cgs)   f  0 or   j   B (SI)
mc m
For Cooper pairs, q  2e
 Flux quantization in a superconducting ring
Consider a closed path C through the interior of the superconducting ring.
Since B and j are zero in the interior (Meissner effect),
nq  q  q
j     A  0    A
m c  c
2
The change of phase on going once around the ring ~ 1
  d   2  1
Note that the probability amplitude  must be single-valued
q
C    d  2 s  C c A  d with s = integer.
hc
Using the Stokes theorem, CAd  C (   A )  da = C B  da =  
q
s

where da is an element of area on a surface bounded by the curve C , and  is the magnetic flux
through C.
 hc   hc   h 
Then we obtain     s    s (in cgs) with s = integer or     s (in SI)
 q   2e   2e 
hc h
By experiment q  2e and  0  ~ a superconducting flux quantum or fluxoid or  0  in SI
2e 2e
   ext   sc ~  sc adjust itself for the quantization of 
• Magnetic flux through a superconducting ring is quantized with 0 = hc/2e in cgs, h/2e in SI
 Superconducting coherence length
• approximate spatial dimension (size) of the Cooper pair
• the length scale on which the superconducting order parameter changes considerably
• It is given by
2 vF 1 # What about  near Tc?
0  
 Eg Tc
 is a length scale to characterize B-field decay,
 Ginzburg-Landau parameter and  to characterize order parameter decay.
 1
 0    ~ type I SC's ~ most pure metals
2
   / 
 1   ~ type II SC's ~ alloys with short mean free path
 2
 Vortex state
• A thermodynamic state of type-II superconductors allowing the coexistence of the resistive
and superconducting subregions
• A mixed state between Hc1 and Hc2
• "Vortex" state describes the circulation of superconducting currents in vortices in a
specimen ~ Abrikosov vortex (cf. Josephson vortex)
• The surface energy at the interface between the superconducting and the normal region
is negative ~ thermodynamically stable state

Schematic view of the Abrikosov vortex Magnetic particle decoration experiment

reveals the hexagonal lattice of vortices
• Ch Jooss et al, Rep. Prog. Phys. 65, 651 (2002)
 Structure of an isolated vortex
 The onset of the vortex state ~ Hc1
magnetic field in the normal core of the fluxoid ~ H c1
lateral area of the normal core is approximately ~  2
magnetic flux in a single vortex core should be equal
to the flux quantum.
0  2 H c1  H c1  0 /  2
(cf. vortex flow ~ Lorentz + Magnus force)

 At Hc2 the fluxoids are packed as tightly as possible

The spacing between two vortices are reduced to be the coherence
length  , a minimum distance to preserve the superconducting state
The magnetic field penetrates the specimen almost uniformly, with
small ripples on the scale of the fluxoid lattice
The magnetic flux per each vortex corresponds to

 0   2 H c 2 Thus, H c 2  02

Hc2  2
And  2 2
H c1 
 dc Josephson effect (1) * Reference: Feynman Lectures III

 1 ( 2 ) : probability amplitude to find a Cooper pair in the left (right) electrode

  
Applying time-dependent Schrodinger equation  i  H  for both sides,
 t 
 1  2 Nobel prize
i  E1 1  T 2 and i  E2 2  T 1 where E1  E2 (1962)
t t
where T is a transfer interaction across the insulator or a measure of the leakage of  1 into
the region 2, and of  2 into the region 1
Now we set E1  E2  0 ~ Two SC's are almost equal with each other. E  0 as a reference.
 1  2
i  T 2 and i  T 1
t t
 dc Josephson effect (2)
 1  2
i  T 2 and i  T 1   1  n11/2ei1 and  2  n1/2
2 e
i 2

t t
 1 1 1/2 n1 i1 
 n1 e  in11/2 ei1 1  iTn1/2 2 e
i 2
(1)
t 2 t t
 2 1 1/2 n2 i2 i 2  2
 n2 e  in1/2
2 e  iTn11/2 ei1 (2)
t 2 t t

1 n1 
Multiplying Eq.(1) by n11/2 e  i1 ,  in1 1  iT ( n1n2 ) ei (2 1 )  iT ( n1n2 ) ei
1/2 1/2
(3)
2 t t
1 n2 
 i 2
 in2 2  iT ( n1n2 ) e  i (2 1 )  iT ( n1n2 ) e  i
1/2 1/2
Multiplying Eq.(2) by n1/2
2 e , (4)
2 t t
where    2  1 "Real and imaginary terms are separated"

After equating the real and imaginary parts of Eq.(3) and (4):
1 n1 n1
 T ( n1n2 ) sin    2T ( n1n2 ) sin 
1/2 1/2
(5)
2 t t
1/2
 1 n 
n1 1  T ( n1n2 ) cos    T  2  cos 
1/2
(6)
t t  n1 
1 n2 n2
 T ( n1n2 ) sin    2T ( n1n2 ) sin 
1/2 1/2
(7)
2 t t
1/2
  2 n 
n2 2  T ( n1n2 ) cos    T  1  cos 
1/2
(8)
t t  n2 
 dc Josephson effect (3)
1/2 1/2
1 n   2 n 
 T  2  cos  (eq.6);  T  1  cos  (eq.8)
t  n1  t  n2 
n1 n2
 2T ( n1n2 ) sin  (eq. 5);  2T ( n1n2 ) sin  (eq. 7)
1/2 1/2

t t

Since n1  n2 , (two SC's are almost equal)

1  2  ( 2  1 ) 
Eq.(6) and (8)     0
t t t t
n2 n
From Eq.(5) and (7)    1  J12
t t

n2
The current J of superconductor pairs across the junction is given by J12   J 0 sin   J 0 sin ( 2  1 )
t
where J 0 is proportional to the transfer interaction T and is the maximum zero-voltage supercurrent
or the critical current. ~ dc Josephson effect
 ac Josephson effect (1)
If a dc voltage V is applied across the junction, an electron pair experiences
a potential energy difference qV across the junction, where q  2e.
A pair on one side is at potential energy - eV and a pair on the other side
is at eV .
Rewriting the equations of motion gives V
 1  2
i  eV 1  T 2 and i  eV 2  T 1
t t

Using  1  n11/2 ei1 and  2  n12/2 ei2 ,

1 n1  ieVn1 n1 1 eV
 in1 1   iT ( n1n2 ) ei   2T ( n1n2 ) sin  and   T ( n1n2 ) cos 
1/2 1/2 1/2

2 t t t t
1 n2  ieVn2 n2  2 eV
 in2 2    iT ( n1n2 ) e  i   2T ( n1n2 ) sin  and   T ( n1n2 ) cos 
1/2 1/2 1/2

2 t t t t

Since n1  n2 ,
 ( 2  1 )  2eV 2eV  2eV 
    (t )   (0)  t and J  J 0 sin  (t )  J 0 sin  (0)  t
t t  
2eV
Under the application of a dc voltage V across the junction, the supercurrent oscillates with frequency  

or a photon of energy   2eV is emitted or absorbed when an electron pair crosses the junction barrier.
 (1   2 ) 2eV
 ~ ac Josephson effect (1  V = 483.6 MHz)
t
 ac Josephson effect (2)

Irradiated with the microwave field with the frequency of f mw , the Josepshson junction exhibits quantized
hf mw
voltage plateaus in the current-voltage curves, which is determined by the ac Josephson relation of DV 
2e
This relation is used to determine the Planck's constant h.

hf mw
When we have N Josephson junctions in series, the voltage spacing between the plateaus is DV  N
2e
~ quantum standard of voltage
If f mw  50 GHz, DVsingle JJ  103  V  9,708 Josephson junctions in series are needed
 Macroscopic quantum interference (1)
Remember the phase of the superconducting order-parameter is directly related to the vector potential.
2
2 2 2 2 2
q q q 2e
  A 
c 1   
c 1
Ad  D =  2  1   A  d   A  d 
c1 c1  S 1
Ad

Consider two Josephson junctions (junction-a and -b) in parallel.

Let J a and J b be the currents through the two junctions, corresponding to
the phase differences of  a and  b .
In the absence of a magnetic field these two phases must be equal ~  a   b with B  0
When the flux  passes through the interior of the circuit (B  0),
2e
c upper12
Along the upper route  2  1   a  A d a
2e
c lower12
Along the lower route  2  1   b  Ad

Subtracting the above two equations with each other,

2e 2e
c upper12 c lower12
0   a  b  A  d  A d

2e 2e 
b   a 
c  A d 
c
B  da  2
S
b
 Macroscopic quantum interference (2)

 b   a  2
S
e e   b
Rewriting  b and  a ,  b   0   and  a   0   with  0  a
c c 2
The total current is given by
  e   e  e
J total  J1  J 2  J 0 sin  a  sin  b   J 0 sin   0     sin   0      2 J 0 sin  0 cos 
  c   c  c
e   hc hc  0
J total  2 J 0 sin  0  cos   cos 2  cos  where  0  ,  S   (in cgs)
c 0 S e 2e 2
0
The total current varies with  and has maxima when   n S  n with n  integer
2
S
1

0
J

J_total
-1 abs(J_total)

0 2 4 6

//0 
 ()
S
• Superconducting Quantum Interference Device ~ flux-to-voltage transducer

   h
I total  cos    where  

0
 0  2e

• SQUID can measure 10-15 T, while human brain (10-14 T)

and human heart (10-10 T)
 Single particle tunneling
• Quantum tunneling:

The energy of the tunnelled particle

is the same but the amplitude is
decreased

• Metal-Insulator-Metal tunnel junction ~ the insulator acts as a barrier to the flow of

conduction electrons from one metal to the other. If it is sufficiently thin (< 2 nm) there is
a significant probability for an electron to tunnel from one metal to the other.

M1 I M2

Two metals separated by a thin layer Preparation of an Al/Al2O3/Sn sandwich

of an insulator (MIM junction) junction
 Current-voltage characteristic curves
 Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) junction (T=0)

EF EF EF eV

1 2

V<0 V=0 V>0

where I = I1→2 – I2→1

f(E+eV) f(E)

EF-eV EF
 Normal metal-Insulator-Superconductor (NIS) junction (T > 0)

V = -D/e V=0 V = D/e

• Singular density of states of quasiparticles in the superconductor

• Superconducting energy gap of 2D centered at the Fermi level
 Superconductor-Insulator-Superconductor (SIS) junction (T>0)

D(T)

NIS

S1IS2

SIS
Fraunhofer Diffraction of Ic ~ Long junction limit

External magnetic field in +y direction

Total supercurrent in +x direction

Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of IC(H)

Effective junction area can be estimated

from transport measurements
Josephson Effects (proximity-type or weak link)
 근접형 조셉슨 소자의 예

SC SC
SC N SC N

Without MW With MW

 
I c RN  D Vn  n , n  정수 Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
2e 2e

No hysteresis
Andreev Reflection at the N-S Interface

• “Andreev reflection” ~ an incident electron is retro-reflected as a hole

at the clean interface with creating a Cooper pair in SC electrode

N S

G/GN
Blonder, Tinkham
Klapwijk, PRB (1982)
Andreev, JETP (1964)
 Various Josephson Junctions

S-I-S
Anderson & Rowell, Phys. Rev. Lett. (1963) S-N-S or Weak link Frolov et al., Nat. Phys. (2007)
JJ Arrays
S-Sm-S
High-Tc JJ
S N S
S-F-S

Courtois et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. (2008)

Kleiner et al.,
Phys. Rev. Lett. (1992)

Tinkham, Introduction to superconductivity Takayanagi et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. (1995)

Nano Hybrid Josephson Devices

InAs NW Carbon nanotube Graphene

Y.-J. Doh et al., Jarillo-Herrero et al., H. B. Heersche et al.,

Science (2005) Nature (2006) Nature (2007)

InAs NW SQUID CNT SQUID Graphene SQUID

Van Dam et al., Cleuziou et al., Girit et al.,

Nature (2006) Nature Nanotechnology Nano Lett. (2009)
(2006)
Supercurrent Transistor of Semiconductor Nanowire

~ 415 times cited InAs NW

Pro: more qubit integration

Con: low T1 ~ 10 s

UCF effects

Phys. Rev. Lett.

115, 127001
(2015)
 Quantum dots

• The energy of an electron, trapped in the atomic potential well, is quantized ~ “atom”
• Width and depth of the quantum potential well in a quantum dot can be designed and
tailored on demand ~ “artificial atom”
• Josephson potential well has quantized energy levels ~ “superconducting artificial atom”
• Qubit ~ a linear superposition of two basis states,

|𝜓 = 𝛼|0 + 𝛽|1

• Any two-level system can be used as a qubit, such as

Electron spin in a quantum dot,
Trapped ions,
Nitrogen-vacancy center in diamond,
Superconducting circuit with Josephson junction

G. Popkin, Science (2016)

 Research Group Main Topics Publications (Scopus, April 2018)

Prof. J.M. Martinis Josephson phase qubit & h-index 76, total citations 17,189
(UCSB, USA + Google) Xmon qubit 11 Nature, 10 Science, 7 Nature Physics, 49 PRL

Prof. R.J. Schoelkopf h-index 59, total citations 18,806

Transmon (JJ + mw cavity)
(Yale, USA) 15 Nature, 9 Science, 6 Nature Physics, 34 PRL

h-index 74, total citations 28,570

Prof. L.P. Kouwenhoven Majorana fermion &
16 Nature, 14 Science, 9 Nature Nanotechnology,
(TU Delft, Netherlands + Intel) Gatemon qubit
4 Nature Physics, 38 PRL

Prof. C.M. Marcus h-index 73, total citations 17,938

Majorana fermion &
(Niels Bohr Institute, Denmark 2 Nature, 10 Science, 8 Nature Nanotechnology,
Gatemon qubit
+ Microsoft) 6 Nature Physics, 77 PRL

49 Qubits (CES 2018)

Al/Al2Ox/Al
50 Qubits (CES 2018) Josephson
junctions
72 Qubits (March, 2018)

Topological Qubits (Station Q Lab.)

IBM @ CES 2018

 Pro: Superconducting (zero-energy-loss) state is good for quantum coherence (T1 ~ 90 s)